No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
History and dietary husbandry of pangolins in captivity
Abstract
The objective of this study was to establish a history of feeding and dietary husbandry of pangolin in captivity. Over the past 150 years, several zoos have attempted to maintain pangolins (Manis spp). Most of these zoos have not succeeded in maintaining these animals for long periods, associated largely with dietary problems. This study reviews the historic records of captive pangolins. The dietary husbandry of pangolins in Taipei Zoo is discussed in detail. Zoo Biol 0:1–8, 2007. © 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
... The behavioral data from various captive studies suggest reproductive seasonality; however, supporting endocrinological findings is lacking [4][5][6]. Pangolins, in general, are known for a low fecundity rate (i.e., one young per birth and a moderate rate of maternal care) [7,8] and such a comparatively low reproduction rate coupled with overharvesting due to intense illegal international trade [9][10][11][12][13] make pangolins susceptible to extinction. This situation is further driven by more than 70% of all pangolins kept under human care failing to survive their first year in captivity [8,[14][15][16], making rehabilitation and breeding an arduous task [4,8,17]. ...
... Pangolins, in general, are known for a low fecundity rate (i.e., one young per birth and a moderate rate of maternal care) [7,8] and such a comparatively low reproduction rate coupled with overharvesting due to intense illegal international trade [9][10][11][12][13] make pangolins susceptible to extinction. This situation is further driven by more than 70% of all pangolins kept under human care failing to survive their first year in captivity [8,[14][15][16], making rehabilitation and breeding an arduous task [4,8,17]. To be able to provide efficient reproductive management strategies, detailed knowledge about the reproductive endocrinology and behavior of pangolins, including the Taiwanese pangolin, is needed. ...
... Pangolins, in general, are known for a low fecundity rate (i.e., one young per birth and a moderate rate of maternal care) [7,8] and such a comparatively low reproduction rate coupled with overharvesting due to intense illegal international trade [9][10][11][12][13] make pangolins susceptible to extinction. This situation is further driven by more than 70% of all pangolins kept under human care failing to survive their first year in captivity [8,[14][15][16], making rehabilitation and breeding an arduous task [4,8,17]. To be able to provide efficient reproductive management strategies, detailed knowledge about the reproductive endocrinology and behavior of pangolins, including the Taiwanese pangolin, is needed. ...
Pangolins are under severe threat of surging poaching rates globally; therefore, there is a demand to ascertain reproductive measures to ensure captive breeding and management strategies. Due to the absence of substantial information on the pangolin, endocrinology and reproductive physiology studies around the globe are merely based on captive observations that have failed to report the chronographs and hormonal cyclicity of the reproductive events. This study attempts to evaluate the annual pattern of reproductive steroids (estradiol-17β and progesterone) and prolactin in 16 wild female Taiwanese pangolins rehabilitated by Pingtung Rescue Center of Endangered Wild Animals, Taiwan. Novel immunoassays, i.e., chemiluminometric assays, have been used to quantify the serum reproductive steroids and contribute to a better understanding of the endocrine correlates of function in the Taiwanese pangolin. The hematological findings were characterized by monthly median concentration. The circulating reproductive hormones demonstrated seasonal reproductive activity by confirming a peak in serum estradiol concentrations in December and considerably higher progesterone concentrations in November/December, and March/April. The rise in prolactin in December and peak values in April suggest participation in the ovulatory process and mating. Collectively, these findings can help maximize the reproductive efficiency of pangolin species in captivity, i.e., by timely pairing and prioritizing the care of the breeding pairs to optimize breeding efforts and, therefore, effectively support conservation breeding programs and restore the natural population in the ecosystems.
... Pangolins are infrequent in the zoos due to the difficulties of rearing them in captive conditions (Yang et al., 2007). The supply of sufficient amounts of natural feeds, such as ants, termites and other insects, for captive animals has not been feasible, and therefore, numerous artificial diets have been formulated to meet the nutrient requirements of captive pangolins, with varying success (Cabana et al., 2017). ...
... For instance, Cabana et al. (2017) observed two categories of captive diets used by institutions keeping Asian pangolins; those mostly or completely composed of insects and those high in commercial feeds or animal meat. However, it is difficult to get pangolins on to a captive diet due to numerous attributes of captive diets such as odour, flavour, pellet sizes as well as lack of active interactions when feeding on "non-living" feeds (Yang et al., 2007;Mohapatra and Panda, 2014;Lin et al., 2015). The nutritional role and the digestion facilitation from unintentional ingestions such as grit, soil and woody parts are often neglected in the formulation of captive diets for pangolins (Yang et al., 2007). ...
... However, it is difficult to get pangolins on to a captive diet due to numerous attributes of captive diets such as odour, flavour, pellet sizes as well as lack of active interactions when feeding on "non-living" feeds (Yang et al., 2007;Mohapatra and Panda, 2014;Lin et al., 2015). The nutritional role and the digestion facilitation from unintentional ingestions such as grit, soil and woody parts are often neglected in the formulation of captive diets for pangolins (Yang et al., 2007). As such, sound knowledge on the dietary composition and feeding ecology of the Indian pangolin is highly important for the successful formulation of diets for animals raised under captive conditions. ...
The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) has a wide distribution in the Indian subcon-tinent and is a threatened species throughout its range due to hunting, poaching, trafficking , and destruction of natural habitats. Many rescue programmes for Indian pangolins have had limited success due to the paucity of literature on the diet, ecology and its behaviour. This study investigated the dietary composition and foraging habitat preference of the Indian pangolin in a tropical lowland forest-associated landscape of Southwest Sri Lanka. Five types of habitat were considered in this study: forest, rubber plantation, cinnamon cultivation, oil palm plantation, and tea-dominated home gardens/cultivated areas. The foraging intensity of Indian pangolin in the five habitat types was assessed using signs of foraging activities observed in five 10 Â 10 m plots placed along a transect. Ten transects were established in each habitat assessed. The forest habitat was preferred in the studied landscape, followed by rubber plantations, the cinnamon cultivations, oil palm plantations and the tea-dominated home gardens/cultivated areas. Indian pangolins mostly predated on termites, as indicated by the number of feeding events on termitaria and termite-infested logs. Faecal content analysis further revealed that the undigested matter (by weight) was predominantly composed of grit (53.3%), insect matter (37%) and plant matter (9.7%). The digestibility of termite heads, mouthparts, abdomens, and legs was high compared to that of ants. This difference in digestibility was evident from the presence of significantly more heads, mouthparts, abdomens, and legs of ants in the faecal matter, compared to that of termites. However, undigested termite wings were frequently observed in the faecal matter. Termites of the genus Odontotermes and ants of the genera Oecophylla, Anoplolepis, Camponotus and Monomorium were the main prey species of the Indian pangolin in the studied area. The findings on the dietary composition have implications in captive rearing and husbandry of Indian pangolins. In addition to natural forests, the findings of the study suggest that human-modified agricultural lands adjoining forest also serve as important as foraging habitats for Indian pangolins, and such habitats should be considered in long-term conservation planning.
... In the wet season (JuneÀOctober), pangolins consumed nearly twice the number of insects than in the dry season (NovemberÀApril), with the proportion of ants ranging from 56% to 98% (Sun et al., 2017). Species diversity and ant abundance were significantly higher in the wet season, Polyrhachis dives Liu and Xu, 1981;Xu et al., 1983;Wu et al., 2004d;Yang et al., 2007 Termites (12 species) ...
... Macrotermes barneyi Lee et al., 2017;Liu and Xu, 1981;Shi and Wang, 1985b;Xu et al., 1983;Wu et al., 2004d;Zhu-Ge and Huang, 1989 Odontotermes formosanus Liu and Xu, 1981;Shi and Wang, 1985b;Wu et al., 2004d;Yang et al., 2007;Zhu-Ge and Huang, 1989 Odontotermes zunyiensis ...
... Reticulitermes chinensis Li et al., 2010b;Liu and Xu, 1981;Zhu-Ge and Huang, 1989 Reticutitertmes hainanensis Xu et al., 1983 Reticulitermes speratus Yang et al., 2007 corresponding to an increase in adult body weight (Sun et al., 2017); in contrast, the species may lose up to 25À30% of body weight in the dry season (N. Sun, unpubl. ...
... Pangolins are infrequent in the zoos due to the difficulties of rearing them in captive conditions (Yang et al., 2007). The supply of sufficient amounts of natural feeds, such as ants, termites and other insects, for captive animals has not been feasible, and therefore, numerous artificial diets have been formulated to meet the nutrient requirements of captive pangolins, with varying success (Cabana et al., 2017). ...
... For instance, Cabana et al. (2017) observed two categories of captive diets used by institutions keeping Asian pangolins; those mostly or completely composed of insects and those high in commercial feeds or animal meat. However, it is difficult to get pangolins on to a captive diet due to numerous attributes of captive diets such as odour, flavour, pellet sizes as well as lack of active interactions when feeding on "non-living" feeds (Yang et al., 2007;Mohapatra and Panda, 2014;Lin et al., 2015). The nutritional role and the digestion facilitation from unintentional ingestions such as grit, soil and woody parts are often neglected in the formulation of captive diets for pangolins (Yang et al., 2007). ...
... However, it is difficult to get pangolins on to a captive diet due to numerous attributes of captive diets such as odour, flavour, pellet sizes as well as lack of active interactions when feeding on "non-living" feeds (Yang et al., 2007;Mohapatra and Panda, 2014;Lin et al., 2015). The nutritional role and the digestion facilitation from unintentional ingestions such as grit, soil and woody parts are often neglected in the formulation of captive diets for pangolins (Yang et al., 2007). As such, sound knowledge on the dietary composition and feeding ecology of the Indian pangolin is highly important for the successful formulation of diets for animals raised under captive conditions. ...
