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The taxonomy of the endemic golden palm civet of Sri Lanka
Abstract
Two species of palm civet are currently known from Sri Lanka: the widespread common species, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus (Pallas, 1777), and the endemic golden species, Paradoxurus zeylonensis (Pallas, 1778). The latter has two ‘morphs’, one golden and one dark brown, both of which are recorded from all three major biotic zones in Sri Lanka (wet zone, dry zone, and cloud forest). We have examined specimens of both ‘morphs’ from all zones, and conclude that there are actually several species involved: names are available for two of them, we describe a third as a new species, and we draw attention to a probable fourth species, based on two distinctive specimens, the provenance of which are unfortunately unknown. The name zeylonensis probably does not apply to a golden palm civet at all. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 155, 238–251.
... Paradoxurus Hermaphroditus, known as palm civet or toddy cat, is a common species in South Asia and Southeast Asia. Paradoxurus Zeylonensis, known as the golden palm civet, is native to Sri Lanka (Groves et al., 2009). These two Sri Lankan species (golden palm and Asian palm civet) are distinguished from each other by their external appearance. ...
... Previously, the external and the endocranial surfaces of the skull at African palm civet, Nandinia binotata (Gray, 1830) were described (Wible & Spaulding, 2013). The skulls of Asian palm and golden palm civets were compared using the morphometry method (Groves et al., 2009). And also, a study was conducted to investigate the genetic diversity of the Asian palm civets of genus paradoxurus in India and Sri Lanka (Veron et al., 2014). ...
... Rainforests have more food diversity than an arid habitat, possible affecting the shape of the skull (Tseng & Flynn, 2018). The golden civet and palm civet that used in the study are found in various climatic zones such as wet zones, dry zones, cloud forests or intermediate zones in Sri Lanka (Groves et al., 2009). Hence, in the study, the shape differences in the skull in the caudal, rostrolateral Anatomically, the shape differences in the nose, occipital and zygomatical regions which can be narrow or wide is associated with the ecological gradients (feeding ecology) (Tseng & Flynn, 2018) in carnivores. ...
This study aims to determine the differences in skull between Asian and golden palm civets by geometric morphometric method. The landmarks were marked on these photographs, and principal component, classical cluster and canonical variance analyses were performed. The method of geometric morphometry of the skull is a powerful tool used to differentiate the species. Fourteen and 20 homologous landmarks were marked using tpsutil and tpsdig2 programs on the frontal and palatinal directional photographs, respectively. As a result of the study, the first principal component (PC1) accounted for 33.586% on the frontal view, 41.602% on the palatinal view of the total shape differences, respectively. Distinctive differences on the frontal and palatinal view were observed in the caudal, rostrolateral and the last molars and the caudal palatine, respectively.
... Two recent studies have suggested the existence of cryptic or overlooked species within the Paradoxurus genus (Groves et al. 2009;Patou et al. 2010). Using both molecular and morphological evidence, Patou et al. (2010) showed that P. hermaphroditus is not monophyletic and should be split into three species. ...
... But, additional data were needed to confirm their findings; in particular, samples were missing from the Indian region. On the basis of morphology, Groves et al. (2009) have proposed splitting P. zeylonensis into three or four species, but molecular evidence was lacking in their study. They suggested that golden colour morphs should be attributed to Paradoxurus aureus F. Cuvier, 1822, and brown ones to Paradoxurus montanus Kelaart 1852. ...
... They suggested that golden colour morphs should be attributed to Paradoxurus aureus F. Cuvier, 1822, and brown ones to Paradoxurus montanus Kelaart 1852. They also described a new species Paradoxurus stenocephalus Groves et al. 2009 and proposed a fourth species, but without naming it. ...
