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The IT Way of Loafing on the Job: Cyberloafing, Neutralizing and Organizational Justice
Abstract
Much attention has been devoted to how technological advancements have created a brave new workplace, revolutionzing the ways in which work is being carried out, and how employees can improve their productivity and efficiency. However, the advent of technology has also opened up new avenues and opportunities for individuals to misbehave. This study focused on cyberloafing—the act of employees using their companies' internet access for personal purposes during work hours. Cyberloafing, thus, represents a form of production deviance. Using the theoretical frameworks offered by social exchange, organizational justice and neutralization, we examined the often-neglected dark side of the internet and the role that neutralization techniques play in facilitating this misbehavior at the workplace. Specifically, we developed a model which suggested that when individuals perceived their organizations to be distributively, procedurally and interactionally unjust, they were likely to invoke the metaphor of the ledger as a neutralization technique to legitimize their subsequent engagement in the act of cyberloafing.
Data were collected with the use of an electronic questionnaire and focus group interviews from 188 working adults with access to the internet at the workplace. Results of structural equation modelling provided empirical support for all of our hypotheses. Implications of our findings for organizational internet policies are discussed. Copyright
... It is an employee engagement in internet surfing for non-job-related activities such as using social media, checking personal emails, e-shopping, and online gambling during office hours (Koay & Soh, 2018;Lim, 2002). Today, rapid technological developments, such as the proliferation of tablets and smartphones, have made CL more complex and widespread. ...
... Limited research investigated the PE-POJ (Lee et al., 2019), POJ and CL (Kim et al., 2015;Henle et al., 2009;Lim, 2002), and PE and CL (Rahaei & Salehzadeh, 2020) relationship in the current scenario. It reveals that PE significantly influences POJ, and POJ influences CL. ...
... Eight-items related to CL were adapted from Lim (2002) to measure CL. The respondents were asked to rate each item based on their experience and interest. ...
This article describes the context, content and management of a cultural festival organized by United Way of Baroda (UWB) an affiliate of United Way, a reputed charitable organization in the USA. This paper discusses the operational challenges associated in managing this cultural festival. The revenue surplus generated from the cultural festival is used to provide financial support to improve health, education, and empowerment of the needy population in the geographical area where UWB is located. We record our experience in conducting a management audit for this activity by (a) detailing the planning and execution of critical activities, (b) risk associated with critical resources, activities, and the processes and (c) opportunities for enhancing revenue. The possibility of scaling up this activity is also discussed.
... It is an employee engagement in internet surfing for non-job-related activities such as using social media, checking personal emails, e-shopping, and online gambling during office hours (Koay & Soh, 2018;Lim, 2002). Today, rapid technological developments, such as the proliferation of tablets and smartphones, have made CL more complex and widespread. ...
... Limited research investigated the PE-POJ (Lee et al., 2019), POJ and CL (Kim et al., 2015;Henle et al., 2009;Lim, 2002), and PE and CL (Rahaei & Salehzadeh, 2020) relationship in the current scenario. It reveals that PE significantly influences POJ, and POJ influences CL. ...
... Eight-items related to CL were adapted from Lim (2002) to measure CL. The respondents were asked to rate each item based on their experience and interest. ...
Drawing on social learning and equity theories, this study investigates the mediating role of perceived organizational justice (POJ) in the relationship between psychological entitlement (PE) and cyberloafing (CL) among employees of Nepali commercial banks. Data were collected through a cross-sectional survey using a self-reported questionnaire from 250 employees selected via purposive sampling. Partial least squares structural equation modeling was employed to test the proposed model. The results indicate that PE significantly influences POJ, and POJ partially mediates the relationship between PE and CL. This study underscores the importance of understanding CL in the banking sector and its organizational implications. Notably, it is among the first to explore the mediating role of POJ in the relationship between PE and CL within the context of Nepali bankers. The limitations of the study are highlighted and directions for future research are indicated.
... We propose that witnessing colleagues' daily cyberloafing are likely to induce feelings of relative deprivation among observers. Indeed, colleagues who engage in daily cyberloafing may gain more relaxation and leisure time than they are formally entitled to, while pretending to be working hard in front of their screens (Lim, 2002;Wagner et al., 2012). Hence, observers might feel disadvantaged and deprived because their peers have reaped benefits from cyberloafing. ...
... As a specific form of workplace counterproductive behavior, cyberloafing has been initially conceptualized as using organizations' Internet for personal matters instead of accomplishing work tasks (Lim, 2002). In tandem with advances in the mobile technologies, its conceptualization has evolved to encompass the use of smart phones, tablets, and other personal electronic devices for nonwork purposes (Andel et al., 2019). ...
... In tandem with advances in the mobile technologies, its conceptualization has evolved to encompass the use of smart phones, tablets, and other personal electronic devices for nonwork purposes (Andel et al., 2019). Typical cyberloafing activities include accessing private e-mails, browsing news websites, trading stocks, posting private blogs, playing online games, and chatting with friends (Aghaz & Sheikh, 2016;Lim, 2002;Lim & Teo, 2024). A previous survey conducted by the Ethics Resource Centre showed that more than 60% of employees send non-work-related e-mails or surf the Internet for entertainment during work hours (Ethics Resource Center, 2012). ...
Research on cyberloafing has primarily focused on its consequences on cyberloafers themselves. We shift this focus away from the cyberloafers, focusing instead on the dual reactions that cyberloafing generates for observers. Drawing on relative deprivation theory, we hypothesize that witnessing colleagues’ daily cyberloafing induces daily relative deprivation among observers, which in turn reduces their daily work effort and increases their daily badmouthing. Additionally, colleagues’ relative performance attenuates the positive relationship between observed daily cyberloafing and daily relative deprivation, such that observers experience less daily relative deprivation when their colleagues are relatively high performers. To test this, we conducted a daily survey of 128 employees over 10 workdays. The empirical results supported our theoretical model. Theoretical contributions and managerial implications are discussed.
... However, with the development of technology, the convenience of the internet in business life has led to the adoption of the concept of cyberloafing in addition to physical "loafing." The concept of "cyberloafing" is described by Lim (2002) in early 2000s. Many subsequent studies have adopted the same name. ...