The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) has a wide distribution in the Indian subcontinent and is a threatened species throughout its range due to hunting, poaching, trafficking, and destruction of natural habitats. Many rescue programmes for Indian pangolins have had limited success due to the paucity of literature on the diet, ecology and its behaviour. This study investigated the dietary composition and foraging habitat preference of the Indian pangolin in a tropical lowland forest-associated landscape of Southwest Sri Lanka. Five types of habitat were considered in this study: forest, rubber plantation, cinnamon cultivation, oil palm plantation, and tea-dominated home gardens/cultivated areas. The foraging intensity of Indian pangolin in the five habitat types was assessed using signs of foraging activities observed in five 10 × 10 m plots placed along a transect. Ten transects were established in each habitat assessed. The forest habitat was preferred in the studied landscape, followed by rubber plantations, the cinnamon cultivations, oil palm plantations and the tea-dominated home gardens/cultivated areas. Indian pangolins mostly predated on termites, as indicated by the number of feeding events on termitaria and termite-infested logs. Faecal content analysis further revealed that the undigested matter (by weight) was predominantly composed of grit (53.3%), insect matter (37%) and plant matter (9.7%). The digestibility of termite heads, mouthparts, abdomens, and legs was high compared to that of ants. This difference in digestibility was evident from the presence of significantly more heads, mouthparts, abdomens, and legs of ants in the faecal matter, compared to that of termites. However, undigested termite wings were frequently observed in the faecal matter. Termites of the genus Odontotermes and ants of the genera Oecophylla, Anoplolepis, Camponotus and Monomorium were the main prey species of the Indian pangolin in the studied area. The findings on the dietary composition have implications in captive rearing and husbandry of Indian pangolins. In addition to natural forests, the findings of the study suggest that human-modified agricultural lands adjoining forest also serve as important as foraging habitats for Indian pangolins, and such habitats should be considered in long-term conservation planning.
... We use these terms interchangeably, and define farming as 'the commercial captive production of wild species'. Although characteristically difficult to maintain and breed pangolins in captivity (Hua et al., 2015;Yang et al., 2007), pangolin farming is purportedly receiving significant financial investment (e.g., in China; D. Challender, unpubl. data), and comprises attempts to breed pangolins for their scales, and potentially meat, for consumer markets in Asia. ...
... Most attempts at maintaining the animals in captivity have failed, and recent attempts to do so have resulted in most animals dying in less than two years (Hua et al., 2015), though there are exceptions e an Indian pangolin lived to 19 years in captivity (Weigl, 2005). Difficulties identified include providing an adequate diet, high susceptibility to stress-induced immune suppression, and lack of knowledge of reproductive biology, especially of female reproductive cycles and weaning (Cen et al., 2010;Yang et al., 2007). ...
... A few well-resourced institutions have been successful in maintaining and breeding small numbers of Chinese and Sunda pangolins on artificial diets (Cabana et al., 2017). However, problems remain with adapting animals to these diets, and malnutrition and associated stress are major impediments to successfully maintaining pangolins in captivity (Yang et al., 2007). Pangolins also have high disease prevalence; common diseases and causes of death in captivity are gastrointestinal diseases, including haemorrhagic ulcers related to diet and stress, pneumonia, skin diseases and parasites (Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2016;Clark et al., 2009). ...
Pangolins are threatened by overexploitation for local and international use. They are subject to an international commercial trade ban, and are also the focus of other interventions, including attempts at commercial captive breeding. The impact that the latter could have on the conservation of wild populations deserves consideration. We critically evaluate the feasibility of commercial captive breeding (or farming) of pangolins to displace wild collection and assess its potential conservation impact on pangolin conservation using a recently published framework developed for this purpose. Of the 17 conditions posited that need to be met for supply-side interventions to displace wild collection, we find that pangolins meet a maximum of only six conditions. This analysis suggests that pangolin farming will not displace wild collection in the near future. Major barriers include an inability to breed pangolins on a commercial scale and available data suggest that it would be unprofitable. The
immediate impact of pangolin farming on conservation of the species’ is unclear, but it is unlikely to benefit the conservation of wild populations. If commercial captive breeding were possible, it is
uncertain how it would affect economic incentives for poaching, interactions between legal and illegal markets, stockpile policies, and how consumers and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) practitioners would respond. To understand better the potential overall impact of pangolin farming on wild populations there is a need for further research on these uncertainties. The framework used has utility in analysing the potential impact of wildlife farming but there remains a need for a more robust approach to evaluate potential impacts of supply-side interventions.
... Although the change in these policies can better protect pangolins and their habitat, ex situ breeding is a more effective way to protect endangered pangolins. However, the transition of pangolins from wild ants to a "gruel" diet under human care is difficult, and the pangolin's nutritional needs are less well studied, which is why providing adequate nutrition is the biggest barrier to ex situ breeding [7]. Studies have suggested that pangolin health is related to nutrition and parasite infection. ...
... Taipei Zoo has been very successful in raising and breeding pangolins, which is largely related to Animals 2022, 12, 3137 5 of 13 the gradual development of a suitable diet. Their pangolin diet formula was developed from 1989 to 1995; the researchers optimized a diet for pangolins, consisting of 100 g of mixed silkworm powder (silkworm powder, yeast powder, coconut powder, ratio of 10:2:1), 100 g of bee larvae, 50 g of mealworms, 1 egg yolk, a quarter of an apple, and 0.5 mL infant multivitamin solution [7]. Pangolins are adaptable to these artificial diets. ...
Pangolins are one of the world’s most trafficked mammals. Since pangolins are highly adapted to ants and termites, they are important for controlling forest termite infestations. In addition to their ecological value, pangolins have economic and medicinal value. Currently, poaching and habitat destruction have radically reduced the number of pangolins, and Manis pentadactyla, Manis javanica, and Manis culionensis are now considered the most threatened pangolin species. In addition to the control of hunting and illegal trade, ex situ breeding is also a useful conservation method. However, many technical obstacles still limit the success of ex situ pangolin breeding. The special feeding traits of pangolins require a diet that meets nutritional and ethological needs. Based on the existing literature and practical experience, this review aims to compare the natural diet and successful diet in the human care of pangolins, to outline the key factors of successful ex situ maintenance from a dietary perspective, and the strategies to improve their conservation success in animal care centers and in the wild. The type of food used in successful pangolin protection agencies is quite variable in nutritional composition. In the diet of pangolins in the wild, the nutrient profile of different species of termites and ants and even the same species of termites and ants but different types (queens, soldiers, etc.) also displays differences. The crude protein content of some ants is higher than that of other foods, such as eggs, milk, and common cat food. The mineral and vitamin concentrations of ants also exceed many common food items, such as oil, meat, and eggs. However, not much is known about the bioavailability of minerals from ants and termites. Based on comparisons between foods, it is clear that the main difference between diets in the wild and in human care of pangolins is that the latter contains fewer insects and vitamins, such as vitamin E, vitamin A, and vitamin B2, and more carbohydrates and non-protein substances than the former. Although many successful dietary formulae have been developed, the pangolin’s nutritional needs are still less well studied. A diet with the nutrient concentrations observed in the wild may add to successful ex situ conservation.
... Among them, the arti cial diet is di cult to meet the nutritional requirements of captive pangolins, which has become one of the main factors limiting the ex-situ conservation and development of pangolins. Some researchers have reported that unsuitable arti cial diets lead to gastrointestinal diseases in captive pangolins [4,5]. Gastrointestinal diseases are among the most common diseases affecting the survival of captive pangolins and are caused by imbalances in the gut microbiota. ...
... The arti cial diet is di cult to meet the nutritional requirements of captive pangolins, which has become one of the main factors limiting the ex-situ conservation and development of pangolins. Some researchers have reported that unsuitable arti cial diets lead to gastrointestinal diseases in captive pangolins [4,5]. ...
Background: Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), one of the most endangered species in the world, has suffered a sharp decline due to heavy hunting and illegal trade. The artificial diet has difficulty satisfying the nutritional needs of captive pangolins, and it has become one of the main factors limiting the development of ex-situ conservation of pangolins. Gastrointestinal diseases are one of the most common diseases affecting the survival of captive Chinese pangolins and arecaused by an imbalance in gut microbiota. In the wild, the pangolin is a highly specialized species with a diet dominated by ants and termites and an intake ofsome termitarium soil. However, the effects of supplementation with termitarium soil on the gut microbiota of captive Chinese pangolins are poorly understood.
Results: Using 16S rRNA sequencing technology, the gut microbiota of the control group (CZ), the sterilized termitarium soil group (MZ), and the unsterilized termitarium soil group (BZ) were compared. These results showed that there was no significant difference in alpha diversity, while the results of unweighted UniFrac PCoA showed obvious separation among the three groups. At the phylum level, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Bacteroidetes were the main bacterial phyla. The relative abundance of Bacteroidetes was decreased in the BZ group compared to the CZ group. Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1, Streptococcus, Cellulosilyticum, and Escherichia_Shigella were the main bacterial genera at the genus level. Unsterilized termitarium soilincreased the relative abundances of Cellulosilyticum, Bacillus, and Clostridium_sensu_stricto_13 and decreased the relative abundances of Bacteroides, Clostridiales_unclassified, Ruminococcus]_gnavus_group, and Veillonella. The Lefse results showed that Cellulosilyticum, Clostridium_sensu_stricto_13, and Bacillus were enriched in the BZ group. The concentrations of acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid were decreased in the BZ and MZ groups.
Conclusions: These results indicated that dietary supplementation with termitarium soil did not alterthe richness of the gut microbiota, but reduced proinflammatory-related bacteria and increased intestinal absorption-related bacteria, which improves the efficiency of SCFA absorption. Collectively, this study provides a potential method for ameliorating the intestinal homeostasis of captive Chinese pangolins.
... Information on pangolin diseases is generally rare, especially in African pangolins. Of the recorded pangolin diseases, gastrointestinal disease is the most common cause of death in captivity [4,5]. However, literature on the pathogenesis, gross and histopathological description of gastric ulcers and gastritis, which are the major causes of mortality in pangolins under captive care, is rare. ...
... Based on necropsy and histopathology, a morphological diagnosis of gastric ulceration with gastritis and intestinal impaction was established. The cases described in the current report further highlight the difficulties in rehabilitation of pangolins [4]. Gastrointestinal ulcerations generally occur when the gastric mucosa's blood flow, mucus layer and epithelial cell turnover are impaired [6]. ...
