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Climate change and human occupation in the
northernmost Chilean Altiplano over the last
ca. 11 500 cal. a BP
ANA MORENO,
1,2
*CALOGERO M. SANTORO
3,4
and CLAUDIO LATORRE
5,6
1
Pyrenean Institute of Ecology – CSIC, Zaragoza, Spain
2
Limnological Research Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
3
Instituto Alta Investigacio
´n, Departamento de Antropologı
´a, Universidad de Tarapaca
´, Arica, Chile
4
Centro de Investigaciones del Hombre en el Desierto, Arica, Chile
5
CASEB/Departamento de Ecologı
´a, Pontificia Universidad Cato
´lica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
6
Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity, Santiago, Chile
Moreno, A., Santoro, C. M. and Latorre, C. Climate change and human occupation in the northernmost Chilean Altiplano over the last ca. 11 500cal. a BP. J. Quaternary
Sci., (2008). ISSN 0267-8179.
Received 24 October 2007; Revised 11 August 2008; Accepted 1 September 2008
ABSTRACT: This interdisciplinary study represents an approximation towards understanding how
regional human cultural systems may have been affected by climate change in the northernmost
Chilean Altiplano (>3600 m) over the last ca. 11500 cal a BP. We compare the archaeological record
from Hakenasa cave with the lake record from Lago Chungara
´sediment cores, located 50 km to the
south. By integrating both of these archives in conjunction with regional palaeoclimate and archae-
ological data, we provide new evidence for the role of changing environmental and climatic
conditions in human settlement patterns. The first human occupation of the entire Altiplano occurs
at Hakenasa and is dated to 9980 40
14
C a BP (11 265–11 619cal. a BP), and took place under wetter
regional climate conditions. An archaeologically sterile deposit occurs at Hakenasa between 7870 and
6890 cal. a BP. Constituted by sands and gravels, these sediments are interpreted as a flood event. This
time period is synchronous with alternating short dry and wet events recorded in the Lake Chungara
´
sedimentary sequence. Human activity resumes and increases in importance at Hakenasa by ca.
6000 cal. a BP. This corresponds to wetter conditions indicated by the Chungara
´record. Even though
the lake record indicates intense volcanic activity over the last 6000 cal. a BP, this had little or no
impact on the human population present at Hakenasa. This study shows that even in this extreme
environment human settlement patterns do not always respond in a linear fashion to environmental
change. Copyright #2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEYWORDS: Altiplano; Central Andes; palaeoclimate; lake sediments; human ecosystems; Holocene.
Introduction
Establishing links between cultural history and environmental
change has quickly grown into a major field of inquiry which
has generated a collaborative effort between palaeoclimatol-
ogists and archaeologists throughout the world (e.g. Sandweiss,
2003; Burroughs, 2005; Dirksen and van Geel, 2005; Grosjean
et al., 2005; Me
´ndez and Jackson, 2006; Turney and Hobbs,
2006; Shennan and Edinborough, 2007). This research is driven
by important questions, such as: How and when does climate
become an important factor for human settlement and
establishment? To what extent can we use past climate
fluctuations (and other environmental fluctuations such as
volcanic activity) to actually predict past human settlement
patterns?
Recent case studies have provided ample evidence for the
role of environmental or climatic shifts in bringing about
cultural collapse and other negative consequences for regional
human populations. These are manifested as either widespread
abandonment of a region or substantial alterations in
subsistence strategies and settlement systems (Hodell et al.,
2001; Nu
´n
˜ez et al., 2002; Haug et al., 2003). In other cases,
major palaeoenvironmental changes that quash resource
availability along with increased population are clearly related
to intensification of production (Kirch, 2005). In some
instances, environmental factors may have no significant
impact on cultural processes, and certainly ancient societies
can flourish or collapse independently of climate fluctuations,
motivated by other factors such as population increase coupled
with social and economic reorganisation, along with trans-
formation in belief systems, etc. (Allison, 1996; Anderson et al.,
2007). Extreme drought, floods or pronounced temperature
JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE (2008)
Copyright ß2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Published online in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/jqs.1240
* Correspondence to: A. Moreno, Instituto Pirenaico de Ecologı
´a-CSIC, Avda.
Montan
˜ana 1005, 50059 Zaragoza, Espan
˜a.
E-mail: amoreno@ipe.csic.es
variations, however, can be especially detrimental in human
societies, where the resulting famine and disease are capable of
undermining key social structures (Binford et al., 1997; Hodell
et al., 2001; Haug et al., 2003).
