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AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
Volume 30, pages 16–28 (2004)
Effects of Viewing Videos of Bullfights on
Spanish Children
J.L. Gran
˜a,
1
J.A. Cruzado,
1
J.M. Andreu
1
, M.J. Mun
˜oz-Rivas,
1
M.E. Pen
˜a,
1
and
P.F. Brain
2
n
1
Department of Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain
2
School of Biological Sciences, University of Wales Swansea, Swansea, SA2 8PP, United Kingdom
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Some of the psychological effects of viewing bullfights on children 8–12 years old are described. Two
hundred and forty subjects (120 girls and 120 boys) aged between eight and twelve from a variety of
socioeconomic backgrounds were selected from three public or private elementary / secondary schools
in Madrid, Spain. The first study used a questionnaire to examine the children’s attitudes towards
bullfighting by looking at their acceptance and cognitive-emotional appraisal of the event. Videotapes
of bullfights with differing commentaries were then used, along with a battery of questionnaires, to
assess the emotional impact of these events, as well as the impact of narrative explanations on
aggression and anxiety. Most children were not very positive about bullfights in the initial
questionnaire. Viewing of tapes with ‘festive’ or aggressive dialogues (but not tapes without a
justification) resulted in more expressed aggression in boys than girls. There was also evidence that age
had a significant effect, and that some children appeared disturbed by the exposure. Aggr. Behav.
30:16–28, 2004. r2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Key words: bullfights; children; modulating factors; psychological effects; aggression; well-being.
INTRODUCTION
The environment is undoubtedly an important modulator of human behavior [Bandura,
1977, 1989]. The mores of a given society are closely related to its activities. The media—
television, newspaper, radio, and movies—restructure institutional practices and influence
the way people behave. These communications are the main ways of socially configuring our
attitudes, beliefs, and opinions, and may have an even greater impact in children and
adolescents, who have not developed critical thinking or an appreciation of social
implications.
n
Correspondence to: Dr. J.L. Gran
˜a, Department of Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Complutense
University of Madrid Campus de Somosaguas 28223. Madrid. Spain.
E-mail: jlgrana@psi.ucm.es.
Received 2 September 2001; amended version accepted 20 July 2002
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/ab.20005
r2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
A review of the sociological and anthropological studies of bullfighting defines this as a
class of celebration in which the bull is sacrificed by the bullfighter [De Solis, 1992]. For De
Solis [op. cit.], the behavior of the audience at a classical bullfight differs from public
behavior exhibited at other entertainment or sporting events, such as soccer games or boxing
matches. The main difference is thought to relate to the origin of the national fiesta (an
activity dating back to the beginnings of the Mediterranean culture) as a historic form of
sacrifice. Anthropologically, various authors have speculated about the cultural mechanisms
that are most important in the social-cultural analysis of bullfighting. Driesen [1982] centers
on ritualization, or the set of rules (norms) adopted at each ceremony. Bullfighting is viewed
as a ritual symbolic sacrifice. Pitt-Rivers [1993] suggests this ritualized sacrifice represents
fertility, stability, firmness and constancy, virility, value, and nobility. The popular tradition
reinforces in the spectators attitudes of respect and admiration for the bullfighter as he
demonstrates his bravery and skill [Coppock, 1997].
In the Spanish culture, however, terms such as ‘‘aggression’’ and/or ‘‘violence’’ are
commonly applied to some sporting events or cultural festivities, i.e., boxing matches and
bullfighting. In order to study the psychological repercussions of viewing the aggressive and/
or violent content of bullfighting, it is important to first define this concept. The aggression
produced by a bullfight can be defined as instrumental aggressive behavior, as it receives
strong social endorsement and is viewed as appropriate and tolerable in the Spanish social
environment.
Viewing violent scenes has a greater impact on behavior in children compared to adults.
Viemero
¨[1986] and Viemero
¨et al. [1998] have shown that the viewing of violent scenes has a
greater effect up to 19 years of age than in adults. Girls seem to be able to distinguish better
between reality and fiction. Boys tend to interpret what they see in terms of what might be
possible or expected, identifying more easily with aggressive characters [Huesmann, 1986;
Huesmann et al., 1998]. The moral justification of violent scenes also plays an interesting role
in the final behavior of the spectator. The more one tries to morally justify the action, the
greater social expectations in this regard, and the more acceptable the resulting behavior
[Ramı
´rez, 1991, 1993]. Normative beliefs (individual beliefs about what behaviors are
appropriate in specific situations) help one to discriminate the relationship between viewing
violent scenes and actual acts of aggression [Huesmann et al., 1996]. However, observing
violent scenes increases the tolerance of displays of aggression and teaches the observers to
increase their levels of acceptable aggression [Drabman et al. 1977; Drabman and Thomas,
1975; Molitor and Hirsch, 1994; Watt and Krull, 1977].