Using molecular data and morphological features, we investigated the species limits and genetic diversity among populations of the Asian palm civets of the genus Paradoxurus. Our main objectives were to determine the number of species within Paradoxurus hermaphroditus and to test the validity of the newly proposed species within Paradoxurus zeylonensis. Fragments of two mitochondrial (Cytochrome b, Control Region) and one nuclear (intron 7 of the beta fibrinogen) markers were sequenced from 128 individuals of P. hermaphroditus, P. zeylonensis and Paradoxurus jerdoni. DNA sequences were analysed using phylogenetic and haplotype network methods. Our analyses confirmed that P. hermaphroditus comprises three major clades, which should be recognized as separate species: P. hermaphroditus (Indian and Indochinese regions), Paradoxurus musangus (mainland Southeast Asia, Sumatra, Java and other small Indonesian islands) and Paradoxurus philippinensis (Mentawai Islands, Borneo and the Philippines). Furthermore, we have proposed that there are two subspecies within both P. musangus and P. philippinensis, and there might be at least two or three subspecies within P. hermaphroditus. We found a very low genetic diversity and no geographical structure within P. zeylonensis and did not find any support for splitting P. zeylonensis into several species nor subspecies. Finally, we confirmed that P. jerdoni and P. zeylonensis are sister species.
... In Sri Lanka, the closely related golden palm civet (P. zeylonensis) has three coat colour variations ranging from golden brown to black (Groves et al., 2009). The ability of a genotype to produce multiple phenotypes in response to stimuli or environmental conditions is phenotypic plasticity. ...
... The molecular studies on the Paradoxurus (Veron, et al., 2015) demonstrated that the P. jerdoni and P. zeylonensis (endemic to Srilanka) are sister species and the P. hermaphrodites have three different clades. Their studies have shown that the speciation of P. zeylonensis proposed by coat colour pattern and anatomical variation (Groves et al., 2009) is invalid. The fragmentation of the suitable habitat may become patchy in the last three hundred years, which may not be sufficient for speciation or sub-speciation. ...
The natural distribution and the species ecology of the lesser-known nocturnal endemic brown palm civet in the Western Ghats are definite. We used camera trap data from the Western Ghats to predict the suitable niche, coat colour pattern, and diel activity. The environmental variables like rainfall, elevation, isothermaility, tree density, and tree height profoundly influence the brown palm civet’s habitat suitability. We determined that the most suitable habitat area in the entire Western Ghats is 21,853 km², in four well-defined isolated blocks. The brown palm civet distribution is more towards the south, ranging from Kakkad to Anamalai. The distribution on the north side is in the Nilgiris, Bhadra, and the Sahyadri. The diel activity pattern indicates that the species is nocturnal, with activity peak in the early night and ending in the early morning, and is nearly identical in different landscapes. The species has a variety of coat patterns, which we believe is due to phenotypic plasticity. The species is not a true high altitude montane shola-dependent species, unlike the other endemic species of the Western Ghats. The destruction of rainforests resulting from excessive anthropogenic pressure results in habitat fragmentation, posing a significant threat to the brown palm civet habitats.
... From a regional perspective, Sri Lankan primates show the highest diversity per unit land area among south Asian primates (Dittus, 2013). Similarly, the relatively small bodied civets and mongooses (Viverridae) are taxonomically diverse (Groves et al., 2009) and exhibit endemic taxa in all zones with overall 74% endemism. The smaller bodied chevrotains (Tragulidae) among the Artiodactyla have evolved one endemic species widespread from the arid zone (A) to the submontane zone (D2) and another is restricted to the montane zone (D3) (Groves and Meijaard, 2005). ...
... Most recently, morphometric comparisons among loris populations point to two new subspecies (Gamage et al., 2017 online). Phylogenetic studies, in particular, have uncovered at least five new species that formerly were thought of as subspecies (Groves and Meijaard, 2005;Meegaskumbura et al., 2007;Meegaskumbura and Schneider, 2008;Groves et al., 2009;Dissanayake and Oschida, 2012). Baker and Bradley (2006) estimate that genetic investigations will uncover >2,000 new and "cryptic species" worldwide. ...