As well-dated, high-resolution Holocene palaeoclimate
records from South America become increasingly available,
detailed chronologies of cultural change are now constantly
associated with climate change over the last few millennia. Of
particular interest for establishing links between climate and
human occupation is the Altiplano of South America, a broad
highland region with an average altitude of 3600 m. This region
has experienced a succession of wet and arid phases that
were spatially and temporally complex, as documented by
numerous palaeohydrological reconstructions across the
region (Abbott et al., 1997; Valero-Garce
´set al., 1999; Baker
et al., 2001, 2005; Grosjean et al., 2001; Latorre et al., 2003,
2005; Servant and Servant-Vildary, 2003; Maldonado et al.,
2005). Thus, many robust palaeoclimate records with accurate
chronologies are now being developed across the region. The
influence of past climate changes on the way of life of hunter-
gatherers should, however, be accomplished at a local spatial
scale of analysis as we attempt here – a basic step before
making any regional generalisations. Several recent publi-
cations have appeared dealing with this issue, mainly focused
on the South-Central Andes (21–248S) (see a review in
Grosjean et al., 2007). The links between climate and human
occupation in the northern Chilean Altiplano (18–218S) remain
poorly investigated (Fig. 1).
Here, we present a case study employing an interdisciplinary
approach integrating archaeological, palaeoecological and
palaeolimnological data, all of which are necessary for
understanding the possible influence of climate change on
regional cultural systems in the northernmost Chilean
Altiplano. To achieve our goal we combine a high-resolution
lake record obtained at Lago Chungara
´and the nearby
chronologically well-dated human archaeological occupation
at Hakenasa cave. The Chungara
´sedimentary sequence
provides a detailed reconstruction of the lacustrine sedimentary
evolution over the last 12 000 cal. a BP (Moreno et al., 2007;
Sa
´ez et al., 2007; Giralt et al., 2008). The Hakenasa
archaeological sequence extends from the Early Archaic
(11 265–11 619 cal. a BP), to the Late Period-Inka related
epoch, dated to the 16th century AD (Santoro, 1987; Santoro
and Nu
´n
˜ez, 1987; Nu
´n
˜ez and Santoro, 1988, 1990; LeFebvre,
2004). This site, along with Las Cuevas and Quebrada Blanca
(Fig. 1), contains the earliest high-altitude (>3500 m) human
occupation yet excavated in northernmost Chile and south-
ernmost Peru (Aldenderfer, 1999; Santoro, 1989).
Both Hakenasa and Lago Chungara
´are located on the
Chilean Altiplano, an extreme environment where rough
topography combines with high altitude, severe daily tempera-
ture variations and scant vegetation (Lambrinos et al., 2006).
This region has also been very sensitive to past climate changes
(e.g. Baker et al., 2001). The integration of these archives makes
for a strong combination that will let us inquire into the
relationship between human occupation and the rapidly
changing palaeoenvironments over the last 11 500 a.
Previous studies linking culture and climate
in the Chilean Altiplano
Palaeoindian sites (defined in chronological terms – see Nu
´n
˜ez
et al., 2002; Sandweiss, 2003; Grosjean et al., 2005) are
extremely scarce from the Altiplano of southernmost Peru and
northernmost Chile. In contrast, the evidence for early
Palaeoindian occupation in southern South America may have
occurred as early as 14 600 cal. a BP (Dillehay, 2002; Dillehay
et al., 2008). Other important palaeoindian sites are also known
from the southern coast of Peru (Sandweiss, 2003; DeFrance
and Umire, 2004) and the central Atacama highland or Puna de
Atacama (Nu
´n
˜ez et al., 2002; Grosjean et al., 2005). Only
during the Early Archaic (11 000–8000 cal. a BP) did small,
mobile bands of foragers begin to occupy the Altiplano by
moving seasonally from the upland valleys to the caves and
rock shelters at higher altitude (Santoro, 1989). Similarly, in the
central Atacama region (21–258S), Late Pleistocene explora-
tion camps have been well documented at lower elevations
(3000–3200 m), whereas the high Andes (>4000 m) were not
occupied until well into the early Holocene (Nu
´n
˜ez et al.,
2002; Grosjean et al., 2005).
By 9000 cal. a BP, high Andean palaeolakes had dried out
(Geyh et al., 1999; Placzek et al., 2006) and steppe grassland
vegetation retreated upslope under drier climatic conditions
(Latorre et al., 2005, 2006). Numerous authors working in the
period known as the Middle Archaic (8000–6000 cal. a BP)
have published archaeological records that show changes in
the settlement patterns both in the northern Altiplano as well as
Figure 1 Oblique view looking east across northern Chile, the central Andes and the Altiplano. Localities discussed in the text (white circles) and
major cities (black squares) are shown
Copyright ß2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Quaternary Sci., (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jqs
JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
in the Atacama and Loa basins (Santoro and Nu
´n
˜ez, 1987;
Aldenderfer, 1988; Baied and Wheeler, 1993; Nu
´n
˜ez et al.,
1996; Grosjean et al., 1997, 2005; De Souza, 2004). One of the
more well-known cultural changes seems to have occurred in
the central Atacama, where the abrupt reduction of human
activities along with widespread abandonment of certain areas
within the region has been coined the ’silencio arqueolo
´gico’
(archaeological silence) linked to widespread severe aridity
during the middle Holocene (Nu
´n
˜ez et al., 2002; De Souza,
2004; Grosjean et al., 2005, 2007). The ’silencio’ remains
controversial in northern Chile. For example, Middle Archaic
settlement patterns and cultural processes in the northern
Atacama (16–218S) show almost no or very little impact from
climate (Aldenderfer, 1988, 1989; Santoro et al., 2005). Based
on newer evidence from rodent middens and past groundwater
table fluctuations (Betancourt et al., 2000; Quade et al., 2001;
Rech et al., 2002, 2003), even the presence of ’mid Holocene’
severe aridity in the central Atacama has been disputed.