... However, other nomenclatures used for this concept include "Junk Computing" (useless computing), "Cyberbludging" (cyber avoidance of responsibilities) (Mills, Hu, Beldona, & Clay, 2001), "Cyberslacking" (cyber laziness) (Block, 2001), "Non-Work Related Computing" (internet use unrelated to work) (Bock & Ho, 2009), "Cyberdeviance" (cyber deviation) (Weatherbee, 2010), "Internet Deviance" (deviant use of the internet), "Problematic Internet Use" (problematic use of the internet), "Online Loafing" (online loafing), "Internet Addiction" (internet addiction) (Ünal & Tekdemı̇r, 2015), "Personal Web Use" (personal internet use) (Anandarajan & Simmers, 2004). Cyberloafing was defined Lim (2002) as "the voluntary misuse of an organization's Internet access during work hours by an employee, browsing unrelated websites for personal purposes, and retrieving private emails" (Lim, 2002). Similar to Lim's definition, Blanchard & Henle (2008) followed the definition of personal use of the Internet and email control in their study. ...
... However, other nomenclatures used for this concept include "Junk Computing" (useless computing), "Cyberbludging" (cyber avoidance of responsibilities) (Mills, Hu, Beldona, & Clay, 2001), "Cyberslacking" (cyber laziness) (Block, 2001), "Non-Work Related Computing" (internet use unrelated to work) (Bock & Ho, 2009), "Cyberdeviance" (cyber deviation) (Weatherbee, 2010), "Internet Deviance" (deviant use of the internet), "Problematic Internet Use" (problematic use of the internet), "Online Loafing" (online loafing), "Internet Addiction" (internet addiction) (Ünal & Tekdemı̇r, 2015), "Personal Web Use" (personal internet use) (Anandarajan & Simmers, 2004). Cyberloafing was defined Lim (2002) as "the voluntary misuse of an organization's Internet access during work hours by an employee, browsing unrelated websites for personal purposes, and retrieving private emails" (Lim, 2002). Similar to Lim's definition, Blanchard & Henle (2008) followed the definition of personal use of the Internet and email control in their study. ...
... As the technological manifestation of this behavior, cyberloafing includes activities like sending non-work-related emails and using social media during work hours (Brock et al., 2013). It qualifies as employee deviance (Lim, 2002), violating key organizational norms and threatening both the organization and its members' well-being (Ozler and Polat, 2012). ...
... For instance, in a company with 100 employees, an hour of daily personal internet use results in over 25,000 person-hours lost annually. Personal use can also strain network resources, introduce malware and incur costs for addressing security breaches (ArcTitan, 2021;Lim, 2002). Employees engaging in personal internet use expose organizations to risks such as low productivity, security vulnerabilities, sexual harassment and wasted resources (Shahzadi and Khurram, 2022;Lim, 2002;Hadlington and Parsons, 2017). ...
... Personal use can also strain network resources, introduce malware and incur costs for addressing security breaches (ArcTitan, 2021;Lim, 2002). Employees engaging in personal internet use expose organizations to risks such as low productivity, security vulnerabilities, sexual harassment and wasted resources (Shahzadi and Khurram, 2022;Lim, 2002;Hadlington and Parsons, 2017). ...
Purpose
Cyberloafing has emerged as a significant phenomenon in the modern workplace, largely driven by shifts in work dynamics. Recent discussions suggest that Dark Triad traits may play a critical role in influencing cyberloafing behaviors; however, research exploring these traits in the context of cyberloafing remains limited. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the complex relationship between the Dark Triad personality traits – psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism – and cyberloafing. Additionally, this study examines four other psychological variables and two demographic factors as potential correlates of cyberloafing.
Design/methodology/approach
The survey sample consisted of 155 working adults from the USA who participated via Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk). All participants were required to be full-time employees (working 35 or more hours per week) and hold MTurk Master qualifications.
Findings
The findings of this study provide credible support for the research hypotheses. While not all Dark Triad traits are linked to cyberloafing, the influence of certain traits is significant enough to draw meaningful conclusions. Specifically, the results of this study showed that Machiavellianism and psychopathy were associated with both forms of cyberloafing: browsing activities and emailing activities. However, narcissism was not related to any form of cyberloafing. Additionally, pay satisfaction and social media addiction were positively related to both forms of cyberloafing, while age was negatively related.
Research limitations/implications
This paper addresses several limitations, suggests avenues for future research and outlines practical implications for organizations aiming to mitigate the adverse effects of cyberloafing.
Originality/value
Cyberloafing – engaging in non-work-related online activities during work hours – has gained increasing attention because of its potential to disrupt productivity and organizational functioning. However, limited research has explored this important behavior in depth. Building on contemporary studies, this study investigates the underlying mechanisms and potential implications of how Dark Triad traits may either encourage or mitigate cyberloafing.
... İşletmeler, geleneksel iş yöntemlerinden farklı olarak hem verimliliği (çalışanların performansı) arttırmaya yönelik hem de farklı iş uygulamalarının denenmesinde kullanılan bir platform aracı olarak internetin sunduğu potansiyeli tespit edip kullanmışlardır (Lim, 2002:675). Çalışanlar tarafından internetin kötüye kullanılmasıyla ilgili yapılan çalışmaların çoğu teorik olarak eksiklikler içermesi nedeniyle Lim (2002) tarafından Singapur'da bir ampirik çalışma yapılmıştır. Ardından Anandarajan ve Simmers (2002) tarafından yapılan çalışmada internetin kötüye kullanımının işyerindeki verimsizliğe yol açtığı (Mahatanankoon,2015:17) belirtilmiştir. ...
... Türkçe yapılan çalışmalarda sanal sapkınlık, siber aylaklık ve sanal kaytarma olarak ifade edilmesiyle beraber İngilizce yapılan çalışmalarda cyberslacking (Whitty and Carr 2006:237), cyberbludging, "cyberdeviance (Weatherbee, 2010:39) ve cyberloafing (Lim, 2002;Tandon vd. , 2021:56)" olarak ifade edilmektedir. ...
... Blau ve diğerleri (2004:14-15) tarafından sanal kaytarmanın 3 faktörlü ölçümü olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. Lim (2002)'in yaptığı çalışmada internette gezinme ve iş ile alakalı olmayan e-posta aktiviteleri belirtilmişti. Blau ve diğerleri bu faktörlere bir tane daha eklemişlerdir. ...
Nowadays, the internet is in an indispensable position in terms of making human life easier. In the digitalizing world, almost everything is tried to be solved through the internet. The Internet functions as an ever-changing and transforming interaction
tool of the digital world available to people. This functionality has a growing impact on people, businesses and systems around the world. We are in a period where traditional business models are changing, customer diversity is increasing and
competition is increasingly intense. Businesses are restructuring themselves by adapting to the digitalization process. However, in this transformation process, businesses are presented with both opportunities and threats. Being prepared
for opportunities and taking precautions against threats will make businesses more sustainable. Technologies that increase efficiency and provide competitive advantage will make it easier for businesses to achieve their goals. The use of
technology brings with it various challenges. One of these challenges is the phenomenon of cyberloafing in businesses. Cyberloafing, which is defined as
employees leaving their business aside during working hours and surfing the internet as a serious or minor counterproductive behavior, stands out as an issue that businesses should pay attention to. This study focuses on the theoretical structure of the concept of cyberloafing, its antecedent factors, causes and its relationship with other related concepts.