Context influences the justification of behavior. Pen
˜a et al. [1999] indicated that the
observation of violent scenes has a significant effect on verbal aggressiveness and the physical
expression of aggression. Berkowitz and Powers [1979] have also shown that, depending on
the content of violent scenes observed, actions that could be justified significantly increased
both verbal and physical aggression in subjects. Bullfighting produces a type of aggression
that has strong social support in Spanish society. Social norms consider such behavior
appropriate and tolerable, even though it has as its consequence the lesion, harm, and death
of an animal. Many factors seem to significantly modulate the relationship between viewing
aggressive and/or violent scenes in which a person or animal is physically or mentally
harmed, and the psychic repercussions that can result from such observation. Age, sex,
personality, moral appraisal, identification with the person or animal being hurt, as well as
interpretation that what is occurring as something real and/or brutal, are the main factors
that help to empirically identify the true effects that result from observing violence.
Effects of Viewing Bullfights on Children 17
The following study was designed with two objectives: (1) to determine the attitudes of
children under the age of 14 of both sexes to bullfighting, and (2) to investigate the
psychological impact of viewing such an event. The influence of viewing videos of bullfights is
analyzed by age, sex and cognitive appraisal.
METHOD
Subjects
The sample was composed of 240 subjects (120 girls and 120 boys) aged between eight and
twelve years. Subjects were randomly selected from three elementary/secondary schools with
district socio-economic levels taken into account: San Luı
´s Gonzaga School in Majadahonda
(private school), Felipe IV School in Navalcarnero (public school) and Montserrat School in
downtown Madrid (a combination of public-private school).
Instruments
The authors obtained a ten-minute video (standard VHS format) depicting a televised
bullfight from beginning to end. Technicians in the Editing Room of the School of
Psychology at the Complutense University of Madrid, combined the video (Text 1) with
particular narratives to create two additional films (Text 2 and Text 3). Figures 1, 2, and 3
reproduce the text used to explain what was occurring during the scenes. Text 1 included the
neutral description of the bullfight (control group). Text 2 was based on the festive
description of the tradition and Text 3 described the aggressiveness of the fight. Music,
a double-step bullfighting tune, was added to each film to homogenize the three versions of
the video.
The following instruments were selected based on a pilot study determining the most
appropriate self-informing materials for the young sample population. They were:
a) The ‘‘Opinion of Bullfighting’’ Questionnaire, designed by the authors to assess the
child’s general opinion of bullfighting.
b) The Aggression Questionnaire [Buss and Perry, 1992], designed and adapted to the
Spanish population by the authors [Andreu et al., 2002], with the principal objective of
evaluating the levels of self-observed aggression in the children.
c) The State/Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children [Spielberger, 1990], with the objective of
evaluating the anxiety of the children as a transitional state and a latent characteristic, and
d) The Event Impact Scale, designed by the authors with the objective of determining the
degree of psychological impact on the children after viewing the video.
All data were analyzed utilizing the SPSS (v. 10.0.1S) package.
Experimental Design and Procedure
A factorial three design, 3 (variations of the video) 2 (age) 2 (sex), was used creating
12 possible experimental groups to which the 240 subjects were randomly assigned. In each of
the groups, the subjects first filled out the Opinion of Bullfighting questionnaire. They
observed the 10–minute video corresponding to their experimental group; afterwards they
filled out the remaining questionnaires.
The examiner and the instructions given to each group were constant. The instructions
were: ‘‘In just a moment, you will sit down in your seat and fill out the first questionnaire. After
18 Gran˜a et al.
that you will watch a video of a bullfight that will last about 10 minutes. After the film, you
should fill out the other questionnaires. Please answer all of the questions as sincerely as
possible. There are no right or wrong answers because we are interested in knowing your feelings
and opinions. Remember that the questionnaires are completely anonymous, without your name,
and will only serve as general information for a later study. If you have any problems, please
do not ask your classmates. Instead raise your hand and the examiner will help you.’’
RESULTS
The results presented here are divided into three sections: A) the children’s general
opinions of bullfights, B) the psychometric reliability indexes of the various questionnaires
utilized in the study to measure aggression, anxiety, and emotional impact, and C) the results
obtained based on the experimental design.