Although we do not attempt to resolve this important issue
here we note that: (1) regional climate change in the central
Atacama during the Holocene may be considerably more
complex than previously assumed (Latorre et al., 2006) – this
will thus require a much more solid chronology of the duration
of the ’silencio’; and (2) other factors that explain human
subsistence in the Atacama, such as technological advances (or
lack thereof), must be taken more fully into account.
Interestingly, central Atacama hunting and gathering
societies during the Late Archaic and the subsequent early
Formative period experienced dramatic cultural changes after
the ’silencio’. These include a new economic system supported
by agriculture and pastoralism, new technologies (ceramics,
metallurgy, textiles, interregional exchange) and the materi-
alisation of new ideas expressed as more complex forms of
social organisation and ideology (Agu
¨ero, 2005; Nu
´n
˜ez, 2005).
This cultural transformation ca. 5000–3000 cal. a BP has been
correlated with an increase in atmospheric moisture, allowing
for a circumscribed intensification of production in the form of
pastoralism and horticulture (Grosjean et al., 2001, 2003,
2007; Nu
´n
˜ez et al., 2006). In contrast, many well-dated records
from the mid to lower elevations along the Pacific Andean slope
evince either increased groundwater discharge between 8000
and 3000 cal. a BP (Bobst et al., 2001; Rech et al., 2002,
2003; Lowenstein et al., 2003) or interludes of increased
rainfall between 7500–6500 and 4500–3000 cal. a BP based on
rodent midden evidence (Latorre et al., 2002, 2003, 2005).
Thus the causative relationship (if any) between environmental
and cultural changes in the central Atacama remains unclear
and constitutes a major challenge for future research. Yet, it is
interesting to note that the cultural intensification of the Late
Archaic is correlated with increased El Nin
˜o–Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) frequency and intensity (Kerr, 1999;
Sandweiss et al., 2001; Moy et al., 2002; Turney and Hobbs,
2006; Williams et al., 2008).
Geology and climate
At 4100 m, Hakenasa cave (178500S, 698220W) is emplaced
along a bluff of faulted rhyolitic ignimbrite (LeFebvre, 2004)
(Figs 1 and 2). The site overlooks a bofedal – a high-altitude
wetland that constitutes the best habitat on the Altiplano in
use even today by traditional pastoralists. Located 50 km to
the south, Lago Chungara
´(188150S, 698090W, 4520 m) is
emplaced in the highest and westernmost fluviolacustrine
basin within the Altiplano (Fig. 1). The lake sits in the central
portion of a small hydrologically closed sub-basin at the
northeastern edge of the Cenozoic Lauca Basin. The lake was
created by the partial collapse of the Parinacota Volcano, the
resulting avalanche blocking the paleo-Lauca River some time
between 20 000 and 13 000 cal. a BP (Seyfried et al., 1998;
Hora et al., 2007; Sa
´ez et al., 2007).
Our sites are located in the dry puna of the arid South-Central
Andes (Troll, 1958). Tropical summer rain brings moisture to
this region from the Amazon Basin, the frequency of which is
Figure 2 Floor plan of Hakenasa cave (after LeFebvre, 2004, based on Santoro field notes). Inset: vertical profile with the stratigraphy and
14
C dates of
the SW–NW trench. Cave strata and dig levels are indicated (after Santoro field notes)
Copyright ß2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Quaternary Sci., (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jqs
HOLOCENE CLIMATE AND CULTURE IN THE CHILEAN ALTIPLANO
chiefly tied to the seasonal southward migration of the
subtropical jet and the intensification of the Bolivian High
(Garreaud et al., 2003). Mean annual rainfall averages 300–
350 mm; mean annual temperature is 4.28C. The average
monthly minimum temperature is 28C, with a monthly
average maximum of 5.18C and a diurnal range of as much as
25–308C (Rundel and Palma, 2000). A significant fraction of the
interannual variability in summer precipitation at present is
related to the ENSO (Vuille, 1999). Wet (dry) summers on the
western Andean Altiplano are associated with anomalous
cooling (warming) of the equatorial Pacific such as that present
during La Nin
˜a (El Nin
˜o) events. Local vegetation is
characterised by low cover values (<30%) and dominated
by tussock-like grasses (Festuca,Nassella,Deyeuxia), shrubs of
the Asteraceae, Solanaceae and Verbenaceae families, and the
dwarf tree Polylepis (Rosaceae), as well as extensive soligenous
bofedales dominated by cushion sedges (Villagra
´net al., 1999).