... Cyberloafing can be categorized as deviant behavior (Yaşar and Yurdugül 2013) . Cyberloafing is a term used to define employee use of the internet that is not related to work (Lim 2002) . In addition, it can be interpreted as the actions of employees who deliberately spend time using internet access that is not related to their work (Liberman et al. 2011) . ...
... Cyberloafing behavior (Lim 2002) first coined the term cyberloafing behavior, i.e. any voluntary use of the company's Internet connection by employees to check (including sending and receiving) personal e-mail or visiting personal websites during work hours is considered an internet layer of service . (Lim and Chen 2012) found that employee There are many possible reasons why employees cyberloaf. ...
... The object of research focused on cyberloafing behavior and performance of employees of the Plantation and Animal Husbandry Service of Central Sulawesi Province. According to (Lim, 2002) cyberloafing behavior has two aspects, namely browsing activity and emailing activity. Browsing activity is an internet usage activity that is not related to work tasks, while emailing activity is an internet usage activity related to accessing email during working hours without being at work. ...
In the study of employee performance management, this is an issue that requires important attention, where the performance of individual employees in the organization is part of organizational performance and can determine organizational performance. The increasing use of the internet among employees in various companies and agencies in Indonesia will certainly affect employee performance, both positively and negatively. This study aims to determine the effect of browsing and e-mail on employee work productivity at the Plantation and Animal Husbandry Service of Central Sulawesi Province. This study used a sample of 73 respondents and quantitative research type. Data collection techniques using questionnaires. Data analysis techniques using multiple linear regression tests. The results showed that variables browsing activities (X1) do not have a significant effect on employee performance and activity of sending emails (X2) has a positive effect on employee performance. If these two activities are examined simultaneously, it turns out that they have a significant effect on employee performance.
... Habits, Internet addiction (e.g. a high degree of internet addiction may also likely lead individuals to internet abuse behaviors (Chen et al, 2008), alongside demographic factor, social norms, and personal ethical codes, which are also among the individual factors predicting cyberloafing. Other factors are employee perceptions of injustice (Lim, 2002, Lim andTeo, 2005), job satisfaction (Stanton, 2002;Ugrin et al, 2008;Vitak et al, 2011), job commitment (LaRose andEastin, 2004;Garrett and Danziger, 2008), job characteristics (Vitak et al, 2011) and job burnout (Aghaz and Sheikh, 2016). ...
... employees facing stronger penalties for engaging in cyberloafing (Vitak et al, 2011), anticipated outcome (e.g. having the perception of serious negative consequences for organization and hurting their personal interest) can make employees less interested to engage in cyberloafing activities (Lim andTeo 2005, Blanchard andHenle 2008;Lim and Chen, 2012: 346;Vitak et al, 2011Vitak et al, : 1758Woon and Pee, 2004). ...
... Finally, the thesis will present succinctly the more important conclusions resulted from the research undertook through its three articles. (Lim 2002). Indeed, cyberloafing has been surveyed as the most frequent way in which employees waste time at work (Malachowski 2005) and is often pointed out as a type of job neglect (Lim 2002;Lim and Teo 2005), that is, as a counterproductive or deviant workplace behaviour (DWB) that harms organisational production . ...
Prior work provides equivocal clues as for whether a workspace perceived as crowded may ultimately affect the way employees use new technologies at work. The first aim of this study is to test whether there is a relationship between crowding perceptions at work and cyberloafing: employee misuse of the company’s Internet connection. The paper then proposes and tests a model according to which the relationship between crowding perceptions and cyberloafing is explaining by workplace emotional events (privacy invasion, trust and compassion among peers, and perceived fairness of supervisors), thus mediating this link. Data were collected from 299 respondents working in open offices at four IT-based companies in Iran. Results of structural equation modeling (SEM) found, first, a significant positive link between crowding perceptions and cyberloafing. Second, results also found that a lack of positive emotional events at work is a reason why this relationship occurs. Findings highlight the role that workspace labor conditions of employees plays in their personal use of the Internet at work. Findings indicate that a proper physical office arrangement can be a useful tool for managers in combating cyber slacking.
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Resumen
No existen estudios que examinen si la percepción de los empleados de que trabajan en espacios físicos masificados influye en la eficiencia de sus conductas laborales. El objetivo de esta tesis doctoral es doble. Primero, la tesis comprueba 1) si la percepción de masificación en oficinas abiertas con tecnología informática lleva a los empleados a participar en actividades contraproducentes (DWBs, o deviant workplace behavior), a usar indebidamente la conexión a Internet de la empresa para fines personales (esto es, ciber-pereza), y a reducir conductas cívicas organizativas (OCB, Organizational citizenship behavior). Segundo, el documento examina si 2) el ajuste persona-organización (POF), la empatía, el conflicto emocional, la invasión de privacidad, y el stress, forman parte de los mecanismos a través de los cuales estas relaciones son posibles. Se recopilaron datos de 299 encuestados que trabajaban en cuatro empresas con tecnología informática en Teherán (Irán). Los resultados de modelos de ecuaciones estructurales indicaron que los empleados que percibieron sus oficinas más masificadas confesaron practicar más conductas DWBs y más ciber-pereza, mientras que aquéllos que percibieron menor masificación se mostraron más cívicos con sus compañeros (OCB-I, o Interpersonal citizenship behavior). También, la pérdida de confianza y la compasión hacia los demás en el caso de la relación masificación-ciberpereza, y de privacidad en la relación masificación-DWBs actuaron como mediadores que explicaron estas relaciones. Mayores niveles de ajuste persona-organización (POF), empatía, y conflicto emocional, también mediaron la vinculación entre masificación y OCB-I. Los hallazgos indican y arrojan luz sobre por qué intervenciones de la dirección organizativa en la disposición física de las oficinas de planta abierta son herramientas útiles de gestión para influir sobre el nivel de eficiencia de sus empleados.
... These behaviors, along with activities like emailing, browsing the internet, online shopping, social networking, and texting are typical examples of cyberloafing behaviors (Lim & Teo, 2005;Ugrin et al., 2008). The use of the Internet for non-educational purposes within educational environments defines the concept of cyberloafing (Lim, 2002). Cyberloafing, first introduced by Lim (2002), is considered an obstacle to the successful integration of technology into education (Karaoğlan Yılmaz et al., 2015). ...