Background: Wild rescued pangolins are known to adapt poorly in their captive environment, where many die under rehabilitation. Gastrointestinal disease and pneumonia are the most common causes of death in pangolins. However, literature on the pathology of gastric ulcers is rare. Case presentation: The current case report describes the necropsy and histopathological evaluation of three Temminck's pangolins that died under rehabilitation in Lusaka, Zambia. Grossly, gastric ulcerations of the fundic gland mucosae were seen in the stomachs. Inflammatory cells and erosions of fundic gastric gland mucosa were seen on histopathology. The morphological diagnosis of gastric ulceration with gastritis was attributed to stress and inappropriate diet. Conclusions: The findings are expected to increase knowledge in pangolin diseases
... Comprehensive nutrient analysis of a species' natural diet can provide a useful guideline for the development of suitable substituted foods/diets. Various institutions have attempted to adopt the Chinese pangolin ex situ conservation and breed Chinese pangolins in captivity; their combined experience confirms that Chinese pangolin can indeed survive and reproduce in an artificial environment (Hua et al., 2015;Yang et al., 2007;Zhang et al., 2016). However, many of these captive-bred Chinese pangolins only survived a short period of time, and frequently suffered from digestive and respiratory diseases (Hua et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2016). ...
... Data on diet and nutritional requirements of Chinese pangolin are scarce, especially when compared to the known diversity of the animal's natural prey base (10 termite species and 19 ant species) (Zhu et al., 1989;Hua et al., 2015;Lee et al., 2017;Liu & Xu, 1981;Wu et al., 2005;Xu et al., 1983;Yang et al., 2007). Polyrhachis dives ants are the main ant prey in the diet of Chinese pangolin, accounting for an average of 14.86% of the diet among all ant prey species (Wu et al., 2005). ...
The Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is a critically endangered mammal with a highly specialized diet. To enhance nutritional knowledge of its diet, we analyzed the colony composition of a nest of Polyrhachis dives ants, which is the key natural prey in the Chinese pangolin's diet. In addition, we determined the nutrient composition of the total colony compared with adult ants. Nutrients quantified in this study included: crude protein, crude fat, carbohydrate, and amino acids, minerals, and vitamins, as well as formic acid and chitin, which have not been reported in previous diet studies. Our results showed that the colony consisted of adults (82%), pupae (10%), larvae (7%), and eggs (1%) (fresh mass). Both the total colony and adult ants, respectively, contained high concentrations of crude protein (62.97% and 64.68%), chitin (49.25% and 60.40%), crude fat (10.12% and 9.91%) (dry matter basis), and formic acid (2.06% and 3.07%) (fresh mass). This implies that Chinese pangolin might prefer prey with high protein, high chitin, low fat, and low formic acid content. Colony and adult ants differed in chemical composition in many aspects, thus it might be unsuitable to feed Chinese pangolin with only adult ants. Chitin and formic acid may play important roles in the diet and selectivity of Chinese pangolin. This study provides reference information that may be useful for developing better artificial diets with more comprehensive nutrient compositional data to meet the nutritional requirements of the Chinese pangolin under managed feeding programs.
... Trade-rescued pangolins have usually encountered adverse husbandry and welfare conditions, being exposed to frequent handling, repeated transport, changing environments, conspecifics and smells, crowding, no or wrong food, and poor hygiene [18,19]. By contrast, pangolins born and reared in captivity experienced far less handling, no transport, a stable environment and stable group structure, no or less crowding, an improved, semi-natural diet, as well as adequate hygiene and veterinary care [20,21]. In this study, we compared the cortisol hormone levels and the intestinal microflora of captive pangolins two to three years after being rescued from the illegal wildlife trade (PCT; n = 16) with those born and reared in captivity (PCB; n = 7). ...
... They have no teeth and their stomach is covered with a strong cuticle, allowing the animal to grind the food in the stomach using small stones (gastroliths; [26]). This notable, anatomical adaptation of the digestive tract facilitates the digestion of otherwise indigestible components such as chitin [13,21]. Malayan pangolins tend to be solitary, socializing only for mating or when having offspring. ...
Pangolins (scaly anteaters, Pholidota) are among those mammals that are most affected by the international, illegal wildlife trade. Recently, wildlife rescue centers in China became dedicated to rehabilitate confiscated pangolins and prepare them for reintroduction to the wild. Chronic stress is thought to be the main reason for a disturbed microbiota community and a higher mortality rate of pangolin in captivity. In this study, we compared the cortisol levels and the fecal microbiome of Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica) born and reared in captivity (PCB; n = 7) with those rescued from the wildlife trade (PCT; n = 16). Results show that the level of cortisol in PCT was significantly lower than that observed in PCB. There were also significant differences in the composition of the fecal microflora between the two groups, and the diversity of intestinal microbiota was higher in PCB than in PCT. At the phylum level, the bacteria with significant difference between the two groups included Firmicutes and Bacteroides. At the genus level, bacteria such as Bacteroides, Parabacterides, and Clostridium showed significant differences between the two groups. This study proves that chronic stress has a considerable effect on the diversity and composition of fecal microbiota in Malayan pangolin.
... Geoffroy, 1803) is a medium-sized mammal and is one of the four extant species of pangolin in Asia (Karawita et al., 2018). The Indian pangolin is primarily myrmecophagous-having exceptional behavioral and anatomical peculiarities to prey on ants and termites (Yang et al., 2007). Of all Asian pangolin species, the Indian pangolin is perhaps under-researched and is the only one in Pakistan (Mahmood et al., 2014). ...
As one of the four extant species of Asian pangolins, the Indian Pangolin Manis crassicaudata is the only species found in Pakistan that is enlisted endangered due to trafficking and illegal trade. The current study investigated the factors affecting pangolin presence in the ravine habitats of Margalla Hills National Park, Islamabad, Pakistan. Between May and June 2022, we conducted a sign survey based on the line transect method confirming species presence. In addition, 12 passive infrared motion-triggered cameras were also deployed for a total of 132 trap nights with only two captures at a single camera station. Among the 51 signs observed, 32 were burrows. Digging and pug marks were counted as 17 and two, respectively. Most burrows (97%) were categorized as inactive burrows, of which the pangolin used most (78.28%) for feeding. The statistical analysis showed that the nearest settlement does not impact the pangolin presence (p = 0.209). Roads were found to have a positive correlation with pangolin presence (p = 0.018), yet, agricultural lands were significantly avoided by the Indian pangolin (p = 0.001). Our results suggest that the Indian pangolin inhabit areas between forests and agricultural lands yet close to human settlements and roads.
... 7 A study of zoological records over 150 yr found that most zoos have not succeeded in maintaining pangolins for long periods, with most pangolins dying within 6 mon. 18 A poor understanding of their dietary, reproductive, and husbandry needs have contributed to high morbidity and mortality rates in pangolins. 10 Information about veterinary critical care of the species is also sparse. ...
Pangolins are amongst the most overexploited species in the world and all eight species of pangolins are threatened with extinction. These animals are rare in zoological collections and often suffer high mortality rates in captivity. Maintaining healthy populations in captivity has become more important with the declining populations in the wild, but knowledge of veterinary care of these animals is limited. Interpreting radiography and ultrasonography images in a patient can be challenging without knowledge of normal findings. The Wildlife Healthcare and Research Center (WHRC) at Mandai Wildlife Reserve (MWR) admits an average of 25 Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica) annually, which is a Critically Endangered species native to Singapore. All the pangolins are triaged on admission and anesthetized for a health assessment before release into the wild. Endotracheal intubation using an otoscope and stylet is a novel technique in the species that has been developed and is commonly performed with these pangolins. A retrospective study was done on 20 clinically healthy wild pangolins to determine normal ultrasonography and radiography findings in the species. Notable findings include the presence of radio-opaque particles in the stomachs of all pangolins, the presence of free fluid cranial to the left kidney (13/20), a spleen with multifocal hypoechoic regions (6/20), and open epiphyseal plates of long bones even in large individuals weighing as heavy as 6.8 kg. Ultrasonographic images and measurements of kidney, spleen, and adrenal gland sizes as well as intestinal, gallbladder, and urinary bladder wall thickness were also described. These diagnostic imaging findings can advance the veterinary care of captive and wild pangolins.
... Similarly, body length ranges from 545 mm (adult female) and 795 (adult male) (Heath & Vanderlip, 1998). It usually gives birth to one offspring at a time and sometimes its even found 2-3 offspring with a gestation period estimated to be more than 169 days (Yang et al., 2007). It digs a hole to deposit urine and faeces and cover it with earth as well as a mark it's territories with dropping (Fang & Wang, 1980). ...
The Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is a nocturnal and elusive animal that relies on a specialized diet consisting of ants and termites. It enjoys national and international protection, but the current conservation measures remain insufficiently developed. The escalating threats of habitat loss, habitat degradation, and habitat fragmentation have pushed the pangolin to a highly endangered state in Nepal. The study conducted on Chandragiri Hill aimed to investigate the conservation status and distribution patterns of the Chinese Pangolin, as well as its habitat preferences and the potential impact of infrastructure development on both the pangolin and its habitat. The data collection process involved direct field observations, where various indicators of pangolin presence, such as burrows, were carefully documented. These observations were then utilized to generate a distribution map of pangolin burrows, employing ArcGIS-10.3 software. Out of a total of 43 burrows observed, 37 were found to be inactive while the remaining 6 were active. The study revealed that the population of burrows was highest within the elevation range of 1600m to 1700m. Furthermore, burrow density was found to be significantly higher at a distance of 100m horizontally from the cable car pathway compared to a distance of 20m horizontally from the same pathway.
... The individuals were isolated and housed in individual pens after arrival as per the protocol of Chin, Lien 12 . They were fed a cooked meal every day at 4 PM 12,29 , and ad libitum water. Individuals of both genders were not cohabitated systematically. ...