The Lago Chungara
´and Hakenasa cave
records: methods and chronology
In November 2002, 15 sediment cores were retrieved from
Lago Chungara
´, analysed for physical properties and macro-
scopically described for texture, colour and sedimentary
structures. Subsamples were taken for mineralogical, chemical
and biological analyses (see Moreno et al., 2007, for methods)
and core archive halves were measured using an X-ray
fluorescence (XRF) core scanner for light (Al, Si, S, K, Ca, Ti,
Mn and Fe) and heavy (Sr, Zr, Sn and Ba) elements.
From stratigraphical correlation and seismic stratigraphy,
two main lithostratigraphic units were defined in the Chungara
´
sequence (Fig. 3) and published by Sa
´ez et al. (2007). Unit 1
was deposited after the volcanic event that created the lake and
consists of diatomaceous ooze with variable types (calcite,
aragonite) and quantities of carbonates and amorphous organic
matter. Unit 1 is divided in two subunits: Subunit 1a, with green
and white laminations and no carbonate; and Subunit 1b, with
brownish to white laminations and endogenic carbonates that
occur in low concentrations. Unit 2 is mainly composed of
massive to slightly banded diatomaceous ooze frequently
intercalated by tephra layers (Fig. 3). Subunit 2a is composed of
brownish-red massive to slightly banded sapropelic diatomac-
eous ooze with common calcitic crystals (silt grain-sized) and
carbonate-rich layers. Subunit 2b consists of dark-grey
diatomaceous ooze with frequent macrophyte remains alter-
nating with massive black tephra layers, mainly composed of
plagioclase, glass and mafic minerals.
Obtaining a reliable chronology of Lago Chungara
´sequence
is complicated by (1) the lack of terrestrial macrofossils and
(2) the variable reservoir effect (Moreno et al., 2007; Giralt
et al., 2008). Owing to the lack of terrestrial macrofossils,
17 accelerator mass spectrometric (AMS)
14
C dates were
obtained from bulk organic matter from the central plain cores
Figure 3 (a) From Lago Chungara
´record: Fe (cps) and magnetic susceptibility as indicators of volcanic input; Si/Ti ratio and opal percentages as
indicators of siliceous biomass production and Ca/Ti ratio and calcite percentage as indicators of carbonate precipitation. Lithostratigraphic subunits
and qualitative evaluation of environmental moisture conditions and volcanic activity are also plotted. (b) Minimum mean average rainfall (MAR)
estimates obtained from past distributions of plant species found in rodent middens in the Rı
´o Salado basin (see Latorre et al., 2006). Errors on ages are
at two standard deviations. (c) Archaeological contexts, including the summed probability distribution of 111
14
C dates from coastal and low-altitude
areas in northern Chile over the last 14 000 a; compilation of the main interpretations from Hakenasa (levels L13–L1) and summary of the
archaeological periods in this area
Copyright ß2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Quaternary Sci., (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jqs
JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
and aquatic organic macrofossils picked from littoral cores
(Table 1). The similarities in the sedimentary facies among
the cores and the presence of key tephra layers allow transfer
of obtained dates to a single composite depth (Sa
´ez et al.,
2007). A reservoir effect was subtracted from the ages before
calibration. This effect was established by dating the dissolved
inorganic carbon (DIC) in present-day water (2320 40
14
Ca
BP) and correcting that value for the nuclear bomb effect at the
year of sampling (Geyh et al., 1999). The final value, 3620 a
(Giralt et al., 2008), is very similar to that obtained previously
by Geyh et al. (1999) in Lago Chungara
´. The age model used
here is the same as that previously published by Giralt et al.
(2008).
Once the
14
C dates were corrected for any reservoir effects
(see Giralt et al., 2008, for further details), they were calibrated
using INTCAL04, provided by the CALIB 5.02 software package
(Reimer et al., 2004), selecting the median of 95.4% of the
distribution (2sprobability interval). A reliable age–depth
model was established after removing the two reversals
(Table 1, ’Reservoir corrected and calibrated age 2s, cal. a
BP’ column), using the interpolation method described in
Heegaard et al. (2005).
A1m
2
test pit was excavated, sieved and curated by C.
Santoro and P. Dauelsberg from Hakenasa rock shelter in 1983.
This yielded a stratigraphic sequence of 2 m deep that
spanned from the Early Archaic (11 000 cal. a BP) to the
present (Santoro, 1987, 1989; Santoro and Nu
´n
˜ez, 1987;
Nu
´n
˜ez and Santoro, 1988, 1990). In 2001, 16 m
2
were
excavated and analysed by C. Santoro and R. LeFebvre.
Readers are referred to LeFebvre’s PhD dissertation (LeFebvre,
2004) for more detailed information on the cultural and faunal
remains selected from the 2001 excavations. Seventeen
charcoal
14
C dates constitute the chronology of Hakenasa
cave sediments (three from the 1983 excavation, 11 from 2001
(LeFebvre, 2004) and three obtained in 2007; Table 1). These
dates were recalibrated at 2susing the same methods as the
Chungara
´samples (INTCAL04 – CALIB 5.02) (Reimer et al.,
2004).