... Bu davranışlar ve benzer şekilde e-posta gönderme, internette gezinme, çevrimiçi alışveriş, sosyal ağ oluşturma ve yazılı mesajlaşma tipik siber davranış örnekleri olarak kabul edilmektedir (Lim ve Teo, 2005;Ugrin ve diğerleri, 2008). İnternetin eğitim ortamlarında eğitim amacı dışında kullanımı, siber aylaklık kavramını ifade etmektedir (Lim, 2002). Siber aylaklık, ilk olarak Lim (2002) tarafından ortaya atılmış ve teknolojinin eğitime başarılı şekilde entegre edilmesinin önünde bir engel olarak ifade edilmiştir (Karaoğlan Yılmaz ve diğerleri, 2015). ...
... İnternetin eğitim ortamlarında eğitim amacı dışında kullanımı, siber aylaklık kavramını ifade etmektedir (Lim, 2002). Siber aylaklık, ilk olarak Lim (2002) tarafından ortaya atılmış ve teknolojinin eğitime başarılı şekilde entegre edilmesinin önünde bir engel olarak ifade edilmiştir (Karaoğlan Yılmaz ve diğerleri, 2015). Siber aylaklığın en büyük nedenini öğrencilerin öğrenmeye isteksiz olmaları ile açıklayan Şenel ve diğerleri (2019), telefona bildirim gelmesi, iletişim kurma isteği, merak duygusu ve zamanı daha eğlenceli geçirme isteğinin ise diğer nedenler olduğunu belirtmektedir. ...
Akademik erteleme, pek çok farklı kültürde sonuçları ve yaygınlığı açısından öğrenme alanındaki en önemli olgulardan biri olarak değerlendirilebilir. Bu nedenle, akademik ertelemeye etki eden bileşenlerin belirlenmesi teoride ve uygulamada alana katkı sağlayacaktır. Bu doğrultuda araştırmanın amacı, lise öğrencilerinde irade ile akademik erteleme arasındaki ilişkide siber aylaklığın aracı rolünün incelenmesidir. Araştırmaya 284 kız ve 205 erkek olmak üzere toplam 489 lise öğrencisi katılmıştır. Katılımcılara yüz yüze ve Google formlar aracılığıyla çevrimiçi olarak ulaşılmıştır. Araştırma verileri Kişisel Bilgi Formu, Ergen İrade Ölçeği, Akademik Erteleme Ölçeği ve Siber Aylaklık Ölçeği kullanılarak toplanmıştır. Verilerin analizinde betimleyici istatistikler, t testi, Anova, Pearson Momentler Çarpımı korelasyon analizi, aracılık analizi ve Bootstrapping analizi kullanılmıştır. Analizler, SPSS 26 PROCESS ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda Akademik Erteleme Ölçeği puanlarının, cinsiyete ve sınıf düzeyine göre farklılaşmadığı; ancak okul türüne göre farklılaştığı, Fen Lisesi öğrencilerinin Akademik Erteleme puanlarının Sosyal Bilimler Lisesi ve Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerine göre daha düşük olduğu bulunmuştur. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre, irade ile siber aylaklık ve akademik erteleme negatif yönde anlamlı ilişkiler içindedir. Siber aylaklık ise akademik erteleme ile pozitif yönde anlamlı bir ilişkiye sahiptir. Son olarak araştırma sonuçları, irade ile akademik erteleme arasındaki ilişkide siber aylaklığın kısmi aracı rolü olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Sonuçlar, alan yazın temelinde tartışılmış ve önerilerde bulunulmuştur.
... Cyberloafing has been conceptualized as the usage of organizations' internet for personal use or non-productive work (Lim, 2002). Recent empirical research has also expanded the scope of the construct definition to include supplementary devices that workers can exploit to cyberloaf (e.g. ...
... In another survey of 2000 US employees, 62% of employees revealed that they spend at least some portion of their day at work on social networking websites (Mercado et al., 2017). Given the prevalence of cyberloafing, it is evident cyberloafing negatively impacts the performance of employees and organizations (Sutoni, 2023;Huma et al., 2017;Lim, 2002). ...
... Cyberloafing was measured using the 11-item scale developed by Lim (2002). Participants were requested to specify how regularly they engaged in cyberloafing over the past month on a 5-point scale. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the direct impact of leader-member exchange (LMX) quality on cyberloafing as well as its indirect impact through psychological capital.
Design/methodology/approach
Using a two-wave time-lagged design, data were collected from 417 full-time employees of 15 information technology service organizations in the Mumbai metropolis area of India.
Findings
Results indicate that LMX quality is negatively related to cyberloafing and psychological capital partially mediates this association. Even though data were collected at two points in time, the self-reported nature of the data is a limitation.
Practical implications
Results of the study have practical implications. Designing interventions to help managers enhance the quality of their relationship with their followers will directly and indirectly reduce cyberloafing by enhancing psychological capital.
Originality/value
This study is among the first to examine the impact of LMX quality on cyberloafing. In addition, the reliance on psychological capital theory to predict cyberloafing is a novel contribution. This study explores why and when LMX quality inhibits workplace cyberloafing.
... If employees do not like their jobs, they may intentionally or unintentionally slip away from the tasks at hand and get on the Interne [1,2], that is, cyberloafing. Cyberloafing refers to employees using the Internet for non-work activities during working time [3]. Cyberloafing is commonly regarded as production deviation behavior. ...
... Lim's Cyberloafing was measured with the cyberloafing scale developed by Lim (2002) [3]. This scale is one of the most widely used scales in the field of cyberloafing. ...
... Lim's Cyberloafing was measured with the cyberloafing scale developed by Lim (2002) [3]. This scale is one of the most widely used scales in the field of cyberloafing. ...
Cyberloafing as a production deviance behavior raises organizational concerns. Unfortunately, it is unknown how to minimize cyberloafing from a bottom-up perspective, particularly different types of cyberloafing. This study draws on the job crafting and dual-process theory to construct a framework for understanding the relationship between task crafting and passive–active cyberloafing, as well as their boundary condition (i.e., supervisor developmental feedback). We adopted a convenient sampling method, following a two-stage sampling with a time interval of 2 weeks. A sample of 614 full-time employed adults were recruited from the online survey. The results showed that: (1) Task crafting was negatively related to passive and active cyberloafing, respectively. (2) The impact of task crafting on passive cyberloafing rather than active cyberloafing was moderated by supervisor developmental feedback, such that task crafting had significant negative relations with passive cyberloafing when supervisor developmental feedback was higher (vs. lower). Overall, our research findings indicate that passive cyberloafing seems more sensitive to the organizational environment than active cyberloafing, thus different types of cyberloafing have different intervention strategies.
