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The role of repetition in the processes of memorising and understanding: A comparison of the views of German and Chinese secondary school students in Hong Kong
Abstract
Previous research has found that students and teachers in countries of the Far East often see memorization and understanding as working together to produce higher quality outcomes. In contrast, in the West it is more common to associate memorizing with 'surface' and understanding with 'deep' approaches to learning.
The main purpose of this study was to explore and describe the experiences of the role of repetition in the processes of memorizing and understanding among students with Western (German) and Asian (Chinese) backgrounds. In particular, we were interested in finding indications of possible cultural differences in the experiences of the two ethnic groups.
The participants were 48 Chinese (HKC) and 18 German senior secondary school students in Hong Kong.
The study used a qualitative research approach. Data were gathered by semi-structured in-depth interviews. Interview transcripts were analysed in order to uncover, categorize and describe the variation of experiences and conceptions of the role of repetition. The two ethnic groups were then compared as to how many interviews were found in each category.
A similar proportion of both groups remembered being encouraged to recite by their parents, but the HKC students more often said they were made to recite by their primary teachers. While the HKC students focused on the value of the content of these early memories, the German students focused on the value of the activity itself. Moreover, while the German students tended to downplay the role of repetition in the process of understanding, the HKC students sometimes emphasized repetition combined with 'attentive effort'. By such effort they tried to discover new meanings in the materials studied, in order to deepen their understanding.
While the findings of this study cannot be considered definitive, it is suggested that the emphasis on attentive effort among HKC students is consistent with a traditional, Confucian perspective on learning. The results also indicate that 'the intention to both memorize and understand', found in previous investigations of the study approaches of HKC students, may arise out of being simultaneously aware of two possibilities inherent in repetition: creating a deep impression on the mind and discovering new meaning. Finally, it is argued that the differences between the two ethnic groups are consistent with earlier research findings that Chinese, unlike Western, students tend to consider effort attributions more salient than ability attributions.
... Memorisation has never been seen as an end by Chinese learners but as a prelude to deeper understanding and elements of constructivist learning (Kennedy 2002;Tan 2015). There is a clear difference between rote learning (mechanical learning without meaning) and repetition for memorising of content, where the intention is to develop understanding and to discover new meaning (Dahlin and Watkins 2000). Chinese students use the latter more than the former, especially when they prepare for exams (Ho et al. 1999). ...
... Mastery of the Chinese writing system also requires significant repetition and memorisation. This approach is still used today to teach children social and moral values and obligations (Chan 1999;Dahlin and Watkins 2000) as moral values are highly appreciated in Chinese culture. Student success in learning is often attributed more to effort rather than to ability (Biggs 1996;Hau and Salili 1996), which may be because Confucian cultural tradition considers effort as a moral value it itself . ...
... Student success in learning is often attributed more to effort rather than to ability (Biggs 1996;Hau and Salili 1996), which may be because Confucian cultural tradition considers effort as a moral value it itself . As a result, the emphasis on continuous effort in self-cultivation prevalent in Confucian background seems to contribute to making repetition a more respectful study technique compared to Western learners (Dahlin and Watkins 2000). ...
Despite the many critiques of views that categorise and simplify Chinese international students’ use of memorisation as deficient or rote learning, these views persist. Using ethnographic methods to collect data over 18 months, this study identified the key practices employed by students as they negotiated their learning experiences in an Australian university. Through a practice lens, this paper disputes the oversimplification and extends existing knowledge of memorisation. It advocates memorisation as an embedded bodily activity in learning, via its deep connection to Chinese cultural and educational systems. In particular, it proposes greater theoretical nuance by suggesting (i) memorisation as entailing bundled practices; (ii) repetition in memorisation as generating new meanings, and (iii) memorisation as embodied and routinised practice. It concludes by discussing the implications of these key findings for academics seeking to understand Chinese students and support their learning experience.
... D'un côté, les apprenants chinois ont été considérés comme intelligents, parce qu'ils réussissaient bien dans les enquêtes comparatives internationales, notamment dans certaines disciplines comme les mathématiques et les sciences. (Biggs, 1991 ;Marton, Watkins et Tang, 1997 ;Dahlin et Watkins, 2000). De l'autre côté, les apprenants chinois ont été aussi vus comme recourant massivement à l'apprentissage par coeur (Dahlin et Watkins, 2000 ;Kember, 2016). ...
... (Biggs, 1991 ;Marton, Watkins et Tang, 1997 ;Dahlin et Watkins, 2000). De l'autre côté, les apprenants chinois ont été aussi vus comme recourant massivement à l'apprentissage par coeur (Dahlin et Watkins, 2000 ;Kember, 2016). Ces deux côtés incompatibles contribuent au paradoxe de l'apprenant chinois: « how is it possible that students with an orientation to rote learning, which is negatively correlated with achievement, achieve so highly? ...
... D'un côté, les apprenants chinois ont été considérés comme « the brain Asian » (Biggs, 1991, p.27 ;Marton, Watkins et Tang., 1997, p.23), du fait qu'ils réussissaient bien dans les enquêtes comparatives internationales, notamment dans certaines disciplines comme les mathématiques et les sciences. (Biggs, 1991 ;Marton, Watkins et Tang, 1997 ;Dahlin et Watkins, 2000). De l'autre côté, les apprenants chinois ont été étiquetés comme « apprenants par coeur » (traduit de l'anglais « rote learners ». (Biggs, 1991, p.27 ;Marton, Watkins et Tang, 1997, p.24). ...
Depuis les années 90 du siècle dernier, les approches d’apprentissage des étudiants chinois ont attiré l’attention de certains chercheurs occidentaux. Ces derniers ont développé deux représentations par rapport à ce groupe d’apprenants. D’un côté, les étudiants chinois ont été considérés comme intelligents, parce qu’ils réussissaient bien dans les différents tests internationaux. D’un autre côté, les étudiants chinois ont été vus comme recourant largement à l’apprentissage par cœur. Ces deux visions opposées ont contribué à un paradoxe de l’apprenant chinois : « how is it possible that students with an orientation to rote learning, which is negatively correlated with achievement, achieve so highly ? » (Marton, Watkins et Tang, 1997, p.24). Certains auteurs occidentaux ont essayé de résoudre ce paradoxe. Dans ces recherches précédentes, nous avons constaté que les explications du paradoxe de l’apprenant chinois ne proviennent pas des descriptions du par cœur selon la perspective des étudiants chinois eux-mêmes. Ainsi, l’originalité de notre recherche tient au fait que nous avons repris ce paradoxe, en essayant de le résoudre à partir de l’interprétation de l’apprentissage par cœur des étudiants chinois continentaux. L’investigation de l’interprétation du par cœur des étudiants chinois continentaux s’est déroulée ici en France. Aujourd’hui, l’enseignement supérieur est fortement internationalisé. Dans ce contexte-là, il y a un grand nombre d’étudiants chinois qui poursuivent leurs études à l’étranger. Dans notre recherche, nous avons questionné l’influence du contexte français sur les manières d’apprendre des étudiants chinois. Nous avons investigué comment ils ajustent leurs stratégies d’apprentissage pour s’adapter au contexte de l’enseignement supérieur français. Les résultats montrent que les ajustements faits par les étudiants chinois en France concernent non seulement l’apprentissage par cœur, mais aussi d’autres stratégies d’apprentissage.
... In the Chinese context, both strategies are considered necessary for high-quality learning (see e.g. Dahlin and Watkins 2000;Lin, Liang, and Tsai 2015). Whereas Chinese learners typically appear to Western teachers to be rote learners, Western learners are assumed to be more committed to deep and reflective learning to understand the learning content. ...
... Watkins and Biggs 2001). In the Taiwanese sample, we did not expect negative correlations between the two theories due to the "Chinese paradox" which suggests that in terms of learning both memorising and understanding are necessary for high-quality outcome (Dahlin and Watkins 2000;Lin, Liang, and Tsai 2015;Watkins and Biggs 2001). In terms of means, we expected the Finnish teachers to score higher on reflective-collaborative beliefs than on transmissive beliefs. ...
... In the Finnish sample, knowledge transmission theory and reflective-collaborative theory appeared to be opposed, whereas in the Taiwanese sample the reflective-collaborative and knowledge transmission theories did not correlate negatively with each other meaning that in Taiwanese context these two theories appeared to be more orthogonal, not opposed. This finding was in line with previous research conducted on the Chinese learner's context, in which transmissive and constructivist ideas are not contradictory but may exist side by side (see Dahlin and Watkins 2000;Rao and Chan 2010;Tsai 2002). However, the two epistemic theories were necessarily not intertwined, unlike what some researchers have indicated (see e.g. ...
Teachers’ epistemic beliefs may have consequences for their pedagogical work. We used previously developed scales to assess epistemic beliefs that teachers hold about learning, knowledge and knowing, and how they report putting such ideas into practice. The scales consisted of self-reported Likert-type statements considering collaborative knowledge building, valuing metacognition, certainty of knowledge, and a surface approach to learning. The participants were 127 subject-matter teachers from Finland and 97 teachers from Taiwan. Based on previous research, we constructed a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) model for the Finnish sample and replicated this with the Taiwanese sample. We confirmed two factors: 1) reflective-collaborative theory (consisting of collaborative knowledge building and valuing metacognition scales) and 2) knowledge transmission theory (consisting of certainty of knowledge and simple learning scales) in both samples. In conclusion, essential and corresponding aspects of teachers’ epistemic beliefs and their reported practices were found. However, the results showed some cross-cultural variance.