Table 1 Radiocarbon and calibrated dates from Hakenasa rock shelter and Lago Chungara
´sediments
Level Laboratory ID Type of sample
14
C age (a BP) Reservoir corrected and calibrated age (2s) (cal. a BP)
Hakenasa rock shelter
2
B-187525 1 1,550 60 1,316–1,551
3
B-187526 1 1,860 60 1,689–1,930
4
B-187527 1 2,810 60 2,771–3,078
4
I-13229 1 2,850 280 2,334–3,645
5
B-187528 1 3,700 60 3,875–4,182
6
B-187529 1 4,270 70 4,781–4,980
9
I-13230 1 4,380 120 4,789–5,319
7
B-187530 1 5,140 70 5,710–6,021
Top 8 – Base 7
B-219700 1 6,200 80 6,891–7,273
Top 10 – Base 9
B-219701 1 6,960 50 7,683–7,872
23
I-13287 1 8,340 300 8,578–9,960
10
B-187531 1 8,789 60 9,595–9,959
11a
B-187532 1 9,170 70 10,219–10,515
11b
B-187533 1 9,260 60 10,257–10,577
12
B-187534 1 9,520 70 10,646–11,106
13
B-187535 2 9,580 40 10,741–11,107
13
UGAMS2953 1 9,980 40 11,265–11,619
Lago Chungara
´sediments
Water Beta-188745 DIC (surface water) 2,32040
a
–
Subunit 2b 37 Poz-8726 3 4,620 40 1,470–2,430
42 Poz-8720 3 4,850 40 1,585–2,565
67 AA56904 4 6,635 39 2,075–3,420
95 Poz-8721 3 7,290 50 2,575–4,350
2a 257 Poz-8723 3 8,920 50 5,285–7,500
344 AA56903
b
4 10,000 50 6,245–8,335
436 Poz-8724 3 10,860 60 7,055–9,245
1b 490 Poz-7170 3 8,570 50 7,630–9,975
550 Poz-8647 3 9,860 60 8,360–10,865
615 Poz-7171 3 11,070 70 9,155–11,605
Subunit 1a 665 AA56905 44,385 100 –
675 Poz-8725 38,810 50 –
697 Poz-11891 3 11,460 60 9,605–12,275
742 Poz-13032 3 10,950 80 9,685–12,685
785 Poz-11982 3 11,180 70 9,740–13,260
827 Poz-13033 3 12,120 80 10,206–13,675
865 Poz-7169 3 13,100 80 10,215–14,615
Italic samples were excluded from the age model. 1, charcoal; 2, bone; 3, bulk organic matter; 4, aquatic organic macrofossils.
1983 test excavation;
dates in LeFebvre’s thesis (2004) and Grosjean et al. (2007);
AMS dating in 2007.
a
3620 a (after nuclear bomb correction).
b
At 344 cm, there is one available U/Th date that gives an age of 6,730 974 years BP, coherent with the
14
C date once corrected for the reservoir effect
and calibrated. All dates from Lago Chungara
´are published in Giralt et al. (2008).
Copyright ß2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Quaternary Sci., (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jqs
HOLOCENE CLIMATE AND CULTURE IN THE CHILEAN ALTIPLANO
Climate change and cultural processes in
the northern Chilean Altiplano
Initial human occupation
Human occupation at Hakenasa began as early as 11 265–
11 619 cal. a BP (Table 1, level 13), along with other examples
of initial human occupation in the Altiplano during the early
Holocene, which includes Las Cuevas (11 180–10 300 cal. a
BP, 2srange) and the open camp at Quebrada Blanca (11 180–
10 740 cal. a BP, 2srange) (Santoro, 1989; Grosjean et al.,
2007). Lithic artefacts show a technically well-developed
unifacial stone industry that used percussion, pressure and
thermo-percussion techniques to elaborate a toolkit that
includes points, knives, cutting tools and scrapers linked to
hunting and subsequent butchering and hide processing
(Santoro, 1987, 1989; Santoro and Nu
´n
˜ez, 1987; LeFebvre,
2004). LeFebvre (2004) has shown changes in the toolkit from
the Late Archaic period, confirming previous observations from
Hakenasa and other sites of the zone. This is reflected by a
general tendency to produce more expedite artefacts (Santoro,
1987, 1989; Santoro and Nu
´n
˜ez, 1987; LeFebvre, 2004).
Faunal remains found at Hakenasa (Lefebvre, 2004; C. Salas,
pers. comm.), as well as at Las Cuevas (Santoro and Nu
´n
˜ez,
1987) and Quebrada Blanca (Grosjean et al., 2007), include
those of camelids, cervids, vizcachas (Lagidium sp.) and other
artiodactyls and rodents. No macrobotanical remains have
been identified so far in the analysed archaeological remains,
whereas a microbotanical search is yet to be done.