... Research on cyberloafing initially emerged within organizational settings. Lim (2002) suggested that cyberloafing behavior stems from three theories: social exchange theory, organizational justice, and neutralization. Social exchange theory refers to the motivation of individuals to engage in social exchanges that maximize rewards and minimize costs. ...
... The measurement instrument for cyberloafing was initially developed and pioneered by Lim (2002) in a work setting. The loafing behavior that disrupted productivity in the workplace eventually spread to the educational field, leading Akbulut et al. (2016) to construct a cyberloafing scale within an educational setting. ...
The initial ease of internet use has led to new challenges, one of which is the phenomenon of cyberloafing. Cyberloafing refers to the activity of accessing the internet during learning processes. The aim of this study is to modify the cyberloafing scale within an educational setting in Indonesia using the dimensions of sharing, shopping, real-time updating, accessing online content, and gaming/gambling. The modifications include contextualizing the original and adding new relevant items. Data collection was conducted using purposive sampling, involving 235 university students from various higher education institutions in Indonesia. The method used to test the validity of the cyberloafing model was confirmatory factor analysis. The results showed that out of 65 items, 20 were found to be valid, with a satisfactory total Cronbach’s alpha of 0.73-0.93 and McDonald’s omega of 0.71-0.93 for measuring reliability for each dimension of cyberloafing. The practical implication of this measurement tool is that it can be used to assess the intensity of cyberloafing among higher education students in Indonesia.
... But along with this convenience, come new challenges as well such as greater opportunities for students to use the internet for non-academic purposes during class, which distracts them from the learning and lowers their academic performance. Lim (2002) initially described the term cyberloafing as the practice of employees utilizing the internet for non-business purposes in working hours. Various terms have been used to refer to the term in the existing literature including cyberslacking, cyberdeviance, cyberloafing, and cyberbludging (Alyahya & Alqahtani, 2022). ...
... There are plenty of types of cyberloafing behaviours among students. Lim (2002) claimed that it involved browsing and emailing activities. Moreover, Blanchard and Henle (2008) categorize cyberloafing activities into two categories: minor and serious. ...
This study investigates cyberloafing among EFL learners in English Department in university at Pekanbaru, focusing on how students use digital devices for non-academic purposes during class. The aims of this study are to assess the level of cyberloafing and identify the reasons why do EFL learners engage in cyberloafing. The subject of this study was selected through cluster random sampling and convenience sampling. The total number of the sample was 71 students for the quantitative study and 10 students for the qualitative study. The study adapted explanatory sequential mixed-method design. The data were collected through 35 items questionnaire and semi-structured interview. The researcher employed descriptive analysis in terms of means for the quantitative data using SPSS 29 and thematic analysis for the qualitative data. The results revealed a high level of cyberloafing, with the most common activities being sharing followed by real time updating and accessing online content. It also showed contributing factors to cyberloafing including lecturer-related reasons, such as monotonous teaching methods, course-related reasons like unengaging peer-presentations, and student-related reasons including boredom and short attention spans. The study concluded that reducing cyberloafing may be achieved by improving teaching strategies, incorporating engaging digital tools and managing structured peer-presentations. It is suggested that lecturers establish a clear digital device policy during class, students promote self-regulation learning, and further research may explore long-term consequences of cyberloafing to mitigate cyberloafing behavior in educational settings.
... İş ortamında çalışan kişilerin mesai saatleri içinde bulunduğu yerin internetinden faydalanarak interneti kişisel amaçları için kullanması örgütlerin sanal kaytarma davranışı olarak tanımlanır. (Lim, 2002) En genel tanımıyla sanal kaytarma çalışma saatleri içinde örgütlerin amaçları dışında şahsi sebeplerle internet kullanımıdır. Sanal kaytarma bilişim ağlarında verim elde edilmeyen vakit geçirme olarak tanımlanmaktadır (Ugrin vd., 2008). ...
... Katılımcıların sanal kaytarma kavramına yönelik zihinsel imgelerine ilişkin bulgular incelendiğinde öğretmen adaylarının sanal kaytarma kavramını "derse katılım göstermeme" olarak algıladığı görülmektedir. Alan yazın incelendiğinde Lim, kavramı; çalışanların mesai saatleri içindeyken iş yerindeki interneti iş için değil kendi özel aktiviteleri için kullanması, kişisel maillerini kontrol etmesi, genel olarak iş dışı sitelerde özel işleri ya da keyfi olarak gezinmesi olarak tanımlamıştır (Lim, 2002). Ugrin ve arkadaşları (2008), sanal kaytarma davranışını sanal ortamda verimsiz bir şekilde vakit geçirmek olarak tanımlamışlardır. ...