It is important to look at teachers’ epistemic beliefs because they may have consequences for teachers’ pedagogical work. These beliefs are a part of epistemic cognition which in this context consists of epistemic beliefs (beliefs about knowledge and learning) and how teachers report to put them into practice (e.g.). The aim of this study is to identify and assess teachers’ core epistemic beliefs and how such beliefs are associated with their practical ideas on pedagogy in two diverse cultural contexts. We used previously developed scales to assess beliefs that teachers hold about learning, knowledge and knowing, and how they report putting such ideas into practice. The scales consisted of self-reported Likert-type statements considering collaborative knowledge building, valuing metacognition, emphasising certainty of knowledge, and a surface approach to learning. The participants were 127 subject-matter teachers from Finland and 97 teachers from Taiwan. Based on previous research, we constructed a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) model for the Finnish sample and replicated this with the Taiwanese sample. We confirmed two factors: 1) reflective-collaborative theory (consisting of collaborative knowledge building and valuing metacognition scales) and 2) knowledge transmission theory (consisting of certainty of knowledge and simple learning scales) in both samples. In conclusion, essential and corresponding aspects of teachers’ epistemic beliefs and their reported practices were found. However, the results showed some cross-cultural variance.
... An active learning environment increases students' attention and engagement (Kay, MacDonald, & DiGiuseppe, 2019). Repetition allows students to study the lectures' contents and memorize new information (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000), and regular feedback enables students to monitor their learning progress and discover knowledge gaps (Agarwal & Bain, 2019;Hattie & Timperley, 2007). These techniques also help students to transfer the new information from short-term to long-term memory (Brown et al., 2014). ...
... Empirical research has also shown that repetition is beneficial for learning (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000). It is necessary to achieve proficiency and is positively linked with final exam performance (Andergassen, Mödritscher & Neumann et al., 2014). ...
... It is necessary to achieve proficiency and is positively linked with final exam performance (Andergassen, Mödritscher & Neumann et al., 2014). Dahlin and Watkins (2000) defined two purposes of repetition. Firstly, repetition creates a deep impression of the new information so that the information is engraved more deeply in the memory and secondly, a new understanding for the learned information is created. ...
Large university classes often face challenges in enhancing active learning, repetition and feedback in the classroom which are essential for promoting student learning. In this study, we evaluated the implementation of digital tools (lecture recordings, question tool, classroom response system and virtual reality) regarding their perceived impact on active learning, repetition, and feedback in a large university class. The study applied a mixed methods design and collected data from a survey (95 students) and focus groups (11 students). The results show that students enjoyed using the tools because they enriched the lecture. However, students perceived differences regarding the impacts on active learning, repetition, and feedback. The perceived impacts of the classroom response system and the lecture recordings were rated high whereas the perceived impacts of the question tool and the VR modules were rated lower. Recommendations on how to use these digital tools in large classroom settings are provided.
... Western students related memorization to 'pure remembering', while Chinese students linked it more with 'deep processing' (Biggs, 1998). The complexity of memorization used by Chinese students when combined with understanding has been illustrated in previous studies (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000;Kember, 2000Kember, , 2016. For example, memorizing Chinese characters effectively might T A B L E 2 Means (M), standard deviations (SD) and correlations between the main variables among boys (below diagonal) and girls (above diagonal be related to identifying the construction rules and making connections with known components, and reciting poems by imaging pictures might deepen understanding, thus promoting reading achievement. ...
... For example, memorizing Chinese characters effectively might T A B L E 2 Means (M), standard deviations (SD) and correlations between the main variables among boys (below diagonal) and girls (above diagonal be related to identifying the construction rules and making connections with known components, and reciting poems by imaging pictures might deepen understanding, thus promoting reading achievement. It seemed that Chinese students distinguished passive memorization from active memorization associated with a deep processing of the content; the latter was more advocated by Chinese teachers (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000). Such active memorization may serve as a tool to hold and further encode the information into a more stable area and then benefit students' reading achievement (Weinstein et al., 2010). ...
Background: Learning is a self-regulated loop where learning strategies and achievements are interrelated. In reading, although some studies have explored the relationship between different learning strategies (memorization, elaboration and control) and reading achievement, little is known about how they interact over time. Even though the longitudinal relationship was revealed in some studies, most of the evidence was based on the whole population, regardless of gender differences. Aims: This study was designed to examine the longitudinal relationship between memorization, elaboration, control strategies and reading achievement, as well as the gender difference in the longitudinal relationship. Sample: The sample consisted of 3878 Chinese students (2025 boys, 1853 girls) who were surveyed in Grade 4 and Grade 6. Methods: A cross-lagged model was conducted to examine the longitudinal relationship between memorization, elaboration , control strategies and reading achievement while controlling for gender, age and parents' educational levels. Multigroup cross-lagged models were conducted to examine gender differences in the longitudinal relationship between these variables. Results: Memorization and elaboration strategies were reciprocally related. Both predicted subsequent control strategies, but not vice versa. Only memorization strategies positively predicted subsequent reading achievement, while prior reading achievement positively predicted the subsequent three strategies. The effects of prior reading achievement on subsequent learning strategies were stronger for boys. Conclusions: Memorization strategies play a prominent role in promoting deeper strategies and reading achievement in Chinese primary schools, which might relate to
... Western students related memorization to 'pure remembering', while Chinese students linked it more with 'deep processing' (Biggs, 1998). The complexity of memorization used by Chinese students when combined with understanding has been illustrated in previous studies (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000;Kember, 2000Kember, , 2016. For example, memorizing Chinese characters effectively might T A B L E 2 Means (M), standard deviations (SD) and correlations between the main variables among boys (below diagonal) and girls (above diagonal be related to identifying the construction rules and making connections with known components, and reciting poems by imaging pictures might deepen understanding, thus promoting reading achievement. ...
... For example, memorizing Chinese characters effectively might T A B L E 2 Means (M), standard deviations (SD) and correlations between the main variables among boys (below diagonal) and girls (above diagonal be related to identifying the construction rules and making connections with known components, and reciting poems by imaging pictures might deepen understanding, thus promoting reading achievement. It seemed that Chinese students distinguished passive memorization from active memorization associated with a deep processing of the content; the latter was more advocated by Chinese teachers (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000). Such active memorization may serve as a tool to hold and further encode the information into a more stable area and then benefit students' reading achievement (Weinstein et al., 2010). ...
Background
Learning is a self‐regulated loop where learning strategies and achievements are interrelated. In reading, although some studies have explored the relationship between different learning strategies (memorization, elaboration and control) and reading achievement, little is known about how they interact over time. Even though the longitudinal relationship was revealed in some studies, most of the evidence was based on the whole population, regardless of gender differences.
Aims
This study was designed to examine the longitudinal relationship between memorization, elaboration, control strategies and reading achievement, as well as the gender difference in the longitudinal relationship.
Sample
The sample consisted of 3878 Chinese students (2025 boys, 1853 girls) who were surveyed in Grade 4 and Grade 6.
Methods
A cross‐lagged model was conducted to examine the longitudinal relationship between memorization, elaboration, control strategies and reading achievement while controlling for gender, age and parents' educational levels. Multigroup cross‐lagged models were conducted to examine gender differences in the longitudinal relationship between these variables.
Results
Memorization and elaboration strategies were reciprocally related. Both predicted subsequent control strategies, but not vice versa. Only memorization strategies positively predicted subsequent reading achievement, while prior reading achievement positively predicted the subsequent three strategies. The effects of prior reading achievement on subsequent learning strategies were stronger for boys.
Conclusions
Memorization strategies play a prominent role in promoting deeper strategies and reading achievement in Chinese primary schools, which might relate to culture and developmental stages. Higher achievement or positive feedback from learning results might be motivation for using different strategies, especially for boys.
... This attribute may be part of the contemporary Confucian-heritage context/culture (CHC) that includes Korea, China, Hong Kong, Singapore and so on. CHCs are commonly known for their "exam-and achievement-oriented" teaching [27], use of repetitive learning [28] and a great respect for higher authority [29]. To this end, CHCs usually favour teacher-centred pedagogy, with an emphasis on academic performance in high-stake examinations, with teachers taking a great responsibility for students' academic results [27]. ...
... In the same environment, FA (represented by the dotted-line square) has always been an integrate part of teaching and learning. and achievement-oriented" teaching [27], use of repetitive learning [28] and spect for higher authority [29]. To this end, CHCs usually favour teacher-cen gogy, with an emphasis on academic performance in high-stake examinations, ers taking a great responsibility for students' academic results [27]. ...