A) General Opinion of Children Between 9 and 12 With Respect to Bullfighting
Table I represents the descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages) for the most
important items of the General Questionnaire as well as the w
2
statistic to determine the
significant differences in the subjects’ responses. As seen in Table I, all of the children who
reported that they have frequently viewed bullfights said they did so because they enjoyed this
type of show, while 67.5% of the children who sometimes attended bullfights cite this reason
(w
2
= 65.72, po.001). Half of the children who frequently or sometimes attend bullfights
often watch these shows on television (w
2
= 37.70, po001).
Today is a normal day for the observers of the national fiesta. The bullring workers have prepared the
bullring and the bull to express the behaviors that are part of this event. The crowds fill all the seats in the
arena. They have returned to see the event they enjoy – the art of bullfighting.
Ah, there it is! The bullring. The public waits for the start of the anticipated fun. The sound of the
cornets signal that the fiesta is about to officially begin! There he is, restless but prepared with his red and
yellow bullfighting cape and mentally ready to give his best and provide what a day of national fiesta deserves.
He is dressed in his typical clothes – the bullfighting suit decorated with gold - along with his special boots and
a bullfighter’s typical hat. There he stands waiting for his faithful companion the bull to leave his pen.
And there is the bull, whose name is Huron. What a ferocious, brave, and noble animal! It was
carefully cared for to prepare for its participation in this event and now it wants to be able to finally do it. The
bullfighter begins to wave his cape signaling the first pass. He demonstrates his mastery in bullfight.
At the end of the first part of the fight, the public applauds. This leads to the next, and one of the most
typical moments of the fiesta – the lancing stage of the fight. The goaders proudly enter the arena, also prepared
to contribute to the event on this day. The bullfighter agitates the bull with the wave of his cape, trying to guide
the animal closer to the horse atop which the goader awaits. And now the bull charges the horse and receives a
blow from the goader’s dagger. The bull is able to withstand the blows.
The bullfighter returns to the spotlight, waving his cape and giving color and life to the event. The
public applauds his skills. A group of men enter the arena, each armed with his hooked dagger. Dressed in his
black suit, one steps forward to show his bravery. He walks up to the bull and places his hook in the animal’s
body with precision. The rest of the group follows his lead, each hook bringing more excitement to the bullfight.
And now the bullfighter dedicates the bull to the public and receives a standing ovation. He receives
the bull on his knees, an expression of decision that demonstrates the art of bullfighting.
Both the bull and bullfighter are prepared for the end on the fight, one of the principal moments of the
event. The bullfighter, with his sword of steel, fixes a calm, secure stare on the bull. The audience cheers for
his successful thrust and hook. The bull is directed toward the boards and the public demands the reward for
such a bullfighter that finalizes the celebration.
Figure 1. Neutral narration of the bullfight (Text 1).
Effects of Viewing Bullfights on Children 19
There were children who hadn’t ever attended a bullfight, those who had gone only a few
times, and even some who frequently went to see bullfights who reported that, in general,
they felt it constituted a violent show (w
2
= 1.65, n.s.). In 69% of the cases, there were no
significant differences between groups. Whether they attended bullfights or not, children from
all groups tended to agree that the shows were culturally acceptable (w
2
= 3.05, n.s.).
In terms of the children’s feelings while watching a bullfight, 56.3% of those who
frequently attended reported indifference, while only 35.1% of those who had never gone
described this feeling (w
2
= 29.79, po.001). The children who frequently attended and those
who had never attended a bullfight thought that watching these shows was acceptable (30.1%
vs. 17.5% vs. 12.5%, w
2
= 5.61, ns).
B) Reliability Indices of the Questionnaires
Aggression Questionnaire ‘‘AQ’’. This questionnaire is a version of the Aggression
Questionnaire ‘‘AQ’’ adapted for the child population by Buss and Perry [1992]. It is derived
from one of the most used questionnaires in the study of aggression – The Hostility Inventory
Today is a special day for the lovers of this national fiesta. The bullring workers have prepared the
bullring and the bull to express the deep feelings that are part of this exciting event. The crowds fill all the seats
in the arena. They are happy because they have returned to see the event they enjoy the most – the noble art of
bullfighting.
Ah, there it is! The bullring. The public impatiently waits for the start of the anticipated fun… The
sound of the cornets signal that the fiesta is about to officially begin! There he is, restless but prepared with his
red and yellow bullfighting cape and mentally ready to give his best and provide what a day of national fiesta
deserves – a glorious afternoon. He is dressed in his best clothes – the bullfighting suit decorated with gold -
along with his special boots and a bullfighter’s typical hat. There he stands waiting for his faithful companion
the bull to leave his pen.