ZET Sanal kaytarma, öğrencilerin ders dışı etkinliklerle zaman geçirmesi, interneti gereksiz veya amaç dışı kullanarak eğitim süreçlerinden uzaklaşmaları olarak tanımlanır. Bu araştırmada, uzaktan eğitim sürecinde öğretmen adaylarının sanal kaytarma davranışlarına yönelme sebepleri ve bu davranışların öğrenme süreçlerine etkileri ele alınmıştır. Sanal kaytarma genellikle sosyal medya kullanımı, oyun oynama, gereksiz internet gezintileri gibi faaliyetlerle ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bu davranışlar, ders esnasında dikkat dağınıklığına yol açarak öğretmen adaylarının akademik performanslarını olumsuz etkileyebilmektedir. Özellikle pandeminin zorunlu hale getirdiği uzaktan eğitimde, öğrencilerin kendi sorumluluklarını üstlenmeleri gerektiği ancak disiplin ve odaklanma eksikliklerinin bu süreci zorlaştırdığı belirtilmiştir. Bu araştırmada nitel yöntem desenlerinden durum çalışması kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu bir devlet üniversitesinde öğrenim gören 52 öğretmen adayı oluşmaktadır. Çalışma gurubuna açık uçlu olarak hazırlanan sorular Google form aracılığıyla iletilmiştir. Elde edilen veriler içerik analiz yöntemi ile MAXQDA 2020 paket programı kullanılarak bulgulaştırılmıştır. Yapılan analizler sonucunda, çalışma gurubunun uzaktan eğitim sürecinde sanal kaytarma davranışlarının olumsuz etkilere yol açacağı konusunda fikir birliğinde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bu davranışların ise öğrencilerin motivasyonlarını düşürebileceğini ve derse katılımını olumsuz etkileyeceğini belirtmektedir. Sonuç olarak, öğretmen adaylarının uzaktan eğitimde sanal kaytarmaya meyilli oldukları, bu davranışların akademik başarılarına olumsuz yansıdığı, ancak farkındalık yaratılarak ve öğretim yöntemleri iyileştirilerek bu olumsuz etkilerin azaltılabileceği vurgulanmaktadır Anahtar Kelimeler: uzaktan eğitim, sanal kaytarma, öğretmen adayı, içerik analizi CYBERLOAFING IN DISTANCE EDUCATION: A HIDDEN THREAT TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT ABSTRACT Cyberloafing is defined as students spending time on non-course-related activities and distancing themselves from the educational process by using the internet unnecessarily or for non-academic purposes. This study addresses the reasons for prospective teachers' tendencies to engage in cyberloafing behaviors during the distance education process and examines the impact of these behaviors on their learning processes. Cyberloafing typically manifests through activities such as social media use, playing games, and unnecessary internet browsing. These behaviors can cause distractions during lessons, negatively affecting the academic performance of prospective teachers.It is emphasized that, particularly in distance education, which became mandatory during the pandemic, students must take responsibility for their own learning; however, a lack of discipline and focus makes this process more difficult. In this study, a case study, a qualitative research method, was used. The study group consisted of 52 prospective teachers studying at a public university. Open-ended questions prepared for the study group were distributed via Google Forms. The data obtained were analyzed using content analysis with the help of the MAXQDA 2020 software package. The results of the analyses revealed that the study group agreed on the negative impacts of cyberloafing behaviors during the distance education process. It was noted that these behaviors could decrease students' motivation and negatively affect their participation in the lessons. In conclusion, it was emphasized that prospective teachers are inclined to engage in cyberloafing during distance education, which negatively affects their academic success. However, raising awareness and improving teaching methods could reduce these negative effects
... Cyberloafing refers to non-work-related Internet use during work time (Lim, 2002). Common cyberloafing behaviors include shopping, playing online games, and browsing Facebook during work hours (Lim and Chen, 2012). ...
... In contrast to traditional forms of loafing (e.g. taking long lunches, coming later, and leaving early; Lim, 2002), cyberloafing is considerably more difficult to detect and easier to conceal (Koay, 2018). For example, cyberloafers can minimize their non-work-related websites and display their monitor as workrelated when supervisors or coworkers are nearby with just a few clicks of a button (Cheng et al., 2020). ...
Purpose
Drawing on the conservation of resources (COR) theory, we propose a mediated moderation showing how proactive personality (PP) and job crafting toward interests (JC-interests) influence the relationship between interest incongruence and cyberloafing.
Design/methodology/approach
We used a three-wave survey and collected data from 429 full-time employees working in different industries in China.
Findings
We found that interest incongruence was positively related to cyberloafing. Furthermore, this positive relationship was more significant when employees were low in PP or engaged in low levels of JC-interests. In addition, the moderating effect of PP was mediated by JC-interests.
Practical implications
These findings are helpful for organizations in figuring out how to mitigate the detrimental effects of interest incongruence by providing more support to proactive employees and implementing various JC interventions.
Originality/value
This study suggests that PP and JC-interests (resource gain strategy) could mitigate the positive effect of interest incongruence on employees’ cyberloafing.
... Moreover, with the development of technology, access to the internet at work also increases the feasibility of production deviance (i.e., cyberloafing) (Liberman et al. 2011;Pindek, Krajcevska, and Spector 2018). Cyberloafing is a new form of production deviance which constitutes an unproductive use of time during work (Lim 2002). Thus, employees can pretend working hard while surfing. ...
... Fourth, our research also contributes to the production deviance literature by integrating and measuring the typical forms (e.g., taking excessive breaks, putting little effort into work) and the new types (i.e., cyberloafing) of production deviance. Although previous research suggested that cyberloafing was a new form of production deviance Liberman et al. 2011;Lim 2002), little research has integrated different forms into a single measurement of production deviance. In the current research, we measure both cyber and noncyber production deviance and form a composite. ...
What if employees engage in production deviance (e.g., take excessive breaks, intentionally work more slowly) not because they are lazy, but because they are trying to recover from working objectification? Through four studies ( N = 1075), we test whether working objectification promotes production deviance via thwarted perceived control. The results showed that employees who experienced more working objectification reported lower levels of control and thus engaged in production deviance more frequently (Studies 1 to 4) and planned to spend more time on production deviance (Studies 3 and 4). Furthermore, restoring objectified employees’ perceived control can reduce the occurrence of production deviance (Study 4). Together, these studies provide insight into how working objectification promotes production deviance and how to mitigate this effect.
... Disengagement coping dapat bersifat membuat pekerjaan terlihat lebih menarik melalui aktivitas-aktivitas yang tidak memiliki hubungan dengan pekerjaan (Game, 2007). Cyberloafing merupakan aktivitas yang dapat mengalihkan perhatian karyawan dari beban pekerjaannya kepada hal-hal pribadi dan rekreasi dengan mengakses internet di saat kerja (Pindek et al., 2018;Lim, 2002). Oleh karena itu, cyberloafing merupakan salah satu bentuk disengagement coping atau dengan kata lain cyberloafing merupakan dampak berupa sikap negatif seorang karyawan yang menjauhkan dirinya dari pekerjaannya. ...
... Job stress diukur dengan 13 indikator yang dikembangkan olehParker dan De Cotiis (1983). Cyberloafing diukur dengan menggunakan instrumenLim (2002) yang memiliki 11 butir pengukuran. ...
Internet usage at the workplace has the potential for misuse with employees engaging in cyberloafing activities. Therefore, this research was conducted to examine the relationship between job boredom and work overload on cyberloafing with the mediation of rumination and work stress. This research uses quantitative methods and respondents were selected using a purposive sampling technique, namely workers belonging to the millennial generation and working using internet technology from various industrial sectors, totaling 311 respondents. The data testing technique used is SmartPLS 3.2.9 software. There are five hypotheses accepted out of eight hypotheses in total. Excessive workload has a negative and significant effect on cyberloafing. Work boredom has a positive and significant correlation with rumination. Meanwhile, workload has a negative and significant influence on work stress. Rumination has a positive but not significant relationship with cyberloafing. Job stress has a positive and significant effect on cyberloafing. Meanwhile, for the mediation results, it was found that work boredom had a negative and significant effect on cyberloafing if mediation was carried out with rumination. Excessive workload has a positive but not significant correlation with cyberloafing if mediated by work stress.