The fast global spread of COVID-19 has resulted in the mass disruption of teaching, learning, as well as assessment, in mainstream schools in Singapore. Teachers were caught unprepared and this jeopardised the quality of classroom delivery and assessment. The Ministry of Education has since shifted to an online asynchronous mode of teaching whilst attempting to keep the face-to-face method of lesson delivery, to which it is called ‘blended learning’ (BL) in the local context. Besides being propelled to learn and use new technology tools for online lessons, teachers also need to quickly explore to embed formative assessment (FA) in the new BL environment to substitute traditional classroom assessment. In this context, I argue that teachers’ language assessment literacy (LAL), pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and e-pedagogy are vital to the success of embedding FA in BL. Following, I also describe some tentative predictions for future challenges and opportunities of embedding FA in the BL environment of secondary Chinese Language (CL) teaching in Singapore. On this basis, I discuss the ways in which current conceptualisations of language assessment literacy will need to shift in response to these challenges. Finally, I make some recommendations for practice based on this argument.
... teaching and learning styles (Gafoor and Babu, 2012;Cassidy, 2004;Hess and Frantz, 2014;Hofstede, 2001;Manikutty et al., 2007;Gündüz and Özcan, 2010;Dahlin and Watkins, 2000); and the application of Hofstede's dimensions of culture to higher education (Hofstede, 1986;Cronjé, 2011;Yassin, 2012;Prowse and Goddad, 2010;Biemans and Van Mil, 2008;Tarhini, 2013). ...
... Although the above authors have focused on individual preferences, others have pointed to the cultural conditioning of these styles, arguing that cultural background has a direct impact on the students' learning and that there is a strong relationship between education, learning, and culture (see Hofstede, 2001;Manikutty et al., 2007;Gündüz and Özcan 2010;Dahlin and Watkins, 2000). A study undertaken by Gündüz and Özcan (2010) These students enrolled in the engineering and educational departments. ...
Internationalisation or the “process of integrating an international/intercultural dimension into the teaching, research and service functions of a higher education institution” (Knight 1997: 8) has become an important aspect of the domination of higher education institutions. In South Africa as in countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Japan and Canada, there have been dramatic increases in the numbers of international students. Research shows that the majority of these international students experience various difficulties when the academic culture of the host environment is different from that of the home environment in many respects (Al-Murshidi, 2014; Abukhattala, 2013). The present study employs a social approach to academic literacies (Barton and Hamilton, 2000) to examine the academic reading and writing practices of a group of Libyan students in South Africa (against the backdrop of the home academic culture). Using both quantitative and qualitative methods (Creswell and Plano, 2011), data were collected and analysed to address reading and writing across Libyan and South African academic cultures. The sources of data include Facebook discussions, focus group discussions, questionnaires, documents (such as policies of UWC relevant to my study), and interviews with selected UWC officials. Thematic analysis was used to analyse qualitative data whereas SPSS was used to analyse quantitative data.
... In particular, relevant cultural differences have been reported regarding the use of specific SRL strategies such as memorisation, which has been found to be negatively related with achievement in Western cultures (McInerney, 2011). However, in East Asian contexts, this pattern does not seem to hold (Watkins, 2000). When considered from a culturally-nuanced perspective, categorizing memorisation as a surface learning strategy that is maladaptive seems to be too simplistic (Chiu, Chow, & Mcbride-Chang, 2007;Purdie & Hattie, 1996). ...
... Asian students do not see memorisation as antagonistic to deep forms of learning. A study conducted by Dahlin and Watkins (2000) found that Asian students couple memorisation or repetition with "attentive effort" which led students to discover new meanings in the material studied. It may be the case that East Asian students engage in a mild form of memorisation even for subjects such as mathematics and science. ...
... Chinese students, teachers, and parents in terms of learning [18][19][20][21][22], organization of school days [23], curriculum [24], pedagogy [16,25,26], and parenting [27][28][29] (see Section 2.1 in our previous work [30] for a detailed review). Yet, the unsustainability of Chinese education [31], leading to high academic stress [32] and a lack of creativity [33], has also prompted China to seek to emulate Western-style educational practices [23,[34][35][36]. ...
... In addition, because of its cross-sectional nature, the results for this study are insufficient to draw conclusions about the role of cultural exchange. Moreover, as the literature [16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29] has identified different factors influencing learning achievement between Eastern and Western cultures, research conclusions drawn from a Chinese sample cannot be generalized to a Western sample. ...
The world’s two largest economies, the United States and China, have fundamentally different cultural beliefs about learning. Thus, when examining Chinese learners, Western researchers were confused by the contrasting phenomenon between seemingly poor learning approaches and high academic achievement, i.e., the Paradox of Chinese Learners. In addressing this paradox, Jin Li offered a theoretical framework of the Chinese virtue model versus the European–American mind model to comprehensively understand the differences in students’ learning beliefs and academic achievement between the two cultures. However, Li does not pay attention to global cultural exchange or directly link learning beliefs to academic achievement. Therefore, this paper presents two empirical studies addressing these research gaps. Study 1 adopted both qualitative and quantitative methods to investigate the learning beliefs of Chinese and European–American university students, and revealed that deepening cultural exchange narrowed the gap between the two models (Study 1a), but the impact of the virtue model on European–American students was weaker than that of the mind model on Chinese students (Study 1b). Study 2 further revealed that both models were beneficial for Chinese students’ academic achievement, whereas only the virtue model benefited European–American students. These findings have important implications for addressing the Paradox of Chinese Learners.
... REP is crucial in strengthening learning and is positively associated with improved academic performance . It enhances memory, provides new interpretations of learning material, and increases comprehension (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000). Procedures that require adherence to standard operating procedures necessitate repetitive practice for familiarity, such as medical behaviors. ...
Spherical video-based virtual reality (SVVR) offers teachers an accessible means to use virtual reality. However, research into the effects of learning materials in teacher-developed SVVR activities on student learning remains limited. This study recruited 33 elementary school teachers and the 841 students in their classes. This study classified teacher-developed SVVR into "enhanced type" (N = 18) and "fundamental type" (N = 15), based on the number of enhanced exposition contents and thematic integration assessments embedded in the SVVR activities. This study also examined its effect on the students’ perceived effects of active learning (AL), repetition (REP), and feedback (FB), and learning engagement (i.e., cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and social engagement). Nested relationships between teachers and students were observed using hierarchical linear modeling analysis. This study revealed that (1) enhanced-type SVVR activities are positively associated with learning engagement; (2) AL and FB are positively associated with student engagement; (3) REP is the only factor that is positively associated with emotional engagement; and (4) AL and SVVR exert a cross-level interaction effect on emotional engagement, wherein enhanced-type SVVR activities yield greater emotional engagement among lower AL students. While prior research highlighted SVVR’s impact on student learning, the present work has unfolded the importance of how SVVR delivers information and facilitates students' knowledge organization in the course of learning, consequently impacting students’ learning outcomes. The results of this research are of theoretical and practical significance for both researchers and practitioners working on designing, implementing and evaluating SVVR for educational purposes.
... Education has been posited as an important factor in these cultural differences in mathematical abilities [3,7,9]. Specifically, in comparison to Western countries, there is a greater emphasis on arithmetic fluency as a foundation for developing a comprehensive grasp of conceptual knowledge [59][60][61][62]. Moreover, in China, a strand mathematics curriculum is implemented, focusing on introducing a limited number of topics with in-depth instructions, with each topic building upon the mastery acquired in preceding topics [63]. ...
Background
This study aimed to investigate the cognitive and affective factors associated with cross-cultural differences in arithmetic tasks.
Methods
A total of 404 third- and fourth- graders were recruited from China and Italy to complete exact arithmetic, arithmetic estimation and cognitive tasks (i.e., short-term memory, executive functions, and fluid reasoning). Their mathematical anxiety was also measured.
Results
The results showed that Chinese children performed better than Italian children in both arithmetic tasks and in shifting task. Italian children performed better in visuospatial updating task and reported higher levels of mathematical anxiety than their Chinese peers. Multi-group path analyses showed that the patterns of relations among cognitive factors (i.e., short-term memory, inhibition and shifting), mathematical anxiety, and arithmetic performance were similar across groups. The only exception was that visuospatial updating uniquely predicted arithmetic estimation for Chinese but not for Italian children.
Conclusions
Chinese children outperformed their Italian peers in the exact arithmetic task, likely due to the greater emphasis on arithmetic fluency in Chinese mathematics education, both in schools and at home. They also had a slight advantage than Italian peers in the arithmetic estimation task. The unique link between updating and arithmetic estimation found in Chinese children but not Italian children suggests that, although arithmetic estimation is not emphasized in the curricula of either country, instruction and practice in exact arithmetic may enhance Chinese children’s efficiency in solving arithmetic estimation problems.
... According to western teachers (Pratt, Kelly and Wong, 1999), Chinese students are seen as quiet, receptive and disinclined to challenge authority. Dahlin and Watkins (2000) found that Chinese students used memorisation and repetition more often than their British peers. British students viewed understanding as a process of sudden insight and used repetition to check their memory of this insight. ...
In this chapter, I hope to help Singaporean teachers particularly, navigate the literature of AfL carefully. The literature review will also suggest how differing school organisations and social cultural contexts could pose different challenges to how teachers learn AfL. Finally, I highlight that School Leaders (SL) and Key Personnel (KP) with support from MOE and NIE, need to leverage the full contextual dimension of the Singaporean classroom (instead of focusing only on the constraints). While it may be futile (and unnecessary) to expect AfL to be practised consistently across school and classroom contexts, SL and KP can help their colleagues to accept certain contradictions and see dilemmas not as impediments of understanding but rather opportunities to create new ways of knowing AfL in terms of local sense-making. If all teachers are to be important agents of change, their understanding of AfL must be nuanced with an understanding of the different contexts in which learning occurs.