And there is the bull, whose name is Huron. What a ferocious, brave, and noble animal! It was
carefully cared for to prepare for its participation in this event and now it wants to be able to finally do it. The
bullfighter begins to wave his cape signaling the first pass. He demonstrates his mastery for all to admire, while
the bull fights harder and harder.
At the end of the first part of the fight, the public applauds. This leads to the next, and one of the most
important, moments of the fiesta – the lancing stage of the fight. The goaders proudly enter the arena, also
prepared to contribute to the greatness of the event on this special day. The bullfighter agitates the bull with the
wave of his cape, trying to guide the animal closer to the horse atop which the goader awaits. And now the bull
charges the horse and receives a blow from the goader’s dagger. What a nice hit! The bull is able to withstand
the blows because he is strong, brave, and prepared for these actions.
The bullfighter returns to the spotlight, waving his cape and giving color and life to the event. The
public applauds his skills and dominance of the ferocious animal and waits for the third part of the fight. A
group of men enter the arena, each armed with his hooked dagger. Dressed in his black suit, one steps forward
to show his bravery. He walks up to the bull and places his hook in the animal’s body with precision and
admirable talent. Very good! That’s how it’s done! The rest of the group follows his lead, each hook bringing
more excitement to the bullfight. These moments cause the spectators to praise the bull for his courage, bravery,
and strength.
And now the bullfighter dedicates the bull to the public and receives a standing ovation. He receives
the bull on his knees, an expression of courage and decision that demonstrates the beauty of the art of
bullfighting.
Both the bull and bullfighter are prepared for the end on the fight, one of the most interesting moments
of the event. The bullfighter, with his sword of steel, fixes a calm, secure stare on the bull that waits for his
destiny. Congratulations! You’ve done it – the perfect stab! The audience cheers wildly for his successful
thrust and hook. The bull is directed toward the boards and the public demands the maximum reward for such a
brave bullfighter that finalizes the proud celebration that plays important role in this day of national fiesta.
Figure 2. Festive narration of the bullfight (Text 2).
20 Gran˜a et al.
by Buss and Durkee [1957] – and consists of 29 items with a Likert scale of five points and
four sub-scales of physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger and hostility. In samples of
North American students, the reliability coefficient was determined to be 0.80. In samples
of Spanish students in secondary school, trade school, and college, the reliability
coefficient obtained was 0.87 [Andreu et al., 1999, 2002]. In the present study the general
aggression levels for the subjects are reported based on their total scores on the aggression
questionnaire. The reliability coefficient of the AQ estimated through the Cronbach’s Alpha
Coefficient was 0.84, indicating that the general aggression levels of the children were
accurately measured.
State/Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC). This questionnaire was
adapted for Spanish children and adolescents by Seisdedos [1990]. It consists of two parts
Today is another day of what many call a national fiesta. The bullring workers have prepared the
bullring and the bull to express the bad, unpleasant feelings that are part of this violent event. The crowds fill all
the seats in the arena anxious and upset because they have returned to see the event they like the most – the cruel
art of bullfighting.
Ah, there it is! The bullring. The public impatiently waits for the start of the anticipated gore… The
sound of the cornets signal that the sad fight is about to officially begin! There he is, restless but prepared with
his red and yellow bullfighting cape and mentally ready to take the life of an animal on this day of supposed
national fiesta. He is dressed in his bullfighting suit, boots and hat, all symbols of his power over the bull.
There he stands waiting for his enemy the bull to leave his pen.
And there is the bull. What a ferocious, brave, and noble animal! Its strength has been artificially
created outside of its natural environment which prepares its participation in this event. The bullfighter begins
to wave his cape signaling the first pass. He shows his skill taunting the bull and bringing out the aggressive and
violent side of the animal.
At the end of the first part of the fight, the public applauds wildly. This leads to the next, and one of
the most unpleasant, moments of this violent fiesta – the lancing stage of the fight. The goaders proudly enter
the arena because they are going to use their weapons against the defenseless animal, expressing the violence of
this event. The bullfighter agitates the bull with the wave of his cape, obliging the bull closer and closer to the
horse atop which the goader awaits. Even though his eyes are covered, the horse is very nervous. It knows it is
going to receive a tremendous blow from the bull, but because it cannot see when the bull begins to charge, it
does not know when the strike is going to come. The bull charges the confused horse and receives a cruel blow
from the goader’s dagger. The goader has gathered all his strength to give that cruel and surprising hit. The bull
is hurting and disoriented. It tries to escape as quickly as possible so it will not have to defenselessly face more
of these violent acts.