... While cyberloafing can sometimes have a positive effect on employees by providing them with short mental breaks from work tasks, it also represents a significant challenge for organizations, primarily due to reduced productivity and increased security risks (Kirk et al., 2023). Some studies have identified cyberloafing as a deviant behavior in the workplace, specifically classified as "productivity deviance" because of its negative impact on employee productivity and financial losses for companies (Lim, 2002;Lim & Teo, 2005). Additionally, cyberloafing can increase an organization's vulnerability to security threats and cause network traffic disruptions due to excessive network usage (Liberman et al., 2011;Pee et al., 2008). ...
Cyberloafing is becoming an increasing challenge for organizations. This practice presents a significant security risk to organizational systems. Security breaches can lead to serious consequences, including financial losses, compromised confidential information, and damage to the organization's reputation. Additionally, cyberloafing can negatively impact communication, disrupting work processes and reducing the effectiveness of team collaboration. The aim of this paper is to explore cyber risks related to cyberloafing and organizational security, focusing on analysing existing studies to identify the main risk factors and propose guidelines for their effective management. Using the systematic literature review (SLR) methodology, the Scopus and Web of Science databases were examined. The search identified relevant literature related to cyberloafing and cybersecurity. This document answers questions about the most common cyber risks associated with cyberloafing in organizations, how it affects the security of organizational data and networks. It explores the effects of cyberloafing on organizational communication and team collaboration effectiveness and provides guidelines and strategies for managing cyberloafing risks within organizations. These findings can contribute to security in organizations to better understand the security threats associated with cyberloafing, which can be valuable for academia and organizations especially in today's digitalized work environments.
... Cyberslacking merupakan perilaku yang disengaja oleh karyawan untuk mengakses hal-hal yang tidak berhubungan dengan pekerjaan menggunakan fasilitas internet perusahaan (Lim, 2002). Pada perkembangan penelitian berikutnya, ditemukan bahwa konsep cyberslacking tidak hanya terjadi di dunia kerja, tetapi juga dalam ranah pendidikan terutama dalam situasi perkuliahan. ...
Cyberslacking merupakan perilaku mahasiswa yang memanfaatkan internet untuk aktivitas non-akademik selama perkuliahan sedang berlangsung. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui hubungan antara kepribadian conscientiousness dengan cyberslacking pada mahasiswa di Surabaya. Metode penelitian menggunakan kuantitatif korelasional dengan jumlah responden sebanyak 377 mahasiswa aktif di Surabaya yang diambil dengan teknik simple random sampling. Skala penelitian menggunakan skala kepribadian conscientiousness diambil dari aspek Costa dan McCrae (1992) dan skala cyberslacking dari aspek Akbulut. dkk (2016). Hasil penelitian menunjukkan adanya hubungan negatif yang sangat signifikan antara kepribadian conscientiousness dengan cyberslacking pada mahasiswa. Diharapkan mahasiswa dapat menghindari cyberslacking agar dapat meningkatkan produktivitas belajar, fokus pada tujuan akademik, dan mengoptimalkan waktu untuk kegiatan bermanfaat. Kata kunci: Kepribadian Conscientiousness, Cyberslacking, Mahasiswa.
... According to Masterson et al. (2000) and Sora et al. (2021), when an organization or firm bestows gratitude, respect, fairness, and other such qualities upon its personnel, it will cultivate a strong sense of confidence in the organization and enhance their motivation to exert more significant effort. Conversely, if employees perceive the employer to be unjust in handling or distributing outcomes, they are prone to engage in unlawful activities (Jeewandara & Kumari, 2021;Lim, 2002;Putri et al., 2017). One potential violation that may arise is the concealment of information within the workplace. ...
This study examines the impact of toxic workplace environments and negative workplace gossip on information concealing among lecturers. Furthermore, this research also investigates the influence of spirituality in the workplace from an Islamic standpoint as a moderating factor. This study centres on the academicians of private universities in Lampung, Indonesia. Data collection was conducted by delivering questionnaires to participants through both offline and online channels. The software application for data analysis is Jeffreys's Amazing Statistics Program (JASP). These results indicate a positive correlation between toxic workplace environments, unfavourable gossip, and knowledge hiding. Hence, it has been shown that workplace spirituality moderates the relationships inside toxic workplace environments. Negative workplace gossip correlates favourably with knowledge hiding. This study enhances the existing body of knowledge on social exchange theory by providing empirical evidence that validates the existence of social exchange in interpersonal interactions among academicians.
... Siber aylaklık, bir kişinin iş veya okul gibi sorumlulukları yerine getirirken, internette zamanını verimsizce kullanarak farklı amaçlarla vakit harcamasıdır (Lim, 2002). Ortaya atıldığı ilk dönemlerde iş gücü kaybı yaratacak bir durum olarak tanımlanırken, ilerleyen zamanlarda eğitim-öğretim faaliyetlerinde de sık karşılaşılan bir durum haline gelmiştir (Gezgin ve Sarsar, 2020). ...
... In addition, perceptions of resource importance vary across different work environments (Halbesleben et al., 2014). In new media organizations, employees often rely on internet browsing to obtain resources for productions, potentially increasing the likelihood of internet abuse (Lim, 2002) and workplace distraction. Research indicates that office employees spend over 1.3 h per day on personal activities or internet surfing, resulting in substantial productivity losses of ∼$8,875 per year for employees (d' Abate and Eddy, 2007). ...
The importance of humble leadership has garnered increasing attention among researchers. Most existing research focuses on its positive effects, but its negative effects are rarely discussed. From a more dialectical perspective, this study found that humble leadership has a dual impact, as it can foster employee innovative behavior and also trigger instances of time theft. Based on social information processing theory, this study used a questionnaire survey and structural equation modeling. Through the data analysis of 303 sample, the results suggest that humble leadership can reduce employee time theft by reducing employees' perceived acceptance of norm violations, while stimulating employee respect can increase employee innovative behavior, as well as supervisor's organizational embodiment can have a positive moderating effect. This study examines the mechanism of the influence of humble leadership on employee innovative behavior and time theft, broadens the body of humble leadership research, reveals the role of supervisor's organizational embodiment, and provides theoretical insights for enterprises to optimize organizational management.
... According to Lim (2002), the estimated $7 billion that firms spend on security device installation to prevent unethical activity serves as a stark reminder of the financial burden of unethical behavior. If that is the case in wealthy nations like America, the implications for African nations are even more concerning. ...
This article discusses Sub-Saharan Africa's challenges of development through the lens of developmental constraints in three chosen Sub-Saharan African countries analyzed to ascertain the level of unethical behaviors in the governance of the state. It analyzes the level of unethical behaviors in the governance of the countries. The study conceptualized to unravel Sub-Saharan Africa's major sustainable development challenge from human actions or inactions. Elite subversive conduct has affected people's welfare and sustainable development, as revealed in the study. The article advocates for people of character to manage Africa's 'resource centers and power' to spur its total growth.