... In line with the phenomenon of learning difficulties, the results of research conducted showed that junior high school students had not fully achieved good learning outcomes in comparative material (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000;Halomoan Lumbantoruan, 2023). Many students still have difficulty solving story problems. ...
Low math learning outcomes in students, especially in comparison materials, are reflected in low scores on the National Exam and learning outcomes in the classroom. Several factors, both internal and external, can cause learning difficulties experienced by students. This study aims to analyze the obstacles to students' difficulties in learning mathematics and their causes. The subjects involved were 30 students. This type of mixed research uses data collection methods through tests, interviews, and questionnaires. The instruments used are closed questionnaire sheets and interview guidelines. Data analysis techniques using data collection are interactive model data analysis techniques, especially in the data reduction and conclusion drawing sections. The results revealed that 12 students experienced difficulties in interpreting language. These difficulties include difficulty understanding the problem's core and integrating everyday language into the depth of mathematical language. The conclusion that can be formulated is that the difficulties experienced by students arise because of themselves and from people around their school environment. This research implies that educators design materials by improving concepts and mathematical literacy to overcome student difficulties.
... Por último, otra serie de investigaciones han indagado sobre las creencias de los alumnos en relación con las dicotomías mencionadas al principio del epígrafe anterior. Recordemos, a este respecto, que uno de los mayores avances en la investigación de la paradoja del aprendiz chino fue la identificación del proceso de memorización-comprensión a cargo de autores como Marton el al. (1996Marton el al. ( , 2010 y Dahlin y Watkins (2000). Algunos estudios posteriores sobre la actitud de los alumnos ante las nuevas pedagogías parece que refuerzan esta idea. ...
In recent years, interest in teaching Spanish as a foreign language (E/LE) to Chinese speakers has grown enormously. The cultivation of this specialty connects with the current of international research on Chinese-speaking educational contexts, which has been developed, above all, from the field of English teaching around the concept of Chinese learner. Among the numerous publications produced within this field, three collective works, linked to each other, published by the University of Hong Kong between 1996 and 2010, stand out due to their special relevance and validity. The topics raised in them constitute an unavoidable reference for current studies around Chinese-speaking students, regardless of the subject in question. Since, according to our experience and research, this set of contributions is not usually considered within the E/LE domain, our objective here is to make it known for the first time in a complete and comprehensive way in Spanish, so that they can be considered in current and future studies within this discipline. To do this, we will present the most relevant approaches, advances and conclusions that emerge from these key works, grouped around three fundamental issues: the paradox of the Chinese student, the paradox of the Chinese professor, and the contemporary research framework.
... Teachers claimed that the more students practice, the more familiar and competent they become with their newly acquired knowledge and skills, and the more students internalize what they learn, the more doors are opened for them to explain, interpret, and apply mathematical concepts. In this context, Dahlin and Watkins (2000) argue that repetition has a profound effect on the mind and improves memorization, but can also be used to deepen and enhance understanding. Therefore, using routine practice as a teaching method can help students communicate mathematical facts, operations, or relations precisely and fluently. ...
This study aimed to investigate teachers' thoughts about the role of mathematical communication in special education. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with ten special education teachers responsible for teaching students with severe disabilities from various school levels. Data analysis used open coding to identify thematically common patterns. Results showed that special education teachers' thoughts on mathematical communication fell into six themes: (i) communicating mathematical ideas through embodiment, (ii) communicating mathematical ideas while considering cognitive competency, (iii) listening, speaking, reading, or writing mathematical language, (iv) developing positive attitudes towards using mathematical language, (v) communicating mathematical ideas through repetitions, and (vi) using mathematical language in other disciplines. Teachers have recognized that students with special educational needs require more time and effort to reach their full potential because their modes of mathematical communication can be particularly varied. Therefore, they discussed the concept of mathematical communication in special education from different perspectives and presented a number of approaches to it. Implications for future research and pedagogical practice were also discussed.
... Salient differences in education contexts in Asia and the West arise from varying cultural, economic, and political contexts that influence the educational systems and their goals. Studies (e.g., Dahlin and Watkins, 2000;Kim et al., 1999;Muench et al., 2022) have found that Asian countries, such as China, Japan, and Korea, place emphasis on memorization and repetition as the primary means of learning. This can be attributed to a number of factors, including the desire for academic excellence and the large class sizes that make it difficult for educators to provide individualized attention to students. ...
The center of learning is the brain and the disciplinary science that examines its structure and functioning, and the nervous system as a whole, is called neuroscience. The assimilation of essential neuroscience-related content by educational systems has gained global interest, given the relevance of learning to education. Recognizing the significance of frontline workers, several governmental agencies and educational institutions have launched initiatives to foster the inclusion of neuroscience literacy in educators’ training programs. Their success, however, has depended on collaborative efforts among educators, researchers, and other educational stakeholders, and the process has involved considerable debate. Here, we aim to articulate a rationale to promote neuroscience literacy for educators. In doing so, we revisit prior arguments on the importance of training educators and build up on other reasons to advocate for this kind of endeavor considering cutting-edge research. Following this, we discuss critical elements to advance neuroscience literacy for educators and examine the most important challenges to execute successful initiatives. Finally, we appraise the significance for Asia, reviewing the scholarly literature on educators’ prior experiences, and highlight the case of Singapore as an exemplar initiative that catalizes human capital, infrastructure, and strategies to advance neuroscience literacy. We conclude by arguing that governmental agencies and educational institutions should strengthen their efforts to accommodate their programmatic plans and agendas to embrace neuroscience literacy in educators’ training programs. This global trend has arrived to stay.
... The recitation method is a method of giving assignments carried out by the teacher to students (Brophy, 1986). Recitation is also understood as a learning method that combines memorization, reading, repetition, testing, and self-examination in the large written dictionary of knowledge (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000). The method of presenting material in which the teacher gives specific tasks so that students carry out learning activities. ...
This study discusses the role of teachers in improving students' cognitive competency in Islamic education lessons through the recitation method. This study uses qualitative methods, and the data was gathered through field observation, in-depth interviews, and written document analysis. Direct observation was conducted during the teaching and learning process, while in-depth interviews were carried out with teachers and students. Document analysis was conducted to see teaching material preparation and student learning performance scores. The results of this study show that the teacher's role in improving students' cognitive abilities in Islamic religious education subjects through the recitation method has been well implemented in every meeting. The teacher's role includes the use of the recitation method in every meeting of Islamic religious lessons. The impact of using the recitation method can improve students' cognitive abilities in mastering Islamic religious subject matter. Besides that, students' motivation and interest in studying Islam are also improving because the recitation method gives them the freedom to master Islamic religious education material. In conclusion, the recitation method is very suitable for learning Islamic religion because it is related to mastering the verses of the Koran and hadith. For this reason, teachers and Islamic education institutions need to think about applying the recitation method in Islamic religious learning when the material is mostly related to the Al-Quran and hadith.
... Notably, the purpose of repetition is not to encourage students to memorize number facts mechanically through rehearsal strategies (i.e., rote learning). Instead, the purpose of repetition is to promote deepened understanding by focusing on different aspects of the same question each time through problem variations (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000;Marton, Dall' Alba, & Tse, 1996). ...
Student’s understanding of the meaning of the equal sign develops slowly over the primary Grades. In addition to updating their repre-sentations of equations to recognize that the equal sign represents an equivalence relation rather than signaling an operation, students need to move beyond full computation to efficiently solve equivalence problems. In this study, we examined the longitudinal relation
between arithmetic and equivalence for students who were capable of accurately solving arithmetic problems in different formats. Chinese students (N = 612; Mage = 9.0 years in Grade 3, 57% boys) completed measures of arithmetic fluency and equivalence fluency in Grade 3 and again in Grade 4. They also completed a nonverbal reasoning task in Grade 3. We tested a cross-lagged structural equation model to examine the reciprocal relations between arithmetic and equivalence fluency. We found reciprocal relations between the development of arithmetic and equivalence fluency from Grades 3 to 4, with a greater influence of arithmetic on the development of equivalence than the reverse. Furthermore, nonverbal reasoning predicted the development of equivalence, but not the development of arithmetic.
Based on our findings, we conclude that for Chinese students with prior basic understanding of equivalence, flexible access to arithmetic facts supports their development of equivalence fluency.
... Recent studies on Malaysians have revealed similar results (Tan 2011). It was also found that recitation was common among CHC learners to bring about a sharp focus and better understanding (Dahlin and Watkins 2000). Li and Cutting (2011) have even asserted that "CHC learners' use of RL (rote learning) involves far more complex processes than have been so far acknowledged. ...
... Cheng (2011) interprets rote learning as intertwining two processes: application and understanding. Dahlin and Watkins (2000) found Chinese students believe that understanding can be achieved through an extensive contribution of personal effort in memorization and repetition. Li (2005) breaks down the rote-learning approach into five steps: ...