The bullfighter returns to the center of the arena, waving his cape and trying to further confuse the poor
animal left all alone. Sadly, the public applauds his skills and dominance of the bull without thinking about the
harm caused to the defenseless animal that runs to save itself from this cruel event. A group of men enter the
arena, each armed with his hooked dagger. One tries to demonstrate his bravery by thrusting his weapons into
the animal that has no resources to fight back. He’s done it! The rest of the group follows his lead, each lancing
their hooks into the bull’s body three times. This is another of the saddest moments of the event because the bull
cries defenselessly as a result of these horrendous deeds.
And now the bullfighter dedicates the bull to the public and receives a standing ovation for his display
of aggressive behavior. He receives the bull on his knees, challenging the animal frightened by the waving cape
and roar of the spectators.
Both the bull and bullfighter are prepared for the end on the fight. The bullfighter, with his sharp
sword, dizzies and confuses the bull. They pass into one of the most violent and aggressive moments of this so-
called fiesta. The bullfighter fixes a secure stare on the bull that is very frightened and can do no more but wait
for its sad destiny. He’s done it – a direct stab into the animal’s flesh! The audience, hot and aggressive,
applauds the death of the bull. The bull is directed toward the boards hurt and defenseless begging the men to
let it die without further abuse. The violent public demands the sad reward for the bullfighter – the bull’s ear.
The brave bullfighter then demonstrates his courage in front of the death animal bringing to a close the
aggressive bullfight on this day of national fiesta.
Figure 3. Aggressive narrative of the bullfight (Text 3).
Effects of Viewing Bullfights on Children 21
of 20 items through which anxiety-state levels (‘‘the level of anxiety felt in a given moment’’)
and anxiety-trait levels (‘‘the level of anxiety felt in general’’) are measured. The reliability
coefficients found in the Spanish sample composed of 1,013 subjects between the ages of nine
and fifteen were 0.89 for the first scale and 0.85 for the second using the alpha method, and
0.91 and 0.87 with the K-R method for the first and second scales respectively [Seisdedos,
1990].
Event Impact Scale (ESI). This scale was designed by the authors to define the degree of
psychological impact on the children after observing one of the bullfighting videos. It consists
of 10 items with a Likert Scale of one to four that reflects the degree of psychological impact
of negative events. The reliability coefficient obtained for this scale through the Cronbach’s
Alpha Coefficient was 0.54. Although it was weak, the coefficient is high enough to be
considered valid for a measuring instrument of only 10 items.
Finally, Table II presents the correlations between all of the scales in order to assess the
relationships between each of the psychological measurements evaluated in the subjects. All
of the variables were positive and significantly correlated among themselves.
TABLE I. General Opinion of Children About Bullfighting
How often do you normally attend a bullfight?
All Never Sometimes Frequently
Do you like
bullfighting?
Yes (43%) 29 (21.6%) 54 (67.5%) 16 (100%)
No (57%) 105 (78.4%) 26 (32.5%)
How often do you
watch a bullfight
on television?
Never (29.3%) 53 (39.3%) 15 (18.5%)
Sometimes (58.6%) 74 (54.8%) 54 (66.7%) 8 (50%)
Frequently (12.1%) 8 (5.9%) 12 (14.8%) 8 (50%)
Do you consider
bullfighting a violent
event?
Yes (65.1%) 91 (67.9%) 47 (59.9%) 11 (68.8%)
No (34.9%) 43 (32.1%) 32 (40.5%) 5 (31.3%)
Do you think it’s
OK for children
your age to watch
a bullfight?
Yes (65.6%) 81 (60.9%) 58 (72.5%) 11 (68.8%)
No (34.5%) 523 (39.1%) 22 (27.5%) 5 (31.3%)
How do you feel
when watching
a bullfight?
Happiness (10.4%) 3 (2.2%) 17 (21%) 4 (25%)
Grief (52.8%) 84 (62.7%) 35 (43.2%) 3 (18.8%)
Indifference (36.8%) 47 (35.1%) 29 (35.8%) 9 (56.3%)
What do you think
when watching
a bullfight?
That it is OK (13%) 4 (3%) 22 (27.5%) 4 (25%)
That it is bad (58.3%) 88 (65.7%) 39 (48.8%) 7 (43.8%)
Nothing special (28.7%) 42 (31.3%) 19 (23.8%) 5 (31.3%)
Do you think it’s
wrong for children
to watch bullfights?