All mammals originated on the supercontinent of Pangaea in the Mesozoic era during the “Age of Reptiles.” However, the crown ancestors of contemporary mammals did not flourish until major environmental and biotic changes had occurred. An asteroid collided with earth at the end of the Cretaceous Period (the K-Pg boundary event) wiping out non-flying dinosaurs and primitive mammals. It was followed by large-scale volcanism, a spike in atmospheric oxygen and the proliferation of flowering plants. New niches became available for the ancestors of today’s mammals to fill. Evidence suggesting whether the ancestors of the Sri Lankan and Indian mammals originated on the tectonically marooned Indian plate before crashing into Asia or on the Laurasian supercontinent is inconclusive. Modern Sri Lankan mammals show their greatest affinity with those of southern India, and were more diverse in the Pleistocene when rhinoceros, hippopotamus, wild dogs, gaur and lions enriched the island’s landscapes. Native Sri Lankan land-based mammals are diversified into about 108 unique taxa (among 91 species and 53 genera), differentiated as phenotypic adaptations to sharply contrasting environments among seven major phyto-climatic zones. Endemic subspecies are distributed fairly equally across different phyto-climatic zones (n=24 to 29), except in the highlands where they are fewer (n=14) having evolved rapidly to species and genera among the insectivores and rodents whose reproductive rates are high. Conversely, greater numbers of endemic species (n=13) and genera (n=3) occur in the highlands than in the other zones (2-6 endemic species, no endemic genera). The prevalence of endemism is inversely related to body size or vagility. This suggests a greater probability of genetic exchange among distant populations of large bodied mobile mammals within Sri Lanka, as well as with Indian fauna during periods of land bridges in the Pleistocene. Most (8 of 13) endangered and critically endangered endemic mammals occur in the wet montane regions that offer the least Protected Areas (PAs). More than 85% of PAs occur in the extensive dry zone about half of which is not suited for water dependent mammals whose distributions are restricted to alluvial forests (less than 1% of PAs). Historically, the national cost of conservation has been low and therefore politically palatable. Current conservation urgently requires a major change in management policy combined with realistic investment to prevent extinctions of many endemic mammals and other unique Sri Lankan biota.
... Geometric morphometry is a method that can determine phylogenetic relationships in mammalian skulls or mandibles [7][8][9][10][11]. Common and golden palm civets can be easily distinguished from each other by their phenotypic characteristics (hair colour, head width, etc.) [12]. However, the benefit that can be obtained from this distinction is limited to current forms. ...
... Groves et al. (2009) proposed that there are four species of 'golden palm civets' in Sri Lanka -mostly based on coat-colour variation -and that the name Paradoxurus zeylonensis does not apply to any of those species. Molecular analyses byVeron et al. (2015c) have shown that these phenetic variations are not related to any genetic differentiation and that P. zeylonensis is a valid name for this unique species. ...
This Appendix provides a detailed (but non-exhaustive) list of the main small carnivoran taxa (n = 72) that have been – to date – the subject of discussions as to whether they should be attributed species or subspecies level.
... However, some species are disappearing as a result of recent molecular research. For example,Groves et al. (2009) split the Sri Lankan Golden palm civet Paradoxurus Int. Zoo Yb. (2020) 54: 1-10 © 2020 Zoological Society of London zeylonensis, into three or four species untilVeron, Patou, Toth et al. (2015) showed them to be colour morphs. ...
Small carnivorans are generally poorly represented in zoos, probably because they are small, mostly nocturnal and solitary hunters. However, there is limited knowledge about the ecology and behaviour of a large number of these and many species are threatened with extinction or their conservation status is poorly known or even unknown. Although rare in zoos, there are good opportunities for zoos and museums to cooperate to ensure that when animals die, they are subjected to careful post-mortem examinations, and preserved for research into anatomy and functional morphology. In turn museum collections are rich stores of specimens that assist zoos in identification, and provide veterinarians with access to animal remains and their anatomy to facilitate treatment and surgery. New techniques, such as computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanning, plus the establishment of biobanks allow new ways of capturing vital information about small carnivorans for a wide range of research, including taxonomy and systematics, archaeology and palaeontology, anatomy, pathology and conservation science. Most importantly museum collections of zoo specimens allow the impacts of captivity, such as diet and activity levels, to be investigated. However, the development of this research resource relies on closer cooperation between zoos and museums. As wild and captive populations are increasingly managed under the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Conservation Planning Specialist Group One Plan approach, it will also be increasingly important for zoos and museums to work together to benefit the conservation of threatened small carnivorans.