... Similar to that, Lin et al. [22], also revealed that a cluster of students with Biology-related majors indeed deemed learning Biology as memorizing simultaneously with understanding. Students conceptions of memorizing might result from their successful experiences because, in Taiwan and the other Asian countries, students have been situated in an educational system with a test [23], [24]. At SMPN 15 Kota Malang learning process in the class by teacher always linked the learning material with daily life and theused learning resource was complete. ...
The purpose of this study determines the needs of Biology Teaching Material using Macrozoobenthic Diversity as Bioindicator Water Quality of Metro River Module for Junior High School. The type of research was a descriptive quantitative of survey method used questionnaires and interview. This research was conducted at SMPN 15 Malang, which is located around the Metro River. The respondents taken by purposive sampling were 58 students of grade VIII and the Science Biology teacher. The findings showed that teachers and students (81,03%) have agreed with teaching material that already exists, but they still needed to apply it by doing the practicum beside learning through notes given by the teacher (50% strongly agreed; 46,6% agreed). From the results of needs, the analysis showed that students needed the biology teaching material using Macrozoobenthic Diversity as Bioindicator Water Quality of Metro River Module (20,7% strongly agreed; 53,4% agreed).
... Their results further showed there were still a high percentage of the students dealt with their learning processes as mere knowledge transference processes form their teachers to them. However, our results conflict with earlier findings, such as Dahlin and Watkins's (2000) study that stated that a large portion of the students and teachers in the near east countries suggested that remembering and understanding work side by side produce higher quality learning outcomes of better quality. Marouchou (2012) concluded that several students attempted to learn the subject by heart in their memories and, at the same time, showed a good understanding of that subject. ...
Physical education in colleges plays an increasingly important role in cultivating high-quality innovative talent. The main factors that affect college students’ approaches to learning physics remain unknown. This study examined the relationships among college engineering students’ epistemic views of physics, conceptions of learning physics, and approaches to learning physics. Three previously validated questionnaires were administered to 278 undergraduate engineering students in China to examine these relationships. Structural equation modeling analysis revealed that students’ epistemic views of physics led to constructivist conceptions of learning physics, i.e., learning physics as increasing knowledge, applying, understanding, and seeing in a new way. The students’ constructivist conceptions of learning physics were also found to be positively associated with deep motive and deep strategy in their approaches to learning physics, while their reproductive conceptions of learning physics, i.e., learning physics by memorizing, testing, calculating, and practicing, were negatively associated with deep motive and deep strategy and positively associated with surface motive and surface strategy. These findings suggest the importance of fostering students’ understanding of physics knowledge and constructivist conceptions of learning physics and de-emphasizing their reproductive conceptions of learning physics, such as memorization, testing, calculation, and practice, to ultimately promote their deep learning approaches. As physics educators understand the relationships among the above three aspects, they emphasize fertilizing students’ constructive conceptions of learning physics and thus benefit the cultivation of innovative talent and promote the rapid development of science and technology in the long run.
... In trying to decipher the concrete differences between West and East, Dahlin and Watkins (2000) argue that the linking pin between both is the role of repetition. Meaningful repetition can create "a deep impression", which leads to memorization, and it can also lead to "discovering new meaning" (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000, p. 66), which in turn leads to understanding (Li, 1999). ...
After each round of International Large-scale Assessments such as the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), excellent achievements by countries in East Asia are explained in terms of their instructional practices. However, instructional practices are not easily captured in self-reported scales. In addition, speculations on what approaches lead to the highest mathematics achievement are often combined and conflated with discussions on how mathematical content needs to be taught. This article reports on a secondary analysis of TIMSS 2019 Grade 8 data from 46 jurisdictions of teacher-reported answers on instructional practices. Using a data-driven exploratory factor analysis, three instructional scales are compiled and supplemented with variables on barriers to instruction and instructional time. Multilevel models of all countries are created for students and teachers, in which the relationship between these instructional practices and mathematics achievement is explored. Across countries, the results show that the three new scales for instructional practice work in limited and different ways, but that barriers toward instruction, and to a lesser extent, instructional time, predict mathematics achievement. However, there is no consistent pattern of instructional practices across all countries, and also not among East Asian countries.
... Notably, the educational system in China is highly centralized, and as such teachers in all classrooms closely follow the mandatory national curriculum (Ni, Zhou, Li, & Li, 2014). According to the curriculum, students should be guided to develop an interconnected understanding of mathematical knowledge through repeated practice (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000;Ni et al., 2014). In China, fraction instruction begins in Grade 3, focusing on the introduction to fraction notations (e.g., identifying, mapping, and comparing fractions) through the support with external representations such as pictures and words (Ministry of Education, 2011). ...
How do whole number arithmetic skills support students’ understanding of fraction magnitude during the emerging stages of fraction learning? Chinese students in Grade 4 (N = 1038; Mage = 9.9 years; 55.6% boys) completed assessments of whole number arithmetic skills (i.e., addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division), fraction mapping (i.e., connecting visual fraction representations to fraction notations), and fraction comparison (i.e., comparing magnitudes of fraction symbols). We found that division skills uniquely differentiated students who had a basic understanding of fraction notation (mappers) from students with no understanding of fraction notation (non-mappers). Furthermore, we found that division mediated the relations between all three other arithmetic operations (i.e., addition, subtraction, and multiplication) and fraction mapping performance for the mappers. For fraction comparison, there was evidence of the whole number bias for the majority of students. The current results highlight the importance of the mastery of division skills and its dominance in predicting individual differences in fraction mapping for Chinese students in Grade 4.
... A third explanation may lie in learners' cultural differences. Watkins (2000), in a cross-cultural review, indicated that Chinese learners depended on repetition to memorize the content and tended to believe that what was memorized earlier could be used later in life (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000). Dahlin and Watkins conducted a qualitative study and indicated that, "while Western students usually view understanding as a process of sudden insight, Chinese learners tend to view understanding as a long-term process that requires considerable mental effort." ...
This study investigated that whether and how the mechanisms of self-regulated learning (SRL) strategy may underlie explicit behaviors of repeated studying and testing by an eye-tracking method. Sixty-three seventh-grade students read an illustrated science article and completed a reading test. Then they were asked to reread and retest. Our data indicated that skilled readers were more capable of using multiple representations during science reading: they allocated more attention to decoding diagrams and making references between the text and diagrams than less-skilled readers in the first study-test cycle. Further, skilled readers also demonstrate stronger self-regulatory attempts across study-test cycles, given a sharper decrease on eye-tracking indicators regarding diagrams. However, both groups had similar reading patterns regarding text across cycles. Seventh graders tend to apply self-regulatory processes aimed at memorizing more textual components but not for enhancing comprehension, and it suggests that seventh-grade readers’ SRL strategy might be still developing.
... The questionnaire was developed using a back translation process and respondents gave their answers in their native languages. However, for the data analysis the authors used the English translations of the answers provided by the European Commission (for another example see also Dahlin and Watkins 2000). ...
... All participants in the research were informed about the anonymity of the obtained data. The methodological research is based on the claims of Dahlin and Watkins [24], according to which the connecting point between memorization and comprehension is meaningful repetition. Meaningful repetition creates a deep impression, which leads to memorization and can also lead to the "discovery of a new meaning", which leads to understanding [25]. ...
The presented paper is devoted to the new teaching model of congruences of computer science students within the subject of discrete mathematics at universities. The main goal was to create a new model of teaching congruences on the basis of their connection with Diophantine equations and subsequently to verify the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed model experimentally. The teaching of congruences was realized in two phases: acquisition of procedural knowledge and use of Diophantine equations to obtain conceptual knowledge of congruences. Experiments confirmed that conceptual understanding of congruences is positively related to increasing the procedural fluidity of congruence resolution. Research also demonstrated the suitability of using Diophantine equations to link congruences and equations. Among other things, the presented research has confirmed the justification of teaching mathematics in computer-oriented study programs.
... The data also suggested that dictation and recitation enabled students to memorise the new vocabulary. This is consistent with Dahlin and Watkins (2000), who reported that, when students imitated the teacher's utterance of a particular sentence, this enhanced their memorisation of new words. They also argued that dictation and recitation increase understanding of how to produce a language item and this knowledge is gradually integrated into the students' repertoire. ...
This study investigated the nature of teacher talk in Saudi EFL secondary school classrooms. The study explores how teacher talk assisted or hindered the development of the students’ dialogic skills. By analysing aspects of teacher talk (TT), in particular the role of the F-move in the IRF (initiation, response, feedback) interaction sequence, it investigated how TT was affected by certain cultural, educational and teaching practices in learning of the target language.
This is a qualitative research, in which data were collected from naturalistic settings through classroom observations, audio recordings of classroom interactions and interviews with 18 EFL teachers teaching in six different secondary schools within Hafr Al-Batin province (a region in Saudi Arabia).
The findings showed that the F-moves of repetition and evaluation were commonly used in Saudi EFL classrooms, whereas the F-moves of elaboration and reformulation were less dominant in teacher talk. The former are less likely to promote discussion and dialogue; they restrict learners’ engagement with meaning-making in classroom talk because both F-moves function as indirect corrective feedback which impedes students’ output and uptake and encourage low order thinking. Students were not provided with appropriate learning opportunities but were merely exposed to teachers’ subject matter knowledge, specifically, grammatical knowledge. The brief nature of the exchanges was insufficient to stimulate learning.