Yes (24.5%) 40 (30.1%) 14 (17.5%) 2 (12.5%)
No (75.5%) 93 (69.9%) 66 (82.5%) 14 (87.5%)
22 Gran˜a et al.
C) Influence of the Type of Bullfighting Narration on Aggression, Anxiety, and
Emotion.
The following results examine how the type of narration for the bullfighting event (neutral,
festive, and aggressive), sex (male or female), and age (9 or 12) influenced the levels of
aggression, anxiety, and emotional impact of the subjects after viewing the bullfighting video.
First, a MANOVA was carried out to test the influence of the type of justification (neutral,
festive and aggressive), age, and sex on the three psychological measurements analyzed
collectively. The result showed a significant multi-variant effect for the type of justification
(F
8,452
= 6.05, po.001), the sex (F
4,225
= 4.55, po.001) and the age of the subjects
(F
4,225
= 2.96, p = .o.05).
Second, to determine the specific influence of each one of the psychological factors
considered, successive ANOVAS were carried out based on the results of the MANOVA. The
trait-anxiety variable was defined as a co-variable in order to eliminate the possible
contamination of the levels of state anxiety present in the subjects after watching the
bullfighting video.
1) Analysis of the Aggression Levels of the Subjects
Table III presents the effect of the type of narration, age and sex on the aggression levels of
the subjects after viewing one of the three videos of the bullfighting event. A significant effect
was found between the sex of the subject and type of justification, as well as significant
interaction effects between both factors combined with the age of the subject. More specific
results include:
a) Boys showed a higher general aggression level than girls (2.65 vs. 2.52, t = 4.23, po.05).
b) The group viewing the bullfight with the festive explanation (Text 2) showed
significantly higher aggression scores than counterparts viewing the control video (2.71 vs.
2.43, t = 3.01, po.005).
c) The interaction between sex video showed that:
- For boys, observing the bullfighting with the festive narration (Text 2) resulted in more
aggression than with the control video (without narrative) (2.86 vs. 2.38, t = 4.16, po.001).
Observing the bullfight with aggressive narration (Text 3)also produced more aggression than
TABLE II. Correlations Between the Various Self-Evaluations
State Anxiety Trait Anxiety Aggression Impact
State Anxiety Pearson Correlation 1.000 .322 .264 .195
Sig. (bilateral) .000 .000 .002
N 240 240 240 240
Trait Anxiety Pearson Correlation .322** 1.000 .359 .413
Sig. (bilateral) .000 .000 .000
N 240 240 240 240
Aggression Pearson Correlation .264** .359** 1.000 .349
Sig. (bilateral) .000 0 .000
N 240 240 240 240
Impact Pearson Correlation .195** .413** .349** 1.000
Sig. (bilateral) .002 .000 .000
N 240 240 240 240
**The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (bilateral).
Effects of Viewing Bullfights on Children 23
with the neutral video (2.72 vs. 2.38, t = 3.02, po.005). There were no significant differences
in aggression levels between those observing the bullfight with festive and aggressive
narration (2.86 vs. 2.72, t = 1.18, ns). For girls there were no significant differences between
the experimental groups.
- Boys showed higher aggression levels than girls when using the festive justification
(Text 2) of the bullfight (2.86 vs. 2.52, t = 2.67, po.01).
- Boys showed higher aggression levels than girls when using the aggressive justification
(Text 3) of the bullfight, (2.72 vs. 2.52, t = 1.96, p = .05).
- There were no significant differences between males and females when using the neutral
bullfight video (Text 1)(2.38 vs. 2.49, t = .907, ns).
d) The interaction between sex age video showed:
- Nine-year-old boys, observing the bullfight with festive narration produced more
aggression than viewing the neutral video (2.94 vs. 2.21, t = 5.42, po.001). Observing the
bullfight with aggressive justification also produced more aggression than viewing the neutral
video (2.76 vs. 2.21, t = 3.55, po.001).
- Twelve -year-old boys, showed no significant differences between the experimental
groups.
- Neither 9– nor 12–year-old girls, showed significant differences between the experimental
groups.
- In addition when viewing the control video, nine-year-old boys showed lower aggression
scores than 12–year-old boys (2.21 vs. 2.55, t = 2.15, po05), and nine-year-old girls
showed more aggression than nine-year-old boys viewing the same film (2.21 vs. 2.61, t =
2.48, po.05). When viewing the bullfight with the festive justification (Text 2), nine-year-
old boys showed higher aggression levels than nine-year-old girls viewing the same film (2.94
vs. 2.50, t = 3.03, po.005).