The reproductive uniqueness of pangolins has been documented through diverse biological reports with discernible data discrepancies in gestation, copulation, and pregnancy. These mechanistic reproductive differences have yet to be endocrinologically quantified, which could assist in optimizing natural breeding in zoos to recover endangered species. The present research characterizes the Chinese pangolin's annual seasonal reproductive pattern by measuring immunoreactive estrogens and progestagens in 34 captive females and testosterone in 29 captive males. Our results showed that Chinese pangolins are seasonal breeders, with most births witnessed during Sept–Dec, overlapping with the field records. Females exhibited spontaneous ovulation and post-partum ovulation. Pregnant females exhibited a higher P4 level for ~ 9 months (Jan–Sept) and decreased before parturition (Oct–Dec). The circulating E2 is maintained at the baseline in pregnant females year-round. Contrastingly, in non-pregnant females, P4 is maintained at the baseline, apart from a slight elevation in January, and E2 demonstrates a sudden hike from November and remains elevated until February, suggesting the onset of ovulation. The serum testosterone concentration in males peaked during October, which is in sync with the female ovulation period. As a result that their major reproductive events, ovulation, mating, and parturition, all transpire in November-March. Evidence also supports that Chinese pangolins exhibit signs of postimplantation (pregnancy) ranging only from 5 to 6 months (May–Oct), preceded by possible facultative delay implantation triggered by lactation. The provided data not only fill in the knowledge gap for this critically endangered species but can also assist in making informed decisions, which can directly affect the successful breeding of this species in captivity.
... ecology and biology of the wild Chinese pangolin, and the pangolin's low reproduction rate, diet specificity, and unique habitat requirements make ex situ protection of this species challenging (Hua et al., 2015). However, some studies have improved the survival of captive pangolins by solving digestion problems in artificially raised Chinese pangolins (Yang et al., 2007). Nevertheless, there is currently no long-term captive pangolin population. ...
Intestinal microorganisms are crucial for health and have a significant impact on biological processes, such as metabolism, immunity, and neural regulation. Although pangolin are protected animals in China and listed as critically endangered (CR) level by The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the population of wild pangolins has decreased sharply in recent decades. Captive breeding has been adopted to protect pangolins, but the survival is low due to gastrointestinal infections, diarrhea, and parasitic infections. Studies on intestinal microbes in pangolins may reveal the relationship between intestinal microorganisms and health and assist protection. To explore the relationship between intestinal microorganisms and pangolin health, blood parameters and intestinal microorganisms of 10 pangolins (two Manis pentadactyla and eight Manis javanica) were studied at the Shenzhen Wildlife Rescue Center. There is difference among adult Sunda pangolins (M. javanica), adult Chinese pangolins (M. pentadactyla) and sub-adult Sunda pangolins (M. javanica) in intestinal microbial composition, diversity and phenotypic diversity, which suggested that adult Sunda pangolins occupied more diversity and proportion of microbial species to resist environmental pressure than the others. Due to the captive breeding serum cortisol of pangolins was increased, and the intestinal microbial structure changed, which may affect immunity. This study provides a scientific basis for the rescue of pangolins through artificial breeding.
... The individuals were isolated and housed in individual pens after arrival as per the protocol of Chin, Lien 8 . They were fed with a cooked meal every day at 4 PM 8, 25 and ad libitum water. Individuals of both genders were not cohabitated systematically. ...
The extant biological reports on pangolins have mainly been established from rescued gravid individuals or a handful of observations done in captivity, thus, generating data discrepancies. The present research characterizes the Taiwanese pangolin's annual seasonal reproductive pattern by measuring immunoreactive estrogens and progestagens in 34 captive females and testosterone in 29 captive males. Our results showed that Taiwanese pangolins are seasonal breeders, with most births (10/13) witnessed during Dec-Jan as field records. Females exhibited spontaneous ovulation and post-partum ovulation. Pregnant females exhibited a higher P4 level for ~ nine months (Jan-Sept) and decreased before parturition (Oct-Dec). The circulating E2 is maintained at the baseline in pregnant females year-round. Contrastingly, in non-pregnant females, P4 is maintained at the baseline apart from slight elevation in January, and E2 demonstrates a sudden hike from November and remains elevated until February, suggesting the onset of ovulation. The serum testosterone concentration in males peaked during October, which is in sync with the female ovulation period. As a result that their major reproductive events, ovulation, mating, and parturition, all transpire from November-March. Evidence also supported that Taiwanese pangolin exhibit the signs of postimplantation (pregnancy) ranging only from 5–6 months (May-October) preceded by facultative delay implantation triggered by lactation. The provided data not only filled in the knowledge gap for this critically endangered species but also can assist in making informed decisions, which can directly affect the successful breeding of this species in captivity.
... This would further aid in devising conservation strategies. Limitations in understanding and replicating the Indian pangolin's dietary requirements in captivity have been reported to be the primary cause of concern in their husbandry (Mohapatra & Panda, 2014;Pattnaik, 2008;Yang et al., 2007). The study's findings also hold the potential to assist in the ex situ conservation efforts and in rescue and rehabilitation operations of Indian pangolins in the study area and similar habitats. ...
Background
The Indian pangolin is a globally endangered species and is accorded the highest level of protection under Indian legislation. The species has a wide distribution in the country. However, information on its ecology is scanty with limited accounts on the diet of the free-ranging population.
Results
We studied the diet of the Indian pangolin in a tropical dry deciduous forest of Gir National Park, India. A total of 12 faecal samples in the form of 22 pellets were collected between November 2019 and March 2020. The faecal matter’s length, diameter and girth were 4.80 cm ± 0.40 SE, 2.72 cm ± 0.12 SE and 8.49 cm ± 0.41 SE, respectively. The dry weight of the faecal matter was 22.31 g ± 3.24 SE. The composition of the faecal content by weight was majorly contributed by insect matter (56.53%), followed by grit (42.35%) and plant matter (1.12%). Faecal content’s analysis through microscopy revealed that insect matter was the most frequent constituent (53.59%), followed by grit (46.26%) and plant matter (0.05%); 0.1% of the constituents could not be identified. The ant genera contributing to the diet of the Indian pangolin include Camponotus, Crematogaster, Dorylus, Lophomyrmex, Monomorium, Myrmicaria, Pheidole and Tetraponera . The termite genera consumed by the Indian pangolin were Odontotermes and Cryptotermes .
Conclusions
The study’s findings contribute to enhance the ecological knowledge in a hitherto unexplored habitat and hold implications in the ex situ conservation efforts and rescue and rehabilitation of Indian pangolins in similar landscapes.
... The Scaly anteater possesses the ability to dig excavation as due to remarkable forelimbs which are with hard talon used for burrowing. These scales also help in protection against predator due their sharpness and orientation around the body (Yang et al., 2007). ...
... The loss of NLRPs that are associated with germ cell biology and embryonic development (Table 1) suggests that the reproduction of pangolins does not depend on NLRP-mediated processes, which are not understood at present but may include the control of inflammation (Amoushahi et al. 2019;Yin et al. 2020;Carriere et al. 2021). Deepening the knowledge on the physiology of reproduction and embryology of pangolins would be beneficial for conservation aspects of these highly endangered species as breeding efforts in zoos are scarce (Yang et al. 2007;Sipos and Lutonsky 2021). ...
NOD-like receptors (NLRs) are sensors of pathogen-associated molecular patterns with critical roles in the control of immune responses and programmed cell death. Recent studies have revealed inter-species differences in mammalian innate immune genes and a particular degeneration of nucleic acid sensing pathways in pangolins, which are currently investigated as potential hosts for zoonotic pathogens. Here, we used comparative genomics to determine which NLR genes are conserved or lost in pangolins and related mammals. We show that NOD2 , which is implicated in sensing bacterial muramyl dipeptide and viral RNA, is a pseudogene in pangolins, but not in any other mammalian species investigated. NLRC4 and NAIP are absent in pangolins and canine carnivorans, suggesting convergent loss of cytoplasmic sensing of bacterial flagellin in these taxa. Among NLR family pyrin domain containing proteins (NLRPs), skin barrier-related NLRP10 has been lost in pangolins after the evolutionary divergence from Carnivora. Strikingly, pangolins lack all NLRPs associated with reproduction (germ cells and embryonic development) in other mammals, i.e., NLRP2 , 4 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 11 , 13 , and 14 . Taken together, our study shows a massive degeneration of NLR genes in pangolins and suggests that these endangered mammals may have unique adaptations of innate immunity and reproductive cell biology.
... Over the past 150 years, more than one hundred attempts have been made to maintain pangolins in captivity worldwide. However, only a few of these pangolins have survived for 12-20 years, with most individuals dying within the first few months 15,16 . Researchers attribute this failure to environmental stressors and diseases such as pneumonia, gastrointestinal disorders and infections, likely due to their weakened immune system 14,17-20 . ...
Pangolins are threatened placental mammals distributed in Africa and Asia. Many efforts have been undertaken in the last century to maintain pangolins in captivity, but only a few of them succeeded in maintaining and keeping this species in a controlled environment. This study reports the first systematic breeding of the Critically Endangered Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica) in captivity. Our captive breeding approach successfully improved the reproductive rate for both wild and captive-born female pangolins. From 2016 to 2020, we had 33 wild pangolins and produced 49 captive-born offspring spanning three filial generations. The female offspring further bred 18 offspring, of which 14 (78%) were conceived during the first time of cohabitation with males, and four offspring were conceived during the second cohabitation event, suggesting that they may practice copulation-induced ovulation. We observed that captive-born female pangolins could reach sexual maturity at 7-9 months (n = 4), and male pangolins could mate and successfully fertilise females at nine months age (n = 1). We also observed a female pangolin conceiving on the eighth day after parturition (the fifth day after the death of its pup). Our captive pangolins had a female-biased sex ratio of 1:0.5 at birth, unlike other known captive-born mammals. Also, captive-born pangolins were generally more viable after successful weaning and had a similar gestation length (~185 days) to wild pangolins. Most importantly, we report the first self-sustaining captive population of Malayan pangolins, and this species has an efficient reproduction strategy. These advances provide more comprehensive information for people to understand pango-lins, and have implications for conserving endangered Malayan pangolins and providing scientific guidance to the management of other pangolin species.
... During one long visit, in March, mating behavior was observed, therefore the occurrence of post-partum estrus, or even ovulation, may be likely for this species. In captivity, mating behavior was also observed between February and July 10,20 . Although there is no direct evidence yet, these adult male visits suggest that at least some of them were for mate-searching. ...