Climate change as inferred from the nearby Lago Chungara
´
sediments can shed some light for early Holocene peopling of
the Altiplano. At ca. 11 500–10 500 cal. a BP, a major climate
change occurred at the boundary between Subunit 1a (green
and white laminations and no carbonate) and Subunit 1b
(brownish to white laminations and authigenic carbonates)
(Fig. 3). At this boundary, several proxies indicate a general
increase in lake biomass production (Si/Ti ratios and percentage
biogenic opal increases, Fig. 3). Lake biomass production
remained high throughout the early Holocene until 7000–
6000 cal. a BP, when a decrease in the proxies concurs
with maximum carbonate precipitation as evidenced from
higher Ca/Ti ratios and calcite percentage. This coincides
with the increase in volcanic activity at about 6000 cal. a BP,
represented by the Fe and magnetic susceptibility profiles
(Fig. 3).
Increase in lake biomass production (11 000–7000 cal. a BP)
was interpreted here as the result of a positive water balance
(Moreno et al., 2007; Giralt et al., 2008). This implies more
rainfall in the catchment region and increased runoff (more soil
erosion) and consequent higher nutrient input into the lake. A
higher nutrient input would create significant diatom blooms.
In contrast, low rainfall values (or increased evaporation rates)
would lead to lower water levels, resulting in increased salinity
along with carbonate precipitation. Hence both Si/Ti and Ca/Ti
ratios have been used as climate proxies at this particular lake
(Moreno et al., 2007).
Wetter climate conditions throughout the Lateglacial (ca.
13 000 cal. a BP) to the early Holocene (ca. 8500 cal. a BP) have
also been inferred from several different proxies analysed from
Lago Titicaca sediments (Baker et al., 2001; Fritz et al., 2006)
and from changes in the Rio Ilave discharge (Rigsby et al.,
2003). In addition, a 4%increase in d
18
O values at
11 500 cal. a BP in the nearby Sajama ice core would seem
to indicate increased temperatures at the onset of the Holocene
(Thompson et al., 1998). Sajama ice core d
18
O values,
however, are influenced strongly by the amount of precipi-
tation, air temperature and moisture source variability, and the
relative contribution of each of these signals in this part of the
world is not at all resolved (Bradley et al., 2003; Vuille et al.,
2003). Although past variations in the hydrological cycle can
apparently be teased out from geohistorical records, tempera-
ture changes in the central Andes at the onset of the Holocene
remain unclear.
The aforementioned palaeoclimate records indicate that
Hakenasa was probably first occupied at a time of stable
regional climatic conditions, characterised by conditions
wetter than today at the end of the last glacial cycle (e.g.
Coipasa lake cycle, 13 000–11 000 cal. a BP; Placzek et al.,
2006). Thus the date obtained from a small hearth on a shallow
hollow at the rocky base of the cave (Table 1, 11 265–
11 619 cal. a BP) may be considered the first human incursion
in the northern Chilean Altiplano. Increased hydrological
output would have incremented plant biomass production and
game animal populations as well as creating very suitable
conditions on the Altiplano for early peopling.
A dry event occurred at ca. 9500 cal. a BP in the Lago
Chungara
´record against an overall wetter climate conditions.
This corresponds to the first peaks of Ca/Ti and calcite
percentage (Fig. 3) that point to the presence of endogenic
carbonate deposits indicative of increased salinity as lake level
dropped and littoral areas became increasingly exposed
(Moreno et al., 2007). This dry event at Lago Chungara
´is
coeval with a similar dry phase indicated by increased
percentage of benthic diatoms at Lago Titicaca (Baker et al.,
2001) and by the Laguna Seca pollen record (see Fig. 1 for
location), in the immediate vicinity of Lago Chungara
´
beginning at ca. 9000 cal. a BP (Baied and Wheeler, 1993).
Clearly, the northern Chilean Altiplano was affected by at least
one major dry spell around 9500–9000 cal. a BP. Even this 500–
1000 a dry spell seems to have influenced human occupation at
Hakenasa, as clearly shown by an overall decrease in tool
count in a later phase of the Early Archaic at Hakenasa (level
10; 9960–9595 cal. a BP; LeFebvre, 2004).
A possible gap in the human occupation
sequence at Hakenasa cave
Juxtaposed between the first human occupational levels of the
cave (Early Archaic) and the Late Archaic period, two culturally
sterile episodes, embodied by stratigraphic levels 8 and 9,
occur (Table 1 and Fig. 2). These levels are constituted by sands
and gravels of fluvial origin which coarsen first then fine
upwards. Initial sedimentary analyses indicated that the
sequence resulted from a single flood event (LeFebvre,
2004). Hence the lack of cultural remains at this time interval
was interpreted by LeFebvre (2004, p. 51) as resulting from the
erosion of older archaeological levels from the cave. In
contrast, based on new AMS radiocarbon dates we believe that
this interpretation is now incorrect. The gravels and sands most
likely accumulated continuously without a major break in cave
sedimentation or removal of cave sediment. Thus, the most
likely explanation for the lack of human remains is a gap in the
cultural occupation of the cave.