2) Analysis of the Anxiety Levels of the Subjects
Table IV shows the independent significant effects of sex, age, and type of narrations of
bullfighting on the state-anxiety levels of the subjects. Because the state-anxiety levels were
TABLE III. Effect of the Type of Justification, Age and Sex on Aggression Levels
Source Sum of Squares df Square Average F p
Corrected model 8.339 11 .758 2.964 .001
Intersection 1,612.017 1 1,612.017 6,301.790 .000
SEX 1.084 1 1.084 4.236 .041*
AGE 3978 1 3 .002 .969
VIDEO 3.097 2 1.548 6.053 .003**
SEX * AGE 508 1 584 .199 .656
SEX * VIDEO 1.881 2 .941 3.677 .027*
AGE * VIDEO 5,943 2 2,971 .116 .890
SEX * AGE * VIDEO 2.167 2 1.084 4.236 .016*
Error 58.323 228 .256
Total 1,678.679 240
Corrected Total 66.662 239
* Significant differences with po.05
** Significant differences with po.005.
24 Gran˜a et al.
initially influenced by the trait-anxiety levels, it was necessary to control the trait-anxiety
levels through ANCOVA procedures. Consequently, the levels presented in this study are
adjusted based on the co-variable model with the following effects: a) Nine-year-old subjects
presented less anxiety than the 12–year-olds (30.26 vs. 31.99, t = 4.563, po.05); b) Boys
presented less anxiety than girls (30.35 vs. 31.90, t = 3.71, po.05); c) Observing the festive
narration produced more anxiety than either the aggressive or neutral narrations (33.55 vs.
30.96, t = 2.89, po.05 / 33.55 vs. 28.86, t = 3.01, po.001). There were no significant
differences between the festive and aggressive bullfighting scenes (33.55 vs. 30.96, ns).
3) Analysis of the Emotional Impact on the Children.
Table V presents the results founded relating to the emotional impact on the children.
There was only one significant effect. Observing the bullfight with aggressive narration
produced higher scores of psychological impact than viewing the neutral video (2.37 vs. 2.10,
po.005). The festive narration produced no significant differences from the other two
narrations (2.20 vs. 2.37, ns / 2.20 vs. 2.10, ns).
DISCUSSION
In the descriptive study carried out regarding youth attitudes towards bullfighting, over
half of the children surveyed claimed not to like the events. Half of the sample admitted
having seen a bullfight on television. Two-thirds considered the event a violent one. Despite
this opinion, the majority of those surveyed did not see any problems with children their age
viewing a bullfight (the reliability of this information has been tested by inverting two of the
questions on the general questionnaire) and 75% believe the experience to be positive when
accompanied by an adult.
The children’s opinions are divided regarding personal harm caused by viewing a bullfight –
49.6% felt it had a negative impact, whereas 50.4% do not feel any negative results. In
appraising the event, 35% of the sample value all of the general elements of the bullfight, but
TABLE IV. Effect of the Type of Justification, Age, and Sex on Anxiety Levels
Source Sum of Squares df Square Average F p
Corrected Model 2,619.278 12 218,273 5,676 ,000
Intersection 3,744.906 1 3744,906 97,377 ,000
Trait Anxiety 715,210 1 715,210 18,597 ,000
AGE 175,495 1 175,495 4,563 ,034*
SEX 142,890 1 142,890 3715 ,055*
VIDEO 860,351 2 430,175 11,186 ,000**
AGE * SEX 2,993E-04 1 2,993E-04 ,000 ,998
AGE * VIDEO 61,306 2 30,653 ,797 ,452
SEX * VIDEO 42,224 2 21,112 ,549 ,578
AGE * SEX * VIDEO 165,300 2 82,650 2,149 ,119
Error 8,729,908 227 38,458
Total 243,896,368 240
Corrected Total 11,349,186 239
* Significant differences with po,05
** Significant differences with po,001.
Effects of Viewing Bullfights on Children 25
more specifically, the fight and bullfighter himself. The death of the bull was the least
attractive part for the children (60%). Examining the cognitive and emotional appraisal of
bullfighting, 52% of the youth feel grief when viewing the event, more than half think that no
harm should be done to the animal, and a quarter of the sample consider bullfighting a clear
example of animal abuse.