The study also found that some teachers failed to utilise macro-teaching strategies that encourage productive teacher talk, especially in the areas of negotiated interaction facilitation, promoting learner autonomy, raising cultural awareness and maximising learning opportunities. Instead, the teacher’s role did not promote dialogic talk but merely reinforced teacher authority. Some teachers spent considerable time on managing students’ behaviour; as a result, they paid little attention to building positive relationships in the classroom.
The findings also showed that there is a strong interconnection between pedagogy and culture. In other words, dialogic teaching is not independent of the sociocultural setting of the classroom, institution and community in Saudi Arabia. Accordingly, classroom talk cannot be transformed into dialogic talk without cultural modifications in EFL teaching, such as providing freedom of speech and space for dialogue and debate. It is therefore. recommended that professional development programs include material related to dialogic talk/teaching in order to increase teachers’ awareness and understanding of the role of TT in managing classroom talk and to enhance their ability to help students achieve their full potential in language learning and development.
... Therefore, while speaking out and being vocal is advocated in Western classrooms, being reserved and careful about the spoken word are viewed as virtuous in Chinese classrooms. The second perspective (e.g., Cortazzi and Jin 2001;Dahlin and Watkins 2000;Marton et al. 1996) proposed that these seemingly passive strategies, such as recitation, aid comprehension and highlevel thinking. The third perspective (e.g., Rao and Chan 2009) proposed that Chinese learners are not necessarily limited to traditional learning strategies. ...
Active participation of learners has been viewed as the key to the learning process. To constructivists, challenging materials and cooperative activities where students participate and become engaged are essential in classroom instruction. In comparison, classrooms in Chinese heritage culture classrooms, where lectures are the main form of instruction, do not seem to actively motivate students. During classroom instruction, few questions are asked, and small-group activities are limited. Assumptions of learner passiveness, both from cultural tradition and current practice, misrepresent students who appear inactive. By reviewing the words from the Chinese teacher and philosopher Confucius, the assumption of learner inactivity is challenged. Analysis of an interview of a senior high school history teacher and discussion of the way lecture serves as an effective method to achieve student engagement offer a different view of active participation. These historical and contemporary quotes suggest that instruction in Chinese heritage culture classrooms emphasizes learner participation as much as constructivist classrooms. Moreover, in Chinese heritage classrooms learning is not just cognitive but also involves emotion and attitude. As a result, the lecture method needs to be reexamined to understand how it fosters active participation.
... This finding is in line with previous studies which found that memorisation strategies seemed to be more detrimental for achievement for Western students, comparatively to Asian students (McInerney 2011;Purdie and Hattie 1996). A study conducted by Dahlin and Watkins (2000) found that Asian students couple memorisation or repetition with 'attentive effort' which led students to discover new meanings in the material studied. It may be the case that East Asian students engage in a mild form of memorisation even for subjects such as mathematics and science. ...
Research on grit indicates that perseverance positively predicts academic achievement. Yet, the mechanisms through which perseverance might lead to academic success remain less explored, particularly in cross-cultural research. The current study investigated such mechanisms by examining possible mediating effects of students’ use of self-regulated learning strategies (control, memorisation, and elaboration) on the predictive relation of students’ perseverance on their academic achievement, in students from East Asian and Anglo-Saxon English speaking Western countries. The sample came from the OECD PISA study and included 24,352 population-representative 15-year-old students from Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Australia, New Zealand, Scotland, and the US. Results revealed that perseverance had a more positive association with achievement in East Asian cultures than Western cultures. Control strategy was stronger positive mediators of achievement in Western countries, whereas memorisation and elaboration strategy use and instrumental motivation more negatively mediated the effect of perseverance on achievement in Western countries.
... Moreover, Confucian humanism, which is the most influential habit of the heart in Chinese societies, could lead to a reconceptualization of peace, economic equality, and political responsibility in modern society (Tu, 2001). Nonetheless, there are also those who argued that social and cultural traditions in Confucian learning cultures, such as respect for the elderly and teachers and the overemphasis of memorization, presented significant obstacles to learner-centered and inquirybased pedagogies--the foundations of emancipatory learning that ESD scholars seek to pursue (e.g., Aguinis and Roth, 2005;Aoki, 2008;Dahlin and Watkins, 2000;Han and Scull, 2010;Huang and Asghar, 2016;Hui, 2005;Kember and Gow, 1991;Kim, 2005). There is also disagreement as to the precise role of Confucianism in shaping East Asian governance (Shin and Sin, 2012). ...
This article examines the development of Taiwan's Environmental Education Act and how Education for Sustainable Development was mainstreamed into the national policy framework within the country. The goal is to understand the policy tools and governing strategies that were used by the Taiwan government to develop and implement a nationwide environmental education policy for integrating environmental sustainability into all areas and levels of teaching and learning. Official documents related to national plans for ESD and environmental education policies were analyzed and examined. In particular, Chinese Legalism was used as a lens to interpret the government's philosophy, assumptions, unspoken norms, legislative practices, and deliberate strategies. Several principles and techniques proposed by Chinese Legalists were used to examine the negotiation and formulation of Taiwan's Environmental Education Act. This analysis contributes to our understanding of the ways in which UNESCO's framework of ESD can be transferred into a national policy. A discussion of the Chinese Legalist philosophy also offers a cultural frame of reference to think about ESD politics and governance in other East Asian contexts.
... An example of the first approach, pooling and joint analysis, is Dahlin and Watkins (2000) work on the views of Chinese and German students' views on the role of repetition and memorising in understanding and learning. The interviewees from both samples were living, or, in the case of the Germans, had been living in Hong Kong for some years. ...
The fields of cross-cultural and cultural psychology both acknowledge the role of `culture' for the constitution of a meaningful practice. There are notable differences as well as remarkable commonalities between nomologically oriented cross-cultural psychology on the one hand and interpretive cultural psychology on the other. Contributions to this book discuss recent theoretical and methodological approaches from both fields in order to explore their joint potential for an advancement of the concept of culture, for the theoretical conceptualization and methodical completion of comparative cultural studies and the scientific understanding of cultural difference. This volume includes contributions by Ernest E. Boesch, Kenneth J. Gergen, Rom Harré, Gustav Jahoda and Jaan Valsiner.
... Scientific literature (e.g. Dahlin and Watkins 2000) claims that in an educational culture that is largely based on factual knowledge and performing tests, students' perception regarding learning stem from their success in tests that require the ability to retrieve memorized facts. Students who base their responses only upon memory are liable to experience difficulties and to fail to answer questions that require orders of thinking that call for understanding and application of the subject matter. ...
This study deals with an elementary school that is undergoing a process of pedagogical change. The teachers understood that their weak point was excessive use of teaching based on memorization rather than developing high-order thinking (HOT) skills. The school therefore established teachers’ learning communities for peer learning and designing learning tasks that encourage the development of HOT skills. Quantitative and qualitative research tools were used in this study as a formative assessment. The data included learning tasks and interviews with teachers. The findings indicate an increase in the expression of critical thinking and the cognitive levels of application, analysis, and synthesis. The national test scores indicate an increase in students’ performance in most subjects. It appears that educators recognize the need for a transition from teaching that emphasize memorizing information to methods that develop students’ thinking skills and independent learning and initiated a successful pedagogical change.
This chapter serves as the second part of the literature review in this book. I focus on reviewing empirical studies that inform current research on Chinese students in Western universities. Before this, I outline a learning framework that helps contextualise these experiences within broader theoretical perspectives.
This chapter presents how a practice-based approach helps in understanding international Chinese business students’ learning in undergraduate studies at an Australian university. It also explores how institutional practices in an Australian university shape Chinese students’ learning. I draw on a practice-based approach to identify how students’ learning can be effectively understood as they participate in practices and material arrangements. By viewing learning as a process of becoming, I aim to move beyond the notion of students’ learning as a static product. Instead, I describe learning as an ongoing, dynamic process of change involving the whole person and their experiences within their social and material context. The students live and learn within a tangled web of practices, and their learning is “in a process of ongoing change… inherently part of and shaped by its context” (Hager and Hodkinson, British Educational Research Journal 35:619–638, 2009, p. 631).
Background
The achievement goals set by parents and teachers play a crucial role in shaping students' personal goal orientation and academic performance. Previous studies have revealed discrepancies between achievement goals set by parents and teachers. However, limited research has examined how the congruence of perceived parents' and teachers' achievement goals is associated with students' academic performance.
Aims
The current study sought to investigate the impact of congruence and discrepancy between students' perceptions of teachers' and parents' achievement goals, including mastery goals and performance goals, on students' academic performance in mathematics and language.
Sample and Methods
Data were collected from a sample of 4944 Chinese students from Grades 3 to 8 using self‐reported questionnaires. Polynomial regression with response surface analyses were employed to analyse the data.
Results
The results indicated that students' performance in both mathematics and language improved when congruence levels were high in perceived teachers' and parents' mastery goals. Conversely, the congruence level between perceptions of teachers' and parents' performance goals was only related to students' mathematics performance.
Conclusions
The findings underscore the significance of congruence between perceived teachers' and parents' achievement goals in influencing students' academic performance.