Observations of Chinese pangolin ( Manis pentadactyla ) in the wild are extremely rare and challenging because of their nocturnal and cryptic activity patterns and low population density. The present article reported the first field observation in eastern Taiwan, from October 4, 2012 to June 16, 2016, on the reproductive behavior of the Chinese pangolin based on the monitoring of a female (LF28) using radiotelemetry and camera traps. During this period, LF28 aged from 1–4.5 years old and gave two single-births, both took place in early December, at 3 and 4 years old, respectively. We recorded the entire 157 days of the first nursing period from parturition to maternal separation. For the second infant, the gestation period was estimated to be around 150 days based on the evidence that the pregnancy started in early Jul. 2015 and the offspring was born on Dec. 9, 2015. During the entire nursing period, LF28 frequently moved the offspring from one nursing burrow to another staying various durations ranging from 1 day to more than 35 days, and almost all (= 15/16) of these burrows were located in the core (MCP75) of LF28’s home range. Started from the month of parturition and lasting throughout the whole nursing period, different adult males constantly visiting the nursing burrows were recorded. Mating behavior was recorded once outside the burrow in March, which provided evidence of the occurrence of post-partum estrus in this species. Delayed implantation was proposed based on the observation of a several months lag between copulation and the estimated pregnancy initiation date. The present study demonstrated the advantage of using remote technologies to learn the life history of resting fossorial species.
... During one long visit, in March, mating behavior was observed, therefore the occurrence of post-partum estrus, or even ovulation, may be likely for this species. In captivity, mating behavior was also observed between February and July 10,23 . Although there is no direct evidence yet, these adult male visits suggest that at least some of them were for mate-searching. ...
Observations of Chinese pangolin ( Manis pentadactyla ) in the wild are extremely rare and challenging because of their nocturnal and cryptic activity patterns and low population density. The present article reported the first field observation in eastern Taiwan, from October 4, 2012 to June 16, 2016, on the reproductive behavior of the Chinese pangolin based on the monitoring of a female (LF28) using radiotelemetry and camera traps. During this period, LF28 aged from 1 to 4.5-years old and gave two single-births, both took place in early December, at 3 and 4 years old, respectively. We recorded the entire 157 days of the first nursing period from parturition to maternal separation. For the second infant, the gestation period was estimated to be around 150 days based on the evidence that the pregnancy started in early Jul. 2015 and the offspring was born on Dec. 9, 2015. During the entire nursing period, LF28 frequently moved the offspring from one nursing burrow to another staying various durations ranging from 1 day to more than 35 days, and almost all (= 15/16) of these burrows were located in the core (MCP75) of LF28’s home range. Started from the month of parturition and lasting throughout the whole nursing period, different adult males constantly visiting the nursing burrows were recorded. Mating behavior was recorded once outside the burrow in March, which provided evidence of the occurrence of post-partum estrus in this species. Delay implantation was proposed based on the observation of a several months lag between copulation and the estimated pregnancy initiation date. The present study demonstrated the advantage of using remote technologies to learn the life history of resting fossorial species.
... Pangolins are extremely difficult to maintain in captivity (Yang et al., 2007;Mohapatra and Panda, 2014;Zhang et al., 2017). Progress of pangolin husbandry development is hampered by the lack of scientific and standardized captive management protocols, especially regarding breeding (Challender, 2008). ...
... In endangered and intractable species, it is difficult and even impossible to conduct hormonal studies, mainly encompassing pharmacological administration to induce hormonal changes in ex-situ or in-situ settings. Additionally, due to animal welfare regulations, rigorous physiological validation is not possible because of the low survival rate of pangolin in captivity (Hua et al., 2015;Yang et al., 2007) and sensitive immune system (Choo et al., 2016). Thus, this study's method will only be able to indicate naturally occurring differences in the hormonal levels that were investigated for physiological validation. ...
Pangolins are ‘keystone species’ driven towards extinction due to a lack of profound awareness and illegal trade. The drivers urge for immediate development in the understanding of demographics and reproductive dynamics of this species. In this study, we developed and validated a quantitative method to measure pangolin fecal extracts using the electrospray (ESI-MS/MS) interface in positive ionization mode. The method aids in the measurement of hormones from the hypothalamic–pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis, making it a possibly appropriate technique to understand the cross-talk between the axes. The study aims to measure the relative abundance of adrenal and gonadal hormones such as corticosterone, cortisol, estrone, estradiol-17β, progesterone, testosterone, and a number of its metabolites. From the dried fecal extract, the principal metabolite identified from the estrogen family was estradiol-17β, whereas the gestagen family revealed that the pregnane series is predominated in 5α-configuration.
On the other hand, epiandrosterone was seen as the dominant form in the male fecal extracts. Additionally, the glucocorticoids are excreted majorly as corticosterone, but traces of cortisol are also present in both the male and female fecal samples. The physiological validation confirmed that the ESI-MS/MS technique is suitable to determine physiologically caused differences in the fecal steroid concentrations. Physiologically, the age structure in pangolin is not responsible for causing differences within gender. However, the results revealed that glucocorticoids might vary between the sexes, i.e., males have a higher relative abundance of glucocorticoids over females. Therefore, our studies show that some of the main adrenal and gonadal metabolites can be predicted by exploiting MS/MS, which can steer research to potentially assess the reproductive status of captive and free-ranging pangolin species.
... Indeed, human population growth and expansion into remote areas, and the availability of better hunting tools have increased harvesting pressure on wildlife, and rare species became prestige foods for the urban elite in China (Lau et al. 2010). While the capture of wild animals has sometimes been replaced by farming for small carnivore species (Lau et al. 2010), this is not the case for pangolins, which are taken from the wild (Shepherd 2009), the species being very difficult to keep and to breed in captivity (Yang et al. 2007). The decline in Chinese pangolins (Manis pentadactyla Linnaeus, 1758) has driven an increase of illegal trade for other species of pangolins from neighbouring Southeast Asian countries (whole animals), and also from Africa (body parts, such as scales). ...
Viruses similar to the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have been discovered in bats of the genus Rhinolophus and in the Sunda pangolin, Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822, suggesting that these animals have played a key role in the emergence of the Covid-19 outbreak in the city of Wuhan, China. In this paper, we review the available data for sarbecoviruses (viruses related to SARS-CoV [2002–2003 outbreak] and SARS-CoV-2) to propose all possible hypotheses on the origin of Covid-19, i. e., involving direct transmission from horseshoe bats to humans, indirect transmission via the pangolin or another animal, with interspecies contamination between either wild animals or animals kept in cage. Present evidence indicates that Rhinolophus bats are the natural reservoir of all sarbecoviruses, and that two divergent SARS-CoV-2-like viruses have circulated in southern China (at least in Guangxi and Guangdong provinces) between August 2017 and March 2019 in captive pangolins destined for sale in wildlife markets. We performed a genetic analysis of seven seized pangolins found to be positive for SARS-CoV-2-like virus using mitochondrial DNA sequences extracted from Sequence Reads Archive data. The results reveal that the same SARS-CoV-2-like virus can be found in animals with distinct haplotypes, which means that they were probably captured in different Southeast Asian regions. Our interpretation is that some pangolins were contaminated in captivity (by other pangolins or by another species to be determined), suggesting that illegal trade of living wild mammals is at the origin of the Covid-19 outbreak. To definitely validate this hypothesis, it is however necessary to discover a virus almost identical to SARS CoV-2 (at least 99% of identity) in animals sold in wet markets. Although pangolins are good candidates, other mammals, such as small carnivores, should not be overlooked.
... Due to their rarity and the inability to maintain pangolins in captivity for any length of time (Hoyt 1987;Yang et al. 2007;Hua et al. 2015), there is a paucity of data regarding their haematology and biochemistry. Previous studies have established baseline values for some of the Asian and tropical African pangolin species (Heath 1986;Oyewale et al. 1997Oyewale et al. , 1998Chin et al. 2015;Khatri-Chhetri et al. 2015), although to the best of our knowledge no studies have yet published blood chemistry values for Temminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii Smuts, 1832). ...
Blood biochemistry values are routinely employed during clinical examinations to assess the health of the patient and to identify potential underlying conditions. No blood biochemistry data are currently available for Temminck’s pangolin ( Smutsia temminckii ), a species that is being confiscated from both the domestic and international trade with increasing frequency, and this lack of data is hampering rehabilitation efforts. We determined haematological and serum biochemical values for ten Temminck’s pangolins rescued from the illegal wildlife trade in Zimbabwe and placed in the care of the Tikki Hywood Foundation as part of their rehabilitation. Our results suggest a large overlap in serum biochemistry and haematology values with previously reported values for other pangolin species, but also suggest some apparent differences. Haemoglobin, mean corpuscular haemoglobin and albumin:globulin ratio were positively correlated with mass, while alkaline phosphatase and amylase were negatively correlated with mass. Lymphocytes and monocytes were positively correlated with body condition, while mean corpuscular volume, alanine aminotransferase and total bilirubin were negatively correlated with condition. These results suggest that at least some parameters are independent of mass and are directly correlated with body condition and may therefore be informative in rapid health assessments of confiscated individuals.
... Critically, however, there has been no known commercial captive breeding success for any species of pangolin. Despite attempts at captive breeding historically, most animals in captivity have died after short time periods (e.g., two years) and there has been very limited breeding success (see Chapter 28; Hua et al., 2015;Yang et al., 2007). However, it is recognized that the aim of investors in pangolin farming is to ensure that commercial breeding is successful in the near future, and that consideration of the potential impacts of farming must therefore account for if it were possible. ...
... as the most difficult aspect of keeping pangolins in captivity-rescue centre, zoo or otherwise (Cabana et al., 2017;Nguyen & Wicker, 2013;Yang et al., 2007). ...