... Palm civet species are important seed dispersers (Nakashima et al. 2010). There are at least three endemic civet cat species in Sri Lanka: golden wet-zone palm civet (Paradoxurus aureus), Sri Lankan brown palm civet (Paradoxurus montanus), and golden dry-zone palm civet (Paradoxurus stenocephalus) (Groves et al. 2009). ...
We report Armillifer moniliformis species infecting the endemic Sri Lankan brown palm civet (Paradoxurus montanus) from the Knuckles Range Forest Conservation Area, Sri Lanka. Larval stages of A. moniliformis were found during the postmortem of three civet cats found dead. Morphological studies were done by a light microscope and a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Histopathological examination was conducted using tissue samples obtained from the liver. For the molecular analysis, DNA was extracted from the isolated third-stage larvae. The NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (ND5) and the second internal transcribed spacer region (ITS-2), a portion of the large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA (28S), a portion of 18S ribosomal rRNA gene (18S), and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene (COX1) were amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Excysted third-stage larvae were observed in the lungs, omentum, the pleural cavity, the abdominal cavity, and the surface of the spleen and the pericardium. Around 88 third-stage larvae were isolated from three civet cats. First-stage larvae in the liver were surrounded by outer fibrous layer over the inner germinal layer and filled with clear fluid. Slight hemorrhage, leukocyte infiltration, and mild hepatocellular degeneration in the liver were observed. The SEM examination indicated the unique oral apparatus comprises the oval-shaped mouth opening in between two pairs of curved, retractile hamuli. The sequences obtained for ND5, ITS-2, 28S, 18S, and COX1 were 301, 382, 325, 414, and 644 bp in length respectively. Morphology, sequence similarity search, sequence alignment, and phylogenetic analysis identified this parasite as A. moniliformis.
... Analysis of the CO1 gene partial sequence shows evidence of 2 discrete clades to some extent (wet zone lorises and dry/intermediate zone lorises). This supports the 2-species classification given by Groves et al. (2009), but the skull and pelage analyses employ the further divisions of Gamage et al. (2017). In particular, the northwestern red slender loris (Loris tardigradus parvus) shows >2% of divergence from all other wet zone relatives, and Rakwana slender loris shows >1.2% of divergence from all other wet zone relatives. ...
There are 2 species of slender lorises found in Sri Lanka: the red slender loris, Loris tardigradus (Linnaeus, 1758), endemic
to the wet zone and montane areas, and the grey slender loris, Loris lydekkerianus (Cabrera, 1908), which is widespread. In addition,
currently there are 2 subspecies recognized for each of these 2 slender loris species of Sri Lanka. Yet their taxonomy, evolutionary
history, and biogeography are still poorly understood, and there are some preliminary data suggesting the presence of other subspecies.
In this study, we have analysed the partial mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene sequence of 21 Loris specimens collected from
7 different regions in Sri Lanka. The phylogenetic tree reconstructed based on the neighbour joining method and Bayesian approach
revealed 2 clades with high branch supports (>60%), consistent with the 2 slender loris species. Moreover, the samples within the Loris
lydekkerianus clade were divided into 3 taxa and the samples within the Loris tardigradus clade were divided into 4 taxa, all consistent
with the 7 sampling zones. The results of the study have provided the first DNA barcoding analysis on slender lorises in Sri Lanka to
resolve phylogenetic relationships. Further studies on Loris are necessary for decoding their taxonomic issues in Sri Lanka.