Dates from the 2001 excavation (along with three dates from
1983) (Table 1) were based on material extracted from a single
quadrat. These dates bracketed the flood as occurring between
9960 and 5710 cal. a BP. Radiocarbon samples obtained in
2007 from adjoining quads (N1E0 and N2E1) at the junctures of
levels 7 and 8, and 9 and 10 (8 and 9 were sterile), date the flood
more precisely from 7870 to 6890 cal. a BP (Table 1). The
juncture of these levels had a few scant charcoal remains,
Copyright ß2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Quaternary Sci., (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jqs
JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
micro-flakes and some bones, but no artefacts. Therefore, the
top of level 10 – base of the sterile level 9 and the top of level 8 –
and the base of the cultural level 7 are considered the last and
first human occupation of the cave, before and after the flood,
respectively.
Coeval with the Hakenasa cultural gap, offshore carbonate
precipitation reaches a maximum at Lago Chungara
´(Fig. 3).
This major sedimentological change indicates extreme aridity
at about 7500 cal. a BP in the Lago Chungara
´watershed
(Moreno et al., 2007) which lasted until ca. 6500 cal. a BP (the
phase marked as ’very dry’ in Fig. 3). Dry conditions, however,
were not sustained over this period but characterised instead by
a series of short and rapid dry spells, marked by Ca/Ti or calcite
percentage peaks. These relatively short intervals of alternating
arid and wet events are indicative of increased climate
variability with occasional extreme events. Catastrophic floods,
such as the one recorded by gravel and sandy sediment layers at
Hakenasa, are to be expected under such a climate.
Many different (and contradictory) interpretations of mid
Holocene climate have arisen from the diverse palaeoclimate
records across northern Chile (see Grosjean et al., 2003, 2005,
2007; Latorre et al., 2005, 2007). The long-held view is
that arid conditions prevailed from the early (ca. 9000 cal. a BP)
to mid Holocene (ending at about 4000 cal. a BP). This view
has been challenged repeatedly by different researchers
(Betancourt et al., 2000; Holmgren et al., 2001; Grosjean,
2001, versus Quade et al., 2001; Placzek et al., 2001;
Latorre et al., 2002, 2003, 2005; Rech et al., 2002,
2003). For example, slight differences exist between the timing
of low lake levels at Lago Titicaca (8500–4500 cal. a BP, with
the lowest lake levels occurring from 6000 to 5000 cal. a BP;
Baker et al., 2001; Cross et al., 2001; Tapia et al., 2003) and
Lago Chungara
´(7500–6500 cal. a BP). These differences could
arise either by discrepancies between the different chronolo-
gies or as a result of a complex mid Holocene climate signal
recorded in different environments and palaeoclimate proxies.
For example, estimates of minimum annual rainfall obtained
from past plant species distributions at Rı
´o Salado (228S) along
the upper margin of the Atacama Desert indicate several
pronounced episodes of increased rainfall between 7600 and
6700 cal. a BP (Fig. 3 and Latorre et al., 2006). Temperatures
also may have increased on the Altiplano by as much as 38C, as
witnessed by the greater pollen influx of cloud forest taxa, most
likely resulting from elevated treeline (which today lies 600 m
below the elevation of the lake today) into the Titicaca Basin
between 7960 and 3100 cal. a BP (Paduano et al., 2003).
Interestingly, human cultures flourished in coastal and low-
altitude areas of northern Chile during the mid Holocene period
(ca. 8000–5000 cal. a BP) (Fig. 3; Standen et al., 2004; Santoro
et al., 2005).
Finally, increased volcanic activity as deduced from the rise
of Fe and the presence of several tephra layers in the Lago
Chungara
´sedimentary sequence began at 6000 cal. a BP (Figs 3
and 4). Although increased volcanic activity in terms of ash and
smoke may have impacted and/or influenced occupation of
Hakenasa cave, this is refuted somewhat by the resettlement of
people in the area after 6000 cal. a BP (increase in artefacts in
level 7; LeFebvre, 2004), despite intense volcanic activity, and
the avenue of newly cultural traditions.
Additionally, environmental conditions on the Altiplano
seemed to have improved at the beginning of the Late Archaic
(6000 cal. a BP). Sustained wetter climate conditions are
inferred from the palaeoclimate record at Lago Chungara
´,
mainly by the decrease of carbonate precipitation in the lake
(Fig. 3 and Moreno et al., 2007). However, the dominance of
volcanic layers in the Chungara
´record during the last 5000 a
precludes a clear climate interpretation for this period.
Therefore, other factors may be considered to explain the
intensification of human activity at Hakenasa (LeFebvre, 2004),
as well as Asana (Aldenderfer, 1998); Patapatane, Pin
˜uta,
Guan
˜ure and Puxuma (Santoro, 1987, 1989; Santoro and
Nu
´n
˜ez, 1987).