Learner-centered feedback is one of the most powerful influences in learning and achievement. However specific literature on feedback for culturally diverse environments, such as Sri Lanka is lacking. By addressing this problem, we aimed to enhance learning and teaching in medical schools by identify and explore a culturally sensitive feedback guidance for Medical Education. This qualitative, ethnographic, case study of the ethnically diverse Eastern University, Sri Lanka (EUSL) was emergent in design. Staff and students of EUSL represent predominantly three different ethnicities, Sinhala, Tamil and Muslim. Data gathering utilized observation of learning conversations with three types of stakeholders, students, faculty and policy makers. Planned thematic analysis was usefully supplemented by discourse analysis in order to reduce uncritical imposition of western concepts. Findings identified under-problematization of feedback practices, unaddressed cultural and historical complexities and willingness to develop post-colonial challenges to overly simplistic hegemonic “west is best” assumptions. Non-WEIRD (Westernised, Educated, Industrialised, Rich and Democratic) countries e.g. Sri Lanka can be benefitted from WEIRD evidence-based theories such as dialogic feedback and learner transitions best when informed by and adapted to local cultural practices and knowledge.
The present study examined the relationships between second language (L2) English learners’ mindfulness and their memorization/learning of figurative meaning senses of L2 phrasal verbs (PVs). One hundred and twenty Chinese university students participated in the study. The research instruments were the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), a receptive and productive PV tests, and focus group interviews. The results showed that there were strong and significant correlations between the FFMQ and the tests. In addition, mindfulness levels correlated almost equally to receptive and productive gains. Further, differences among three groups of the students formed according to scores on the PV tests were significant in terms of scores on the FFMQ. Among facets of the FFMQ, ‘Non-reactivity’ was revealed to be the strongest predictor for the students’ performance in the PV tests. Based on the findings of the study, research and pedagogical implications are discussed.
This chapter presents machine-generated summaries of research conducted on teaching critical thinking skills in various educational contexts. The first article in this chapter deals with teaching critical thinking to engineering students with the following objectives: improving vocabulary, fluency in speech, and presenting arguments and opinions. The Gen-Z learners who are known to be digital natives and their other defining features are taken into account while undertaking the research. The results have shown that the cognitive tools used as input for teaching-learning vocabulary and thinking critically have positively influenced their learning of vocabulary, reading and writing skills. The second article summary in this chapter presents the results of teaching critical thinking to high school students using three different approaches viz. a viz., general, immersion, and mixed where the effects were large, moderate, and small respectively on the groups. The third auto-summary is about a study conducted on teaching critical thinking skills to high school learners. This study states that it is the lack of competence of the teachers in teaching the required skill set to the students is the reason for students lacking that skill paradigm. The students were then exposed to and trained in communication, critical thinking, and problem-solving. The study proposes that all students be given explicit instruction in these skills prior to graduation which should also be the goal of education. The next summary is of the article that is based on a study on the constructs of CT disposition: ability, sensitivity, and inclination to engage in critical and mindful thought. The details on teaching CT techniques form a major part of the study on Undergraduate (UG) students of contemporary arts. The teaching of CT strategies and classroom content were integrated. The students were encouraged to use CT beyond the classroom.
Highlights
The concept of xue (学) played a central role in Chinese education. Through the analysis of this key concept, we can further explain the internal differences between Chinese and Western educational cultures and systems. By mastering numerical divination techniques, shi (historians, 史) recast their role from that of sorcerers to that of civil officials. Such a shift laid the foundation necessary for xue to transform from a venue for military decision-making into a place for cultural and educational engagement after the Western Zhou Dynasty. In addition to shaping its core philosophical spirit, the origin of xue established its significance in traditional Chinese social and cultural contexts. It has contributed to the formation and transformation of the concept of de (virtue, 德) and continues to exert a great influence on contemporary Chinese education.
The study entitled "Exploring Students’ Attitudes, Learning Behaviors, and their
effects on Mathematics Achievements" basically aims to analyse the grade X students' attitudes levels; attitudes influence on the creation of learning behaviors, and ultimate effects on students' achievements in mathematics and establish their relationships as one of the achievement models. Bandura's social cognitive theory and Bem's self-perception theory are major theoretical referents for this study. The study has employed a concurrent embedded mixed-method research design with a sample of 540 grade X students from 12 community schools in Nepal. The quantitative data were collected using attitude towards mathematics inventory, classroom learning behavior self-assessment inventory, and mathematics achievement test, and analyzed using statistical tools such as mean, standard deviation, correlation, and regression. The qualitative data related to learning behavior was collected through class observation and semi-structured interviews. The qualitative information was analysed thematically for drawing the categories and embedded with the results of the quantitative data iv while analyzing and interpreting. As results of the study, most of the students' levels of attitudes and learning behaviors were positive whereas the achievement level of the
students was found medium and differed between ecological regions and rural-urban backgrounds. The result refutes that rural student lagged behind their urban
counterparts in achievement, and genderwise achievement difference was statistically insignificant. The majority of the students preferred learning mathematics by using more behaviorist attributes and credited the teacher for their success. Overall, the effects of the students'attitudes and learning behaviors on achievements were found positive and statistically significant. The positive correlations between attitudes, learning behaviors, and achievements, suggest that a positive attitude towards mathematics causes positive learning behaviors leading to higher achievements and vice-versa.
Üben ist eine Praxis, die einen produktiven, verstehenden und kritischen Zugang zu Kultur und zu demokratischen Gemeinschaften ermöglicht. Das Buch unternimmt daher eine Rehabilitierung des Übens als leibliche und geistige, wiederholende und kreative Praxis, mit der ein grundlegendes Verhältnis zu sich, zu Anderen und zur Welt konstituiert wird. Üben und Übung werden in ihren zentralen Strukturen vorgestellt und erfahrungs-, bildungs-, sozial- sowie erziehungstheoretisch ausgewiesen. Dabei wird gezeigt, dass Praxen wie Bewegen, Verstehen, Urteilen, Kritisieren und Unterrichten ein- und ausgeübt werden. Im Üben wird zudem das Verhältnis der Übenden zu sich (trans-)formiert. Leibliche, motorische, geistige, meditative, schulische und didaktische Übungen werden systematisch unterschieden und in ihren unterschiedlichen pädagogischen Feldern analysiert.
Background/Context
East Asian schools receive much attention for the comparatively high achievement of their students. To account for this success, scholars and commentators advance broad claims about the rote character of instruction or the complexity of classroom practice, typically generalizing to an entire nation. Yet little is known about the variation in classroom practices within East Asian countries and how classroom organization affects student achievement.
Purpose/Objective
This study extends the previous literature on East Asian classrooms by considering the heterogeneity of classroom organization within societies. It focuses on four aspects of classroom instructional practice: complex instruction, procedural instruction, teacher-centered instruction, and student-centered instruction. This study asks the following research questions: (1) To what extent do classroom instructional practices in East Asian countries differ in terms of overall prevalence and within-country variation, compared with to practices found in other nations? (2) How are classroom instructional practices associated with student achievement within East Asian countries, controlling for student, classroom, and school background variables?
Research Design
Drawing from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2007 data, I examine how the country means and within-country variation of the four aspects of classroom instructional organization in five East Asian countries—Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, and Singapore—compare with those in the other 45 nations in the sample. Then, I focus on two particular East Asian countries that display vastly different school structures, Japan and Singapore, to examine how classroom practices covary with student achievement within these nations.
Findings/Results
East Asian classrooms do tend to be more intensely teacher- centered and display less complexity than in other nations on average. But classrooms with more complex and student-centered instruction within East Asian societies display higher achievement; an opposite association is found when comparing between-country relationships worldwide. At the same time, these positive effects observed in East Asia diminish when characteristics of schools and the social- class backgrounds of students are taken into account, similar to patterns long observed in the West.
Conclusions/Recommendations
While classroom practices prevalent in East Asian countries are often celebrated as predictive of stronger achievement—or criticized for their rigidity and not importable to the West—these findings reveal greater variability than previously understood and suggest that classroom practices interact with social- class backgrounds and student achievement in more complex ways. And East Asian nations face educational challenges similar to those observed in the United States and other developed countries. Once we acknowledge the commonality as well as the differences, cross-national research would allow us not only to better understand perennial educational problems and the assumptions we hold about classroom practices, but also inform valid implications for policy and practice.
Üben ist eine Praxis, die einen produktiven, verstehenden und kritischen Zugang zu Kultur und zu demokratischen Gemeinschaften ermöglicht. Das Buch unternimmt daher eine Rehabilitierung des Übens als leibliche und geistige, wiederholende und kreative Praxis, mit der ein grundlegendes Verhältnis zu sich, zu Anderen und zur Welt konstituiert wird. Üben und Übung werden in ihren zentralen Strukturen vorgestellt und erfahrungs-, bildungs-, sozial- sowie erziehungstheoretisch ausgewiesen. Dabei wird gezeigt, dass Praxen wie Bewegen, Verstehen, Urteilen, Kritisieren und Unterrichten ein- und ausgeübt werden. Im Üben wird zudem das Verhältnis der Übenden zu sich (trans-)formiert. Leibliche, motorische, geistige, meditative, schulische und didaktische Übungen werden systematisch unterschieden und in ihren unterschiedlichen pädagogischen Feldern analysiert.