... At the same time recent revisions of the South Asian murids (Sirinivasulu and Pradhan, 2003;Dissanayake, 2012) and primates (Walker and Molur, 2004) have indicated that Funambulus layardi, Funambulus obscurus and Loris tardigradus are endemic to Sri Lanka. Further, revision of the genus Moschiola (Groves & Meijaard, 2005) and the species Paradoxurus zeylonensis (Groves et al., 2009) resulted in splitting of the two previously known species into five endemic species, Moschiola meminna, Moschiola kathygre, Paradoxurus aureus, Paradoxurus stenocephalus and Paradoxurus montanus. Finally, another species of shrew, Crocidura hikmiya, has been added to the list of endemic species of Sri Lanka (Meegaskumbura et al., 2007), bringing the total number of endemic species to 21. ...
... Sri Lanka harbours a rich diversity of vertebrate and invertebrate fauna. Among the vertebrates are 490 species of birds (33 endemic) 1 ; 88 freshwater fish species (44 endemic) [2][3][4][5] ; and 93 species of mammals (19 endemic) [6][7][8] . The invertebrate fauna documented to date includes 51 freshwater crab species (50 endemic) 9 ; 244 species of butterflies (20 endemic) 10 ; seven species of mygalomorph spiders (5 endemic) 11 ; 247 species of land snails (205 endemic) 12 ; and 122 species of damselflies and dragonflies (59 endemics). ...
A survey on selected faunal groups in the Mahausakande regenerating tropical rainforest in Kiriella was carried out using rapid assessment techniques. The survey was intended to document the species richness of selected vertebrate and invertebrate fauna, and evaluate their temporal changes over the past five years in relation to forest regeneration. A total of 117 vertebrates and 123 invertebrates were recorded, including 50 endemic species. Among the faunal species recorded, 15 are listed as nationally threatened. The invertebrate fauna recorded, its included Odonates (32 species - 8 endemic), Butterflies (75 species - 5 endemic and 5 threatened), Freshwater crabs (3 species – all endemic), Land snails (11 species – all endemic), Theraphosid spiders (2 species, both endemic). The vertebrates included Mammals (20 species - 4 endemic and 5 threatened), Birds (89 species - 11 endemic and 2 threatened), and Freshwater fish (8 species - 5 endemic and 1 threatened). The observations of the present survey indicate that the species richness of fauna in this site has increased over the past five years. The vertebrate fauna shows a 25% increase in species richness, while the butterflies exhibit a 50% increase over the past five years.
... However, additional molecular evidence is necessary to confirm this. Moreover, the taxonomy within P. zeylonensis has recently been questioned on the basis of morphology (Groves et al., 2009) and should be investigated in a molecular framework. ...
Aim Using molecular data and dental features, we investigated the genetic and morphological diversity among species of palm civets in the genus Paradoxurus, with a focus on the common palm civet, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus (Carnivora, Viverridae), in order to address biogeographic scenarios and provide recommendations for a taxonomic revision.
Location Asia: Pakistan to the Lesser Sunda Islands.
Methods We investigated the genetic diversity within Paradoxurus using two mitochondrial (cytochrome b, control region) and one nuclear (intron 7 of the β-fibrinogen) markers. We used samples from 85 individuals of P. hermaphroditus (including 20 museum specimens) and one representative of each of the other species in the genus Paradoxurus: Paradoxurus jerdoni and Paradoxurus zeylonensis. DNA sequences were analysed using phylogenetic and haplotype network methods, and divergence dates were estimated for the clades retrieved. Furthermore, we examined dental characters from a large series of specimens and compared the morphological variation with the molecular data.
Results Our phylogenetic analyses revealed that P. hermaphroditus is paraphyletic. We identified three major lineages distributed: (1) in the Indian subcontinent, south China, Hainan and in areas above 200 m in Indochina; (2) in Peninsular Malaysia, Java, Sumatra and in areas below 200 m in Indochina; and (3) in Borneo, the Philippines and the Mentawai archipelago. Our morphological observations were congruent with these three molecular lineages. Divergence date estimates inferred a Pliocene origin for Paradoxurus (2.8–5.7 Ma), with the three main clades diversifying from the mid–Early Pliocene to the end of the Pliocene. We suggest that the flooding of the Isthmus of Kra during the Pliocene was a major event shaping the diversification of Paradoxurus palm civets. We also hypothesize that the elevational segregation of the two lineages on the mainland could have resulted from the vegetational changes that were induced by Late Pliocene glacial episodes.