Pangolins (Manis spp.) are myrmecophagous mammals with a wild diet of termites and ants. Diets are not yet readily acceptable by all pangolins and lack soil and chitin compared to their wild diet. This study aimed to assess the usefulness of including soil and chitin in pangolin diets by measuring changes in digestibility, food mean retention time, faecal scoring and body weight changes. Two male and two female Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica) from Night Safari (Singapore) were fed their typical gruel-type diets, with soil and chitin added in various amounts throughout 10 different treatments. Diet intake was calculated daily and faecal boluses were collected for digestibility analysis. Chromium oxide was added to the diet to measure mean retention time four times per animal per treatment. Faecal consistency scores were recorded daily where 1 is firm and 5 is liquid. Every animal was weighed weekly. Adding soil or chitin to the diet had various effects on the apparent digestibility of organic matter, crude protein and fiber with little effects on crude fat or calcium. Soil had a general positive influence on organic matter and fiber digestion. The addition of chitin and soil together had the stronger effects. Only at 25% inclusion of soil did the faecal score begin to improve. The overall maintenance energy requirements for adult M. javanica was 79.28 Kcal/kg BW 0.75 /day, similar to other myrmecophagous mammals. The usage of soil and chitin in pangolin diets may be helpful in controlling weights while preventing behaviours associated with hunger.
... Another method that legitimate companies use is to claim that their saiga horns and pangolin scales are from farmed animals in China, which would make them legitimate ( Van Uhm, 2016c ). The necessary knowledge to breed these animals commercially is, however, deficient ( Braun, 2009 ;Li et al., 2007 ;Yang et al., 2007 ). Both animal species, pangolins and saiga antelopes, are extremely difficult to breed in captivity ( Li et al., 2007 ;Shepherd, 2009 ). ...
... 1998). It usually gives birth to one offspring at a time and sometimes it is even found 2-3 offspring with a gestation period estimated to be more than 169 days (Yang et al. 2007). It digs a hole to deposit urine and faeces and cover it with earth as well as mark it's territories with droppings (Fang and Wang 1980). ...
... The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata É. Geoffroy, 1803) is one of the four extant species of pangolin in Asia. Also known as the thick-tailed pangolin, M. crassicaudata is a mediumsized mammal which is predominantly myrmecophagous and thus, has unique anatomical and behavioral adaptations to prey on ants and termites [1]. Among all Asian pangolin species, the Indian pangolin is arguably the least studied [2] and is the only pangolin species occurring in Sri Lanka. ...
The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) is under threat due to hunting for local consumption and illegal trafficking of scales and meat. The dearth of scientific studies on the ecology of the M. crassicaudata has impaired accurate assessments of its conservation needs. This study investigated the habitat preference and burrow characteristics of M. crassicaudata in a tropical lowland rainforest in southwest Sri Lanka. A total of 75 burrows (54 feeding burrows and 21 resting burrows) of M. crassicaudata in four different habitat types i.e. secondary forest, Pine-dominated forest, rubber cultivations and tea-dominated home gardens bordering forest were observed using fixed-width transects in order to characterize resting and feeding burrows of this species. The highest density of resting burrows was recorded from the secondary forest (4ha⁻¹), followed by rubber cultivations (2.5ha⁻¹) while no resting burrows were recorded in the Pine-dominated forest and the tea-dominated home gardens bordering forest. Feeding burrows were more abundant in the Pine-dominated forest (5.7ha⁻¹). The burrow depth, burrow opening height, and width were significantly larger in resting burrows compared to feeding burrows. Resting burrows were located at higher elevations (75-100m) with moderately high slopes (45⁰−60⁰), dense canopy cover (>75%) and away from human habitation. Feeding burrows showed a greater variability in terms of associated environmental features. The study further revealed that Indian pangolins exclusively prefer habitats with rocks and boulders under which they dig resting burrows while the location of feeding burrows largely overlaps with the distribution of prey species. The resting burrow design consisted of a bending tunnel that initially slopes downward and then gradually inclines at an angle between 20 and 30⁰, leading to the resting chamber. Our study highlights the importance of conserving fragmented secondary natural forests in changing landscapes of the southwest lowlands of Sri Lanka as these habitats appear to be critical to sustaining populations of M. crassicaudata.
... Pangolin-related crimes occur at all of these levels with the main threat to the species being hunting and poaching for illegal international trade (Challender et al., 2014a). Pangolins are exceptionally vulnerable to these threats as they have a slow reproductive rate and are easily hunted (Yang et al., 2007), and efforts to captive-breed the species for conservation have been hampered by difficulties (Hua et al., 2015). This makes the protection of pangolins even more essential for their survival. ...
Wildlife species endangerment is often attributed to both illegal international trade and
weak national law enforcement. Despite efforts to protect pangolins, the species survival is vulnerable to international trade, and, hence, more measures need to be taken in addition to the regulatory system to protect the species. In Malaysia, the national laws use both incentives and disincentives to ensure that people protect wildlife. Besides efficient enforcement, awareness of the legal provisions among the local community is equally important for the laws to be effective. Accordingly, this paper examines the local community’s knowledge of the regulatory protection of pangolins in Kedah. It also explores the association between demographic factors and such knowledge. The study found that the local community had average knowledge about the regulatory protection of pangolins but lacked knowledge regarding provisions on protection and rewards for wildlife crime informants. The study found no significant association between gender and knowledge. However, it discovered a significant association, respectively, between knowledge and age and employment. Little is known about local perception concerning the seriousness of wildlife crimes in Malaysia. The survey results showed that the respondents perceived pangolin-related crimes as serious. It also uncovered that gender, age and occupation have a significant effect on local community perception concerning the seriousness of such crimes. This paper concludes by discussing the implications of the findings for efforts to account for the role of knowledge in the effectiveness of wildlife law and for regulatory policy. The results of the study provide essential baseline information, which is important to design better awareness intervention that can minimize the decline of pangolins.
... Pangolin-related crimes occur at all of these levels with the main threat to the species being hunting and poaching for illegal international trade (Challender et al., 2014a). Pangolins are exceptionally vulnerable to these threats as they have a slow reproductive rate and are easily hunted (Yang et al., 2007), and efforts to captive-breed the species for conservation have been hampered by difficulties (Hua et al., 2015). This makes the protection of pangolins even more essential for their survival. ...
Wildlife species endangerment is often attributed to both illegal international trade and weak national law enforcement. Despite efforts to protect pangolins, the species survival is vulnerable to international trade, and, hence, more measures need to be taken in addition to the regulatory system to protect the species. In Malaysia, the national laws use both incentives and disincentives to ensure that people protect wildlife. Besides efficient enforcement, awareness of the legal provisions among the local community is equally important for the laws to be effective. Accordingly, this paper examines the local community's knowledge of the regulatory protection of pangolins in Kedah. It also explores the association between demographic factors and such knowledge. The study found that the local community had average knowledge about the regulatory protection of pangolins but lacked knowledge regarding provisions on protection and rewards for wildlife crime informants. The study found no significant association between gender and knowledge. However, it discovered a significant association, respectively, between knowledge and age and employment. Little is known about local perception concerning the seriousness of wildlife crimes in Malaysia. The survey results showed that the respondents perceived pangolin-related crimes as serious. It also uncovered that gender, age and occupation have a significant effect on local community perception concerning the seriousness of such crimes. This paper concludes by discussing the implications of the findings for efforts to account for the role of knowledge in the effectiveness of wildlife law and for regulatory policy. The results of the study provide essential baseline information, which is important to design better awareness intervention that can minimize the decline of pangolins.
... Pangolins are myrmecophagous and thus have unique specialized anatomical features which are adapted to this function (Yang, 2007). These adaptations include a conical-shaped head, no teeth, a long sticky tongue and robust forelimbs with enlarged claws for procuring and eating ants and termites (Swart, 1999;Botha and Gaudin, 2007). ...
... Two reports were received of persons buying Temminck's Ground Pangolins as pets (Pietersen et al. 2014a). This species does not do well in captivity, and all individuals in the "pet" trade are likely to die due to their highly specialised diet (Van Ee 1978;Hoyt 1987;Yang et al. 2007). While poisoning was previously viewed as a threat (Heath 1992;Friedmann & Daly 2004), a comprehensive review of the literature suggests that it is not (Pietersen et al. 2014a). ...
Background
The Malayan pangolin ( Manis javanica ) is a placental mammal and is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Most previous attempts to breed pangolins in captivity have met with little success because of dietary issues, infections, and other complications, although a previous study reported breeding pangolins in captivity to the third generation. In our previous pangolin genome sequencing data analysis, we obtained a considerable amount of bacterial DNA from a pregnant female Malayan pangolin (named “UM3”), which was likely infected by Paraburkholderia fungorum— an agent of biodegradation and bioremediation in agriculture.
Methodology
Here, we further confirmed and characterized this bacterial species using PCR, histological staining, whole-genome sequencing, and bioinformatics approaches. PCR assays with in-house designed primer sets and 16S universal primers showed clear positive bands in the cerebrum, cerebellum, lung, and blood of UM3 suggesting that UM3 might have developed septicaemia. Histological staining showed the presence of Gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria in the pangolin brain and lungs, indicating the colonization of the bacteria in these two organs. In addition, PCR screening of UM3’s fetal tissues revealed the presence of P. fungorum in the gastrocnemius muscle, but not in other tissues that we examined. We also sequenced and reconstructed the genome of pangolin P. fungorum , which has a genome size of 7.7 Mbps.
Conclusion
Our study is the first to present detailed evidence of the presence of P. fungorum in a pangolin and her fetus (although preliminary results were presented in our previous article). Here, we raise the concern that P. fungorum may potentially infect humans, especially YOPI (young, old, pregnant, and immunocompromised) people. Therefore, caution should be exercised when using this bacterial species as biodegradation or bioremediation agents in agriculture.
Coronaviruses are Baltimore Class I viruses of the family Coronaviridae. Similarities and differences to other members of these groups are discussed. Proposed reservoir/intermediate hosts of severe acute respiratory system coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle Eastern respiratory system coronavirus, and SARS-CoV-2 are presented. Bats appear to be reservoir hosts for these and some animal coronaviruses. Other potential reservoir/intermediate hosts of pathogenic coronaviruses are presented, with particular emphasis on rodents and birds. Potential methods to predict or prevent future pandemics include the One Health Approach and SpillOver. Factors driving epidemics and pandemics are discussed, particularly microbial, host-related, and environmental factors as well as ‘The Human Factor,’ medical and behavioral interventions that decrease disease spread and severity. The author’s vision for Infectious Disease Centers (IDCs), similar to Ebola Centers, is presented. IDCs would respond to a broad range of infectious diseases, utilizing separated, negative-pressure areas of existing hospitals with specialized, trained healthcare personnel, microbiologists, public health officials, and lab technicians on call. The proposed IDCs would have stockpiles of personal protective equipment (PPE), equipment, and laboratory facilities on hand to respond to a range of infections. Equipment could include ventilators, autoclaves, dialysis equipment, and three-dimensional printers. The latter was used to produce PPE and ventilators during the COVID-19 pandemic. Other innovative plans would be encouraged, such as the conversions of a deck of a long-distance Italian ferry for patients needing an intermediate level of care during the COVID-19 pandemic. Problems associated with infectious disease epidemics in developing countries are examined, with suggestions for the inclusion of appropriate personnel, such as local cultural experts and interpreters, as well as innovative planners and, perhaps, 3-D printers.
The Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is a myrmecophagous, nocturnal mammal species that occurs in forests, agricultural lands, and grasslands. It is critically endangered due to illegal hunting and habitat loss. Characterizing the Chinese pangolin’s habitat and diet could improve our knowledge of the conditions necessary for species persistence; however, limited information is available. We investigated the habitat and diet of Chinese pangolins in the Chandragiri Municipality, Kathmandu, Nepal from November 2021–March 2022. We identified foraging burrows within plots established along 20 transects, collected scats opportunistically at these burrows, and used a generalized linear model to assess the site-level habitat characteristics related to burrow occurrence. We recorded 88 foraging burrows which occurred in forests with 50–75% canopy closure at 1500–1700 m elevation with 20–40° slopes. The probability of detecting a Chinese pangolin foraging burrow was greater with the increasing slope gradient and decreased with increasing distance to agricultural lands and ant nests or termite mounds. The analysis of 10 scats revealed that Aphaenogastersymthiesii, Camponotus sp., Monomorium sp., and Pheidole sp. were the dominant ant prey species; no termites were detected. Baseline data from this study could be used for ex-situ conservation and the captive breeding of Chinese pangolins as well as aiding site-specific management plans in Nepal.
Over the past decade, the pangolin has emerged as one of the most prominent illegally traded mammals, and high extraction rates of Manis javanica from Indonesia have become a world concern. With the rise of the illegal trade, tools for uncovering the origins of pangolins for law enforcement are needed. Use of genetic markers for species and population identification has become a versatile tool in law enforcement efforts related to illegal wildlife trade and the management of endangered species. This study aims to uncover the origin of confiscated pangolins via a molecular approach using COI mtDNA markers. Forty-eight samples came from confiscated pangolins in Jakarta, Surabaya, Jember, Pangkalan Bun, Medan, Lampung, Riau, and Palembang, as well as four samples from the wild population in Riau, Pangkalan Bun, and East Java. Grouping using phylogenetic trees showed two groups with a bootstrap value of 90% based on wild samples. The first group consists of Sumatra and Kalimantan populations, while the second group consists of a Javan population. From a total of 44 confiscated samples, 12 were identified as Javan, nine from Kalimantan, and 23 from Sumatra. Genetic distance value (d) among individuals was d= 0.012 ± 0.002, with haplotype diversity (Hd) 0.864 ± 0.0444. The analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) shows a clear genetic difference among populations (75%) and within populations (25%). The results showed that animals confiscated in one location may come from several different populations. These results can be used to track the flow of the pangolin trade in Indonesia, and support conservation management for the release of confiscated animals.
Information on the behavioral activities of the critically endangered Chinese Pangolin,
Manispentadactyla is scarce with most of the existing information on activities and life
history coming from captive studies on the species. M. pentadactyla is severely threatened
by illegal trade and habitat loss. Knowledge of its ecology and behavioral activities in the
wild is imperative as a scientific basis for their conservation both in captivity and in the
wild. This study was focused on better understanding activities and burrow use habits of M.
pentadactyla in the wild. Purposely targeted deployment of camera traps in high pangolin
use areas was done to video record activities of the species from December 2016 to April
2017. Findings include three significant M. pentadactyla behavioral activities which were
that of collecting plant materials for their burrow, adult-offspring interactions and co-use of
burrow by Malayan porcupine, Hystrix brachyura and M. pentadactyla. These behavioral
findings contribute to building on the existing knowledge of M. pentadactyla in the wild,
essential for pangolin husbandry in captivity and enhancing species survival. The presence
of breeding population of M. pentadactyla in the agroecosystems, draws attention to
conservation management in the socio-ecological production landscapes, where wildlife,
like M.pentadactyla afford inadequate legal attention. Human-wildlife interface events
are also higher in these landscapes, some of which are threatening species survival and
persistence
Asian pangolins are threatened
from extinction due to extreme overharvesting, mainly for use in Traditional Chinese Medicine. In 2004, the
Angkor Centre for Conservation of
Biodiversity (ACCB) in Cambodia
constructed facilities to keep and breed
pangolins, and the first Sunda Pangolin
Manis javanica arrived in 2005. Pangolins are difficult to keep, due to their
specialised diet (ants and termites) and
because they are sensitive to (captive) stress. To date, ACCB received nine
Sunda Pangolins whose age or health
status did not allow immediate release. Six of these died within 5-127
days, young juveniles mostly due to
poor acceptance of artificial milk and
adults due to stress-related illness.
Such low survival rates are typical
for pangolins in captivity. At present,
ACCB holds 2.1 Sunda Pangolins, two
of which were hand-reared. At more
than 5 years and 2 months old, one
of the hand-reared individuals seems
to hold the longevity
record of this species
in captivity. While
captive pangolins are
usually maintained on
artificial diets, we solely feed Red Weaver
Ants Oecophylla sp.
which also seem to be
a preferred food item
in the wild.
Two pangolin species, the Chinese pangolin and the Sunda pangolin, occur in mainland China (MC). TheChinese pangolin was once widely distributed throughout provinces south of the Yangtze River, as well as north of the Yangtze River in southern Sichuan, northeast Chongqing, northwest Hubei, and southwest Henan Provinces. However, the range of the Sunda pangolin is limited to border areas of Yunnan Province. Due to overexploitation and habitat loss, the pangolin population has declined dramatically and it is now widely considered extinct in most areas. At present, although the distribution and population size of the pangolin in MC are unclear, residual populations have been confirmed in Yunnan, Hainan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Hunan, Chongqing, Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang and Anhui provinces. Illegal hunting, habitat loss and fragmentation, small populations, low population densities, and reduced food supply are among the major threats facing pangolins today. The Chinese government has focused strongly on pangolin protection. They have been listed as Category I state-protected animals, and corresponding laws, policies and measures have been introduced to protect them from many threats. Important measures for pangolin conservation in MC include the reduction of public consumption demand, community economic development, public education about conservation and illegal activities, creation or expansion of nature reserves, optimization of road and water conservation facility construction, changes in afforestation methods, a moratorium on commercial breeding programs, proper treatment of confiscated pangolins and derivative products, further species conservation research, and international cooperative conservation efforts. If these conservation actions are implemented, the pangolin population in MC will have a bright future.
Aims: China has the largest historical distribution area and wild population of Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), which was once widespread, occurring in most provinces south of the Yangtze River in China. However, body parts of Chinese pangolin have been long considered as valuable materials of traditional Chinese medicine and there are also high demands for them as bush meat in the black market. Therefore, since the mid-20th century, wild pangolins in China have experienced dramatic range reduction and population decline due to high pressure of unsustainable, mostly illegal hunting. At present, Chinese pangolin has been recently uplisted as Class-I National Key Protected Wildlife in China and assessed as critically endangered (CR) in the IUCN Red List. As a widely distributed but elusive mammal •研究报告•
During evolution, various and sometimes surprising methods have been developed by animals to ingest liquids. A compendium of drinking strategies encountered in animal realm is compiled in the review of Kim and Bush. They emphasize that animals adapt their method to their size and the properties of the fluid to be ingested. Gravitational, viscous, capillary, and inertial forces thus balance to determine the rate and volume of captured fluid. For most insects and other tiny animals, beyond the action of muscles, capillary and viscous forces are dominant. Interestingly, viscous forces both facilitate fluid capture (e.g., drag in viscous dipping) or hinder it (e.g., dissipation in capillary filling of tubes). While viscosity of water is relatively low, plant secretions like nectar can show variable and high viscosity challenging the food intake strategy of the floral visitors.Kim et al. propose two main mechanisms to describe the capture of nectar by various animals, including bees, hummingbirds, butterflies and bats. The first one is related to suction through the action of capillary forces or muscles, the second one being based on viscous dipping. To theoretically estimate the evolution of ingestion rates with nectar viscosities, they proposed a reasonable hypothesis: the animals capture the fluid with a constant power. This assumption yields scaling laws for the flow rates (i.e., Q ∝ η−1/2 for suction and Q ∝ η−1/6 for viscous dipping, η being the nectar viscosity), that qualitatively fit the compiled experimental data found in the literature. It should be noted however that the leading hypothesis of constant retraction power is not supported by any experimental observations in the literature. Last but not least, they assimilated animals’ tongues to simple tubes or smooth rods, the micro-structures such as hairy papillae, that decorate the tongues of bees and bats, being discarded. While several works in the literature discuss the capture of nectar by bees, the true influence of the micro-structures of the tongue is still questioned and a physical model describing quantitatively the fluid capture by nectarivores remains to be designed.In this thesis, we will address these specific problems by studying in detail the collection of nectars by two archetypal species, bumblebees and hummingbirds. While both developed a back and forth movement of the tongue to capture nectar, the morphologies of their glossa are totally different. The studied bumblebees possess a tongue decorated with very elongated papillae forming a hairy coating surrounding a rod-like main stalk. The hummingbirds’ tongues are made from two thin flexible sheets that self-assemble to form tubes. Our work is based on the analysis of videos of living animals ingesting nectars of various viscosities combined to a physical approach through detailed study of different model systems. For bumblebees, the viscous dipping for smooth and structured rods were investigated. In contrast, the feeding of hummingbirds relies on an elasto-capillary mechanism. During the retraction of the tongue from the nectar, the capillary forces help to close the tubes by bending the flexible sheets which trap the nectar.The quantitative comparison of biological data with predictions of the physical models allows us to derive a novel perspective about nectar capture.