For more than 40 years, cognitive psychological perspectives have dominated pedagogical frameworks and models for designing technology-mediated teaching and learning environments. Social learning perspectives are increasingly becoming viable or even desirable frames for research and practice as pertains to teaching and learning, particularly in web-based learning environments (WBLEs). The author considers these social learning perspectives and how they relate to the design and implementation of curricula that are delivered in web-based learning environments in higher education. The author further reviews the foundational theories of adult learning that enhance adult learners' experiences in cross-cultural web-based learning environments. This review and analysis of the research related to social learning perspectives on WBLEs have three implications for future research and practice: (1) examining learners' individual characteristics in WBLEs, (2) identifying strategies for promoting social interaction in WBLEs, and (3) developing effective design principles for WBLEs. The author presents recommendations for future research.
Developed a conceptual framework in which learning activities are described in terms of cognitive operations applied to various features of study material and used this framework to generate a learning activities questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered to 112 1st-yr Australian student teachers after each of 4 assessments in their course. Three-mode factor analyses of the intercorrelations among learning activities identified Transformational, Reproductive, and Skimming approaches to learning. The transformational approach involves reworking the material during the process of learning; the reproductive approach leaves the material relatively unaltered in the attempt to remember all the features of the material; and skimming is done without looking for, thinking about, or trying to understand the material. Closed (multiple-choice) and Open-Ended Assessment Context factors were also identified from relationships among course assessments. Three-mode procedures were used to establish the correlational interactions of the approach and context factors. In general, the 2 main approaches (Transformational and Reproductive) varied directly in each of the assessment contexts, contrary to the view of previous researchers (e.g., F. Marton and R. Saljo; see record
1977-00401-001) that they are mutually exclusive. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper is concerned with the relationship between students' study processes and the structural complexity of their learning. Study processes are conceived in terms of three independent dimensions — utilising, internalising and achieving — each of which has a cognitive (strategic) and an affective (motivational) component; these are assessed by the Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ). Learning quality is expressed in terms of the complexity of the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome by applying the SOLO Taxonomy described below. A preliminary study involving 60 undergraduates' responses to education research abstracts is described, in which SOLO levels and short and long term retention of factual material are related to their study processes.
Two questions were addressed: "What are students’ beliefs about the nature of knowledge?" and "How do these beliefs affect comprehension?" In Experiment 1, an epistemological questionnaire was administered to undergraduates. Factor analysis of the questionnaire resulted in 4 factors reflecting degrees of belief in innate ability, simple knowledge, quick learning, and certain knowledge. In Experiment 2, students read a passage about either the social sciences or the physical sciences, in which the concluding paragraph was removed. Then they rated their confidence in understanding the passage, wrote a conclusion, and completed a mastery test. Belief in quick learning predicted oversimplified conclusions, poor performance on the mastery test, and overconfidence in test performance. Belief in certain knowledge predicted inappropriately absolute conclusions.
This study examines differences between Australian and Japanese secondary school students' conceptions of learning and their use of self-regulated learning strategies. Australian students have a narrow, school-based view of learning. The Japanese students view learning from a much broader perspective. For them, learning is not only related to what happens at school, it is also seen as a lifelong, experiential process leading to personal fulfillment. However, in spite of these differences in learning conceptualizations, the strategies used by students in a Western learning context are similar to those used by Japanese students. A conception of learning as 'understanding' is associated with a greater total use of strategies for both Australian and Japanese students. [Author abstract]
Research into student learning has been based on two main theoretical sources: information processing (IP), and contextually based work on students' approaches to learning (SAL). The cross-fertilisation has been valuable, but it has led to ambiguities and misunderstandings, evident in the recent literature, about constructs, methodology, and of particular concern here, the development and interpretation of inventories of learning/study processes. The basic issue revolves around a conception of student learning as taking place within-the-student, as IP models appear to assume, or within-the-teaching/learning-context, as the SAL tradition emphasises. It is suggested that student learning is best construed within a teaching/learning context that functions as an 'open system', a model that brings some clarity to the use and interpretation of study process inventories, and that locates their value in yielding functionally useful data to researchers, teachers, and staff developers.
The way we go about accomplishing learning will of course depend upon what we conceive of learning to be. I begin this concluding chapter by discussing definitions of learning. Then, I deal with the approaches students take to the task of learning in school. Approaches are the observable attempts of students to adapt to school, and they reflect both the school environment and the students themselves—individuals made up of unique past experiences and unique styles of perceiving and thinking. I consider some of the variables that contribute to the individuality of the student, including motives, self-concepts, and cognitive styles. I end by considering ways of improving learning, but since we can do little to change personality and cognitive style directly, suggestions generally involve modifications to the school environment.
Conditions that confront students in formal schooling–instruction in groups, sharing teacher’s attention, working independently, dealing with arbitrary rules regulating behavior–are not conducive to learning. Teachers deal with these circumstances by encouraging facilitative dispositions in students or by making learning events more appealing. Cultures differ in the emphasis they place on these two strategies. Japanese tend to stress developing adaptive dispositions; Americans try to make the learning context more attractive. National differences in educational achievement may be more completely understood by analysis of cultural differences in student dispositions. The interaction of student characteristics and teacher strategies creates very different classroom climates in the two countries.
Describes an attempt to identify different levels of processing of information among groups of Swedish university students who were asked to read substantial passages of prose. Ss were asked questions about the meaning of the passages and also about how they set about reading the passages, thus allowing for the examination of processes and strategies of learning and the outcomes in terms of what is understood and remembered. It was posited that learning has to be described in terms of its content. From this point differences in what is learned, rather than differences in how much is learned, are described. It was found that in each study a number of categories (levels of outcome) containing basically different conceptions of the content of the learning task could be identified. The corresponding differences in level of processing are described in terms of whether the learner is engaged in surface-level or deep-level processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Administered the Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) of J. Biggs (1987) to 1,043 Hong Kong students at a tertiary institution. The SPQ and the Approaches to Studying Inventory (P. Ramsden and N. J. Entwhistle; see record
1982-04428-001) were both administered to a smaller sample of 159 students to aid in interpretation of the data. The resulting factor structures for deep and achieving approach scales were reasonably consistent with those obtained in western countries. However, the results cast doubt on the direct transferability of the surface approach construct to Hong Kong Ss for whom a narrow approach appeared to predominate, characterized by a systematic, step-by-step, processing of information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In distinguishing deep and surface approaches, an important determinant is the intentions to understand and memorise respectively. A student adopting a surface approach does not seek understanding and, therefore, relies upon memorisation. Understanding and memorising are, then, seen as almost mutually exclusive as far as intent is concerned, although those seeking understanding may make some strategic use of memorisation for particular tasks. This paper reviews emerging evidence of an approach which combines memorising and understanding. The research has been conducted in the Asian region, and so provides part of the explanation for the paradox of the Asian student. There has been widespread anecdotal evidence of rote-learning and yet Asian students are often high achievers. Several plausible explanations for the occurrence of the approach are advanced. These include limited ability in the language of study leading to a narrow systematic pattern of study, cultural traditions respecting order and diligent study, and the need for children to learn the language characters.
The paper presents a phenomenographic study of conceptions of academic learning among Nepalese students. Students from various disciplines at the Tribhuvan University in Kathmandu were interviewed about their understanding and experience of learning. The results are related to previous studies in Nepal, using Biggs Study Process Questionnaire and written responses to open questions. They are also compared to similar phenomenographic studies carried out in the East as well as the West. The present study indicates, among other things, that Nepali students look upon memorising and understanding as interlinked in a way not usually found among Western students. The results are described within a two-dimensional outcome space, derived from previous studies of learning experience conducted in various cultural settings, and providing a general framework for different conceptions of learning.
Schunk (1983) found in his study with U.S. students that teachers' ability feedback (“You're good at this”) had a stronger
motivational effect on students' learning than that focusing on effort (“You've been working hard”). The present experimental
study examined such differential effects of attributional feedback on 386 elementary and high school Chinese students who
were brought up in a culture where effort and endurance were strongly emphasized. Generally, the results with elementary students
(Grade 4) replicated Schunk's findings. Mutual reinforcement effects also showed that effort and ability feedbacks combined
led to the highest perceived effort expenditure.
An interview study was carried out with 43 high-school students with the dual aim of: (a) exploring the dimensionality of learning; and (b) investigating the nature of the relationship between memorisation and understanding as experienced by Chinese learners. The different ways of experiencing learning found in the group participating in the investigation are described within a two-dimensional outcome space. There is a temporal dimension of variation, comprised of “acquiring”, “knowing” and “making use of”. The other dimension is that of depth, ranging over seeing learning as “committing words to memory”, “committing meaning to memory”, “understanding meaning” and “understanding phenomena”. Concerning the second question this study sets out to illuminate some of our findings point to the possibility of the experience of understanding being developmentally preceded by, and differentiated from, the experience of committing to memory.In the context of similar studies carried out in other cultures, this investigation contributes to our understanding of an evolving culturally distributed universal structure of conceptions of learning grounded in overlapping and complementary views.
Incl. bibliographical notes and references, biographical notes on the authors
Incl. biographical notes on the contributors, bibliographical references, index
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hong Kong, 1991. Photocopy of typescript.
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