Main conclusions The Isthmus of Kra is a major boundary between two major lineages of P. hermaphroditus. There is a need for a taxonomic revision for P. hermaphroditus, and we suggest that this species should be split into at least three species.
... However, additional molecular evidence is necessary to confirm this. Moreover, the taxonomy within P. zeylonensis has recently been questioned on the basis of morphology (Groves et al., 2009) and should be investigated in a molecular framework. ...
Aim
Using molecular data and dental features, we investigated the genetic and morphological diversity among species of palm civets in the genus Paradoxurus, with a focus on the common palm civet, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus (Carnivora, Viverridae), in order to address biogeographic scenarios and provide recommendations for a taxonomic revision.
Location
Asia: Pakistan to the Lesser Sunda Islands.
Methods
We investigated the genetic diversity within Paradoxurus using two mitochondrial (cytochrome b, control region) and one nuclear (intron 7 of the beta-fibrinogen) markers. We used samples from 85 individuals of P. hermaphroditus (including 20 museum specimens) and one representative of each of the other species in the genus Paradoxurus: Paradoxurus jerdoni and Paradoxurus zeylonensis. DNA sequences were analysed using phylogenetic and haplotype network methods, and divergence dates were estimated for the clades retrieved. Furthermore, we examined dental characters from a large series of specimens and compared the morphological variation with the molecular data.
Results
Our phylogenetic analyses revealed that P. hermaphroditus is paraphyletic. We identified three major lineages distributed: (1) in the Indian subcontinent, south China, Hainan and in areas above 200 m in Indochina; (2) in Peninsular Malaysia, Java, Sumatra and in areas below 200 m in Indochina; and (3) in Borneo, the Philippines and the Mentawai archipelago. Our morphological observations were congruent with these three molecular lineages. Divergence date estimates inferred a Pliocene origin for Paradoxurus (2.8-5.7 Ma), with the three main clades diversifying from the mid-Early Pliocene to the end of the Pliocene. We suggest that the flooding of the Isthmus of Kra during the Pliocene was a major event shaping the diversification of Paradoxurus palm civets. We also hypothesize that the elevational segregation of the two lineages on the mainland could have resulted from the vegetational changes that were induced by Late Pliocene glacial episodes.
Main conclusions
The Isthmus of Kra is a major boundary between two major lineages of P. hermaphroditus. There is a need for a taxonomic revision for P. hermaphroditus, and we suggest that this species should be split into at least three species.
... stenocephalus), and the Sri Lankan brown palm civet (P. montanus) (4). Palm civets in Sri Lanka are, however, endangered because of hunting, parasitic diseases, and dwindling habitat. ...
Information is scarce about sylvatic rabies virus in Asia and about rabies in palm civets. We report a novel sylvatic rabies virus variant detected in a golden palm civet in Sri Lanka. Evolutionary analysis suggests the virus diverged from canine rabies viruses in Sri Lanka in ≈1933 (range 1886-1963).
Among mammalian carnivores, skunks (family Mephitidae), with their bold aposematic colouration, represent an obvious and interesting group for testing hypotheses associated with colour‐pattern evolution. Herein, we introduce and develop a novel technique for quantifying intraspecific variation in colour patterns for the American hog‐nosed skunk, Conepatus leuconotus , to test for associations between local environmental conditions and dorsal stripe variation. Using digital photographs of 262 museum study skins in combination with spatially explicit interpolation and modelling techniques, we found that variation in the size and extent of the white dorsal stripe (and, consequently, the extent of black fur along the dorsum) of C. leuconotus is non‐randomly distributed across the landscape. The extent of dorsal whiteness appears to peak across the southwest desert states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, with reduced whiteness along the Gulf Coast and in Central America, a pattern consistent with Gloger's rule. Generalized dissimilarity modelling revealed that differences in dorsal whiteness were related to differences in canopy cover, ground surface moisture, and temperature variability, whereas random forest analysis found three variables related to minimum temperatures to be the best predictors of variation in dorsal whiteness extent. Such relationships could indicate that skunks with more white along the dorsum (and less black) may benefit (i.e. experience reduced rates of predation) from increased visibility in more arid, open environments, whereas skunks with reduced dorsal whiteness (and increased blackness) may benefit by remaining hidden among the dark understory characteristic of more closed‐canopy, aseasonal environments. These results imply that evolutionary trade‐offs between conspicuousness and crypsis may be responsible for shaping colour polymorphisms in this aposematic small carnivore.