Understanding reproductive behavior is important for the conservation of endangered species, but research on the reproductive behavior of Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822) is still very scarce. In this study, we used focal animal sampling and all‐occurrence recording by an infrared monitor to observe the behaviors of two Sunda pangolins during a 5‐day breeding period at the Pangolin Research Base for Artificial Rescue and Conservation Breeding of South China Normal University (PRB‐SCNU). The behavioral characteristics and breeding strategies were analyzed, and the results were discussed together with information on other captive Sunda pangolin pairs at PRB‐SCNU. The results found that there was no obvious estrus behavior in the captive female, while the male could exhibit sexual excitement and courtship behavior after a brief introduction period. Repeated copulation continued over many days after the female accepted the courtship. The average duration of copulatory behavior was 248.9 ± 148.7 s (n = 25), and all copulation occurred between 20:00 and 08:00 hr in the natural day–night photoperiod. The mating position of Sunda pangolins was lateral–ventral and was classified as the ninth or eleventh pattern under both Dewsbury's and Dixson's classification systems. This study can provide scientific guidance for the captive breeding and management of Sunda pangolins and other pangolin species, which is of great significance for ex situ conservation tactics.
Research Highlights
• In this study, there was no obvious estrus behavior in the captive female Sunda pangolin. The female had repeated mating behaviors during an estrus. And the Sunda pangolin mates in the lateral–ventral posture.
The Malayan pangolin ( Manis javanica ) is an unusual, scale-covered, toothless mammal that specializes in myrmecophagy. Due to their threatened status and continuing decline in the wild, concerted efforts have been made to conserve and rescue this species in captivity in China. Maintaining this species in captivity is a significant challenge, partly because little is known of the molecular mechanisms of its digestive system. Here, the first large-scale sequencing analyses of the salivary gland, liver and small intestine transcriptomes of an adult M. javanica genome were performed, and the results were compared with published liver transcriptome profiles for a pregnant M. javanica female. A total of 24,452 transcripts were obtained, among which 22,538 were annotated on the basis of seven databases. In addition, 3,373 new genes were predicted, of which 1,459 were annotated. Several pathways were found to be involved in myrmecophagy, including olfactory transduction, amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism, lipid metabolism, and terpenoid and polyketide metabolism pathways. Many of the annotated transcripts were involved in digestive functions: 997 transcripts were related to sensory perception, 129 were related to digestive enzyme gene families, and 199 were related to molecular transporters. One transcript for an acidic mammalian chitinase was found in the annotated data, and this might be closely related to the unique digestive function of pangolins. These pathways and transcripts are involved in specialization processes related to myrmecophagy (a form of insectivory) and carbohydrate, protein and lipid digestive pathways, probably reflecting adaptations to myrmecophagy. Our study is the first to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying myrmecophagy in M. javanica, and we hope that our results may play a role in the conservation of this species.
The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822) is a Critically Endangered species. Given that this species lacks effective policies for in situ conservation and prevention of poaching in the wild, ex situ conservation and a captive breeding program are urgently needed to save this species from extinction. However, techniques for the maintenance and captive breeding of pangolins have not been well developed. In June 2010, we established the Pangolin Research Base for Artificial Rescue and Conservation Breeding of South China Normal University (PRB-SCNU). To date, a total of 34 Sunda pangolin cubs have been born at PRB-SCNU, 26 of which were captive bred, indicating great progress in keeping and breeding the Sunda pangolin. The techniques for maintenance—including housing, transitioning to an artificial diet, husbandry, and captive breeding—are described in this paper. The purpose of this manuscript is to share our successful experiences and techniques in the maintenance, management, and captive breeding of Sunda pangolins, and to provide guidance and a reference for the captive care and management of Sunda pangolins and other pangolin species.
A questionnaire distributed to rural areas, and pangolin specimens held by the National Museum in Zimbabwe, provided data on distribution, status, body measurements, diet, reproduction and mortality for Manis temmincki in Zimbabwe.
Grâce à un questionnaire distribué en zone rurale et sur base des spécimens de pangolins que possède le National Museum du Zimbabwe, on a recueilli des données sur la distribution, le statut, les mensurations, le régime alimentaire, la reproduction et la mortalité de Manis temmincki au Zimbabwe.
We report observations on the biology, diet, husbandry, and veterinary care of four adult Chinese pangolins (Manis pentadactyla) maintained at the University of California, San Diego, for 1.5 years; and the births of two baby pangolins. Experience indicates that the minimum requirements for Chinese pangolins is an enclosure 10–12 m2, 26°C ambient temperature, a nest box with sand floor, and litter boxes placed in one or two corners of the enclosure for defecation and urination. A diet of two cans of cat food (Science Diet or ZuPreem), 6 tablespoons Esbilac, 2 tablespoons psyllium seed powder, and two raw egg yolks provide adequate nutrition for four pangolins for 1–2 days. Veterinary care should include a complete physical examination of integument and organ systems, determination of blood values, fecal analysis, and treatment with the anthelmintic thiabendazole for elimination of internal parasites. Parasites observed in the four pangolins included Strongyloides, hookworms, filarial nematodes (species unidentified), and nematodes of the genus Cylicospirura. The baby pangolins were born in November (male) and February (female), weighed 93 g and 92 g at birth, and lived 1 and 5 days, respectively. All adult pangolins observed strictly nocturnal behavior patterns.
There are seven species of pangolins in the Order Pholidota. To date there has been limited success in maintaining these animals in captivity and because of differences in size, behaviour and morphology it has been difficult to determine minimum husbandry requirements. Little is known about the biology of pangolins and there is a dearth of population information that can be used to evaluate their conservation status. This paper presents several general guidelines from some of the available published Information.
The diet and foraging behaviour of 15 radio-tagged pangolins were studied in the Sabi Sand Wildtuin for 14 months, together with the community composition and occurrence of epigaeic ants and termites. Fifty-five ant and termite species of 25 genera were trapped in pitfalls of which Pheidole sp. 2 was the most common (27% occurrence). Five termite and 15 ant species were preyed on by pangolins. Six of these species constituted 97% of the diet while ants formed 96% of the diet. Anoplolepis custodiens constituted the major component of the pangolins' diet (77% occurrence) while forming only 5% of the trapped ants. Above-ground ant and termite activity was higher during summer than during winter (an 11-fold difference for A. custodiens), and the above-ground activity was also higher during the day than at night. Pangolins fed for 16% of their foraging time. However, 99% of the observed feeding bouts (mean duration 40 s) were on subterranean prey. The mean dig depth was 3.8 cm. Prey from deeper digs were fed upon for longer periods. A model taking into account various ant characteristics suggests that ant abundance and ant size are the two most important factors determining the number of feeding bouts that pangolins undertake on a particular ant species. Temperature effects on ant activity and their nest characteristics may exclude pangolins from parts of southern Africa.
Study of Polyrhachis dives with additional note on Manis pentadactyla
- Minami GH
Minami GH. 1913. Study of Polyrhachis dives with
additional note on Manis pentadactyla. Insect
World 16:10-4.
Pangolins In: AZA minimum husbandry guidelines for mammals. Maryland: American Zoo and Aquarium Association
- Ae Wilson
Wilson AE. 1997. Pangolins. In: AZA minimum
husbandry guidelines for mammals. Maryland:
American Zoo and Aquarium Association.
An investigation of the food source of Manis pentadactyla
- Minami GH
Minami GH. 1941. An investigation of the food
source of Manis pentadactyla. Sci Taiwan 9:9-10.
West African tree pangolins
- Cansdale GS
Cansdale GS. 1947. West African tree pangolins.
Zool Life London 2:102-5.
Natural and synthetic diets for Pholidota
- R R Tenaza
- T A Schultz
Tenaza RR, Schultz TA. 1977. Natural and
synthetic diets for Pholidota. In: Rechcigl M,
editor. CRC handbook series in nutrition and
food. Cleveland, OH: CRC Press. p 549-53.
Antwerp pangolin diet
- Anonymous
Anonymous. 1963. Antwerp pangolin diet. Int Zoo
Yearb 4:128.
The feeding of the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla) at Taipei Zoo. AZA Annual Proceedings
- C W Yang
- C S Chou
- M S Chao
Yang CW, Chou CS, Chao MS. 1999. The feeding of
the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla) at Taipei Zoo. AZA Annual Proceedings.
Sept. 23-28, Minneapolis, MN. p 501-7.
The pangolin (Manis temmincki Smuts, 1932) in Zimbabwe
- I Coulson
Coulson I. 1989. The pangolin (Manis temmincki
Smuts, 1932) in Zimbabwe. Afr J Ecol 27:149-55.
Notes on newborn Formosan pangolin, Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla
- J T Chao
- Y M Chen
- W C Yeh
- K Y Fang
Chao JT, Chen YM, Yeh WC, Fang KY. 1993.
Notes on newborn Formosan pangolin, Manis
pentadactyla pentadactyla. J Taiwan Mus 46:43-6.
Rare occupants in zoos-pangolins. Aspects of digestive anatomy and physiology
- C W Yang
- S Chen
- C Y Chang
- M F Lin
- E Block
- R Lorentsen
- E S Dierenfeld
Yang CW, Chen S, Chang CY, Lin MF, Block E,
Lorentsen R, Dierenfeld ES. 2007. Rare occupants in zoos-pangolins. Aspects of digestive
anatomy and physiology. Zoo Biol (in press).
The feeling of pangolin study
- Gao C
Gao C. 1934. The feeling of pangolin study.
Formosa Sci 4:370-1.
A handbook of the management of wild animals in captivity in lower Bengal
- R B Sanyal
Sanyal RB. 1892. A handbook of the management
of wild animals in captivity in lower Bengal.
Calcutta, India: Bengal Secretariat Press
(reprinted by Central Zoo Authority in 1995).
Notes on a young Indian pangolin or scaly anteater Manis crassicaudata
- C G Chevenix-Trench
Chevenix-Trench CG. 1922. Notes on a young
Indian pangolin or scaly anteater Manis
crassicaudata. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc
24:590.
Notes on newborn Formosan pangolin, Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla
- Chao JT
The feeding of the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla) at Taipei Zoo
- Yangcw Choucs
Rare occupants in zoos—pangolins. Aspects of digestive anatomy and physiology
- Yang CW