In spite of this the data in this study showed that the children’s attitude toward bullfighting
was not generally favorable. The majority did not like to watch the event. Most children did
not attend bullfights and watched them occasionally on television. An important number of
children considered the event as way of harming the animal, and felt grief when they observed
the bullfight, especially upon the bull’s death.
The above results, although difficult to explain, may be important. In addition to a lack
of official reports of animal cruelty, perpetration of animal abuse is often a solitary,
secretive activity, known only to the perpetrator. It is therefore often very difficult to obtain
information about animal cruelty form sources other than the perpetrator, such as
family, teachers, or significant others. Such lack of basic information concerning
prevalence of animal cruelty makes it very difficult to determine the extent of the problem
or the impact on children [Miller, 2001]. Despite lack of research in the area, cruelty to
animals is often advocated as a warning sign of potential violence in individuals. The humane
societies and animal welfare agencies report that ‘‘scientists and lawmakers are slowly
beginning to acknowledge the humane movement’s long-held position that society’s
treatment of animals is inseparable from its treatment of human beings’’ [Lockwood and
Hodge, 1986].
The second study examined the influence of the type of justification given to the bullfight
on anxiety levels, aggression, and the children’s psyche (emotional impact). The results
indicate that the justification of the event as festive, aggressive, or neutral significantly
influences all three of the psychological measurements. The children who were exposed to the
content of the festive justification (centered on the descriptive elements of the bullfight and
ignoring its negative consequences) scored significantly higher on the aggression and
anxiety tests than counterparts viewing the neutral video. Boys observing the festively
justified scene also showed more elevated aggression levels than the girls (especially at nine
years of age).
TABLE V. Effect of the Type of Justification, Age and Sex on Emotional Impact Levels
Source Sum of Squares df Square Average F p
Corrected Model 5.284 11 ,480 2,333 ,010
Intersection 1188,278 1 1188,278 5771,315 ,000
AGE 2661 1 2661 ,129 ,720
SEX ,236 1 ,236 1,147 ,285
VIDEO 3,052 2 1,526 7,410 ,001**
AGE * SEX ,169 1 ,169 ,822 ,366
AGE * VIDEO ,629 2 ,314 1,527 ,219
SEX * VIDEO 722 2 3511 ,171 ,843
AGE * SEX * VIDEO 1,102 2 ,551 2,675 ,071
Error 46,944 228 ,206
Total 1240,506 240
Corrected Total 52,228 239
** Significant differences with po,005.
26 Gran˜a et al.
The aggressively justified bullfight (emphasizing negative or violent descriptions of the
fight) caused greater negative emotional impact on children compared to counterparts
viewing the neutral scene, which lacked some type of justification. In this case also, the
nine-year-old boys scored higher on the aggression questionnaire than the girls. The
main conclusion is that the verbal messages that accompany the viewing of a bullfight
have significant consequences on the aggression, anxiety, and emotional impact levels of
young viewers. Festive descriptions produce more aggression and anxiety, while
narrations emphasizing the aggressive aspects of the fight have more emotional
impact.
This study also reveals the importance of modulating variables, such as age and sex of the
viewer. The effects of observing a bullfight were consistently greater in young boys. The data
coincide with claims by other authors that there is a period around nine years of age in which
children are most sensitive to the effects of violent scenes. At this age, the impact is much
higher for boys, who are especially likely to more easily identify with the aggressive
characters in such a scene [Huesmann et al., 1998; Viemero
¨, 1986; Viemero
¨et al., 1998]. The
impact of aggressive scenes is greater in children who present lower levels of aggression, and
again boys are more vulnerable to the effects of the violent or aggressive content of such
scenes [Viemero
¨1986; Zillman, 1993]. Moreover, as the degree of justification of the
aggressive display increases, so does the child’s tolerance of such behavior, thus increasing his
level of acceptable aggression [Drabman and Thomas, 1975; Drabman et al., 1977; Pen
˜a et al.,
1999; Ramirez, 1991, 1993; Ramirez et al., 2001].
Finally, these results are also in line with other studies demonstrating that the
psychological effects on children of viewing aggressive scenes is mediated by the cognitive
interpretation of such behavior, rather than the violence itself [Feshbach and Singer, 1971;
Huesmann, 1986; Huesmann et al., 1996]. These data are similar to those obtained by
Echeburua [1998] in relation to the effects on Spanish children of viewing bullfights. The
main conclusion of this study supports Bandura’s hypothesis [1989] that one of the most
important factors in determining appropriate behavior is the cognitive evaluation of the
occurrence.
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