Small mammalian carnivores represent over half of the species of the order Carnivora. Over the past few decades, molecular studies have improved the systematics of small carnivore families, resulting in the recognition of four additional families. Several new species of small carnivores have also been proposed recently, but some of these have not been validated by genetic data. Studies of intraspecific genetic polymorphism and structure have helped in the process of defining conservation units, which is crucial for the management of zoo populations. Small mammalian carnivores represent over half of the species of the order Carnivora. Over the past few decades, molecular studies have improved the systematics of small carnivore families, resulting in the recognition of four additional families. Several new species of small carnivores have also been proposed recently but some of these have not been validated by genetic data. Studies of intraspecific genetic polymorphism and structure have helped in the process of defining conservation units, which is crucial for the management of zoo populations. (Photo: Golden palm civet Paradoxurus zeylonensis, National Zoological Gardens of Sri Lanka. Géraldine Veron, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle Paris)
We documented how the similarity of mammal assemblages on continental and oceanic islands has changed since initial human colonization, since European arrival and overall. We investigated how levels of similarity might change in the future.
External body dimensions and proportions, skull morphology, coat coloration, vocalizations, and genetics have contributed to an increase in the number of diagnosable species among nocturnal primates. Two species of slender loris are currently recognized for Sri Lanka: the red slender loris Loris tardigradus (Linnaeus, 1758), endemic to the wet zone and montane areas; and the grey slender loris Loris lydekkerianus Cabrera, 1908, which is widespread and also occurs in India. The red slender loris has two subspecies, namely the western red slender loris Loris tardigradus tardigradus (Linnaeus, 1758) and the Horton Plains slender loris Loris tardigradus nycticeboides Hill, 1942. Loris t. tardigradus is found in the lowland wet zone and L. t. nycticeboides is restricted to the montane region of south-central Sri Lanka. Two subspecies are also ascribed to Loris lydekkerianus in Sri Lanka, namely the northern Ceylon slender loris Loris lydekkerianus nordicus Hill, 1933, and the highland slender loris Loris lydekkerianus grandis Hill and Phillips, 1932. Loris l. nordicus is found in the dry zone, and L. l. grandis is restricted to the sub-montane region of Kandy and Matale. Another two subspecies are known from southern India. We examined specimens (live and museum) from all climate/vegetation zones in Sri Lanka, for facial and pelage features, external body morphology, and skull morphology, and concluded that there are at least two species and at least six subspecies, though we suspect that some, or all, of these subspecies may be distinct species. Names are available for four of these taxa, and here we describe two new subspecies.
The checklist includes enumeration of all the living and recently extinct species known to occur or have occurred in South Asia. Taxonomic arrangement is following Wilson and Reeder (2005) and comments are added at appropriate places where deviations were incorporated following works published after 2005. Necessary taxonomic comments have been provided at order, family, genus, and species levels. Wherever necessary, additional classification levels have been included. The checklist is based on the best of our knowledge on mammalian species diversity as on 31.12.2011. Any omissions are purely unintentional.
The mammalian diversity found in South Asia (Fig. 2.1) includes 506 species in 215 genera in 14 orders which represents approximately 9.3% of the world’s mammalian diversity (Table 2.1). The genetic diversity accounts for 19% of the world’s diversity. The complete list of mammals of South Asia with their common names is given in Table 2.2.
Exhibition of the skull of a Paradoxurus
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Du genre paradoxure et de deux espèces nouvelles qui s’y rapportent
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