By the same token, in the succeeding level 6 at Hakenasa
(4770–4620 cal. a BP), there is an important drop in total tool
count and weight of faunal remains (LeFebvre, 2004). This
change in the archaeological record corresponds to evidence
for short droughts in the Lago Chungara
´record, related to the
precipitation of authigenic calcite at ca. 4300 and 5200 cal. a
BP (Fig. 4 and Table 2). This also coincides chronologically
with the second most arid period on the Lago Titicaca record at
about 4500 cal. a BP (Baker et al., 2001) and with the drought at
4865 cal. a BP at Rı
´o Salado (Latorre et al., 2006). Consistent
with regional cultural processes, the appearance of ceramics in
level 5 (4230–3870 cal. a BP) (LeFebvre, 2004) marks the end of
the Late Archaic and certainly resulted in changes in food
preparation and storage, and the introduction of new objects
and technologies (pottery, beads, metal pieces; Santoro and
Nu
´n
˜ez, 1987).
Conclusions
The combination of palaeoclimate and archaeological data
from different sources provides a solid interdisciplinary
framework for understanding palaeoclimate as a driving agent
along with other factors in prompting cultural change. We also
point out that the pattern of regional climate change in northern
Chile was complex and stress the need for further increased
high-resolution records of past climate that could lead to
additional relationships with local records of past cultural
change. In general terms, the sequence of Lago Chungara
´with
wet (11 000–7500; 6000–4000 cal. a BP) and dry phases (the
driest period at 7500–6000 cal. a BP; shorter dry spells at about
9500, 4300 and 5200 cal. a BP) coincides with important
changes in the cultural history of the Altiplano as seen in
Hakenasa (Table 2) and other caves.
Human colonisation of highland habitats observed at
Hakenasa cave at 11 265–11 619 cal. a BP coincides with a
high lake biomass production phase as inferred from the Lago
Chungara
´palaeoclimate record between 11 000 and 7500 cal.
a BP. This is in agreement with other records such as Lago
Titicaca and Rı
´o Salado, which indicate the onset of the
Table 2 Palaeoclimatic variation and major cultural epochs for the northern Chilean Altiplano
Time period (cal. a BP) Palaeoecological condition Cultural epoch
12,000–7,500 Wetter and warmer (with short dry episodes starting at about 9500 cal. a BP) Early Archaic
7,500–6,000 Very dry and unstable Middle Archaic
6,000–4,000 Wetter and with more volcanic activity. Two short dry episodes at 4300 and 5200 cal. a BP Late Archaic
Copyright ß2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Quaternary Sci., (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/jqs
HOLOCENE CLIMATE AND CULTURE IN THE CHILEAN ALTIPLANO
Holocene as characterised by wet climate conditions in the
northern Chilean Altiplano. Under those circumstances,
human colonisation of the upper ecological zones along the
western slopes of the Andes was feasible.
From 7500 to 6500 cal. a BP, a dry and highly unstable
climate is clearly documented in the Lago Chungara
´record.
Such conditions may have triggered catastrophic floods like the
one recorded at Hakenasa, creating a cultural gap in the human
occupational sequence. At this point, and considering that
Hakenasa is the first site in the dry Puna where this gap is well
defined chronologically, we propose a period of short
abandonment. If this is the case, changes in the Early Archaic
cultural dynamics would have been the consequence of
diminished biotic resources in the region owing to prolonged
drought interrupted by short catastrophic floods that provoked
the inundation of the cave. This would have made the shelter
unfeasible as a base hunting camp site, for roughly over a
millennium (levels 8 and 9; 7500–6500 cal. a BP; Tables 1
and 2).
Finally, increased human activity at Hakenasa evident in
level 7 (6000 cal. a BP) and later is not clearly related to local
environmental change. In fact, other environmental factors
such as volcanic activity intensified throughout the mid to late
Holocene but these did not have any noticeable deleterious
effects at Hakenasa. In conclusion, it is clear that early human
settlement patterns responded to fluctuating climatic con-
ditions before 6000 cal. a BP in this extreme environment.
Posterior climate changes and volcanic activity, however,
seemed to have had little or no impact on the Hakenasa cave
cultural sequence.
Acknowledgements Support for this study came from projects
BTE2001-3225, BTE2001-5257-E and CGL2004-00683/BTE, funded
by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology. A. Moreno
acknowledges the funding from the European Commission through
the Marie Curie OIF proposal 021673-IBERABRUPT. C. Santoro
acknowledges support from FONDECYT grant 1070140, Centro de
Investigaciones del Hombre en el Desierto CIHDE, Universidad
de Tarapaca
´, Arica, Chile, DEST Endeavour Research Fellowship
(Australian Government), the National Museum of Australia, the Fenner
School, the Australian National University and the University of New
England (Armidale, NSW). C. Latorre acknowledges support from the
Center of Advanced Studies in Ecology and Biodiversity (CASEB),
the Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (IEB) and the PFB-23 project.
We thank Blas L. Valero-Garce
´s, P. Gonza
´lez-Sampe
´riz, R. P. LeFebvre
and Tom D. Dillehay for comments on earlier versions of the
manuscript and two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions.
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