... A third plausible explanation for the findings could be how the digital devices are used rather than the digital device itself. Although the term "cyberloafing" was originally used to describe employees' use of the internet for nonwork-related activities during work hours (Lim, 2002;Lim & Teo, 2024), the term has increasingly been used to examine students' nonacademic use of digital devices (e.g., internet browsing, social media) during schoolwork (Saritepeci, 2020). Bergdahl et al. (2018) reported a statistically significant correlation between low academic achievement and the amount of nonacademic use of digital devices in class. ...
Despite past efforts to investigate how students' interactions with digital devices shape their digital reading comprehension skills, we still need more knowledge about struggling readers in digital reading contexts. Previous research has shown that digital reading comprehension is negatively associated with general digital device usage and positively associated with some academic digital reading activities in the general student population. We used data from ePIRLS 2016 to investigate whether such patterns are related differently to struggling and nonstruggling readers. For struggling readers, we found that digital reading comprehension was negatively associated with the general use of digital devices for schoolwork. There was no statistically significant relationship between academic digital reading activities and digital reading comprehension. In contrast, this relationship was positively associated with digital reading comprehension among nonstruggling readers. We discuss how typical digital classroom activities may be differently related to digital reading comprehension depending on students' print reading comprehension skills.
... It employed online self-directed interviews to determine the participants' willingness to read both privacy policies and the terms of service before registering for digital media platforms, which also involved providing personal information. According to Lim (2002), this type of interview involves confronting participants with a screen record of their actual online behaviour and requesting that they reveal their thoughts and feelings. ...
This study examines the correlation between Online Privacy Literacy (OPL) and privacy protection behaviour (PPB), including evidence of any correlation between the two. In addition, it considers whether factors of intention, attitude, perceived behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behaviour control mediate the relationship between OPL and PPB online, and whether the relationships between demographic variables may act as moderators. This research took a sequential mixed-methods approach, with Study One employing an online survey of 1040 voluntary digital media users in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), and Study Two undertaking online interviews with ninety-five participants. The results found a relationship between OPL and PPB. In addition, subjective norms and perceived behaviour control also mediate relationship between OPL and PPB in MENA. Furthermore, while all the participants revealed paradoxical attitudes to PPB, the empirical study highlighted that the male participants tended to demonstrate greater concerns in relation to OPL.
... Cyber-slacking by employees is seen as a means of managing their well-being, but it has a detrimental impact on an organization's efficacy (K. Kim et al., 2016;Lim, 2002). In a study on the effects of remote work on employee productivity, Mustajab et al. (2020) discovered that while remote work is not feasible for most types of work, it can actually lower employee output if it is promoted. ...
This study examines the association between teleworking and cyber-slacking among lecturers in higher institutions of learning in Uganda. Further emphasis is to investigate the moderation role of transformational leadership on the association. Quantitative data was collected using self-administered questionnaires from 240 academic staff from higher institutions of learning from in Uganda. Data were analyzed using Process Macro version 3.2 to ascertain the moderation role of transformational leadership on the association between teleworking and cyber-slacking. The results indicate a significant positive association between teleworking and cyber-slaking. It also found out a negative significant association between transformational leadership and cyber-slacking. Furthermore, the study found out that transformational leadership moderates the association between teleworking and cyber-slacking. Institutions of higher learning should invest in leadership training programs aimed at developing transformational leadership competencies among academic and administrative leaders. These programs should focus on enhancing communication skills, fostering a supportive work environment, and promoting a culture of accountability and empowerment. Leaders should communicate clear expectations regarding teleworking arrangements, including performance standards, communication protocols, and acceptable internet use policies. The study is one of a kind and first to investigate the role of transformational leadership on the association between teleworking and cyber-slacking especially amongst institutions of higher learning putting emphasis on a developing nation like Uganda.
... For example, workplace productivity can be lost when employees engage in "cyberloafing" behavior. Cyberloafing means using companies' internet for non-work-related purposes during working time (Lim, 2002). In a current literature review, laptops and smartphones have been discussed as detrimental influences in a classroom setting. ...
... Cyberloafing pertama kali dicetuskan dalam jurnal (Lim, 2002) dikenal juga dengan cyberslacking, merupakan bentuk modern dari perilaku kontraproduktif yang merupakan cara paling umum karyawan membuang waktu di tempat kerja. Menurut (Pindek et al., 2018), karyawan diperkirakan menghabiskan waktu hingga 2 jam per hari untuk melakukan cyberloafing selama waktu kerja, kerugian hingga USD 85 miliar per tahun. ...
Peran internet dalam industri digital marketing agency dapat membawa dampak positif dan negatif. Persaingan digital yang makin ketat terus mendorong digital agency untuk menciptakan ide kreatif dan inovasi menarik agar dapat bersaing. Dalam tingginya tekanan, tanpa disadari internet menjadi celah yang digunakan semena-mena oleh karyawan perusahaan, cyberloafing. Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk menguji pengaruh Workplace Ostracism, Workplace Loneliness terhadap Employees’ Performance melalui Cyberloafing pada startup Digital Agency. Responden penelitian ini berasal dari seluruh populasi PT XXX yang merupakan startup yang menerapkan sistem kerja hybrid dan dominan menggunakan internet. Variabel yang digunakan pada penelitian ini yaitu Workplace Ostracism, Workplace Loneliness sebagai variabel independen, Employees’ Performance variabel dependen, dan Cyberloafing sebagai variabel mediasi. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini yaitu metode analisis berupa Partial Least Square (PLS) dengan software SmartPLS. Metode pengambilan sample dilakukan dengan sampling jenuh melalui pembagian kuesioner kepada 53 karyawan PT XXX. Berdasarkan analisis yang dilakukan, diperoleh hasil bahwa Workplace Ostracism, Workplace Loneliness, dan Cyberloafing berpengaruh signifikan terhadap Employees’ Performance, Cyberloafing tidak dapat mendukung mediasi pengaruh baik Workplace Ostracism dan Workplace Loneliness terhadap Employees’ Performance pada karyawan PT XXX.
... Cyberloafing is a concept similar to digital distraction in the line of literature. Lim (2002) and Ugrin, Pearson and Odom (2008) define cyberloafing as employees using Internet access for personal purposes and spending unproductive time on the Internet during working hours. While cyberloafing only takes place in the workplace, digital distraction can be found in a number of different areas, such as social life and education. ...
The aim of this study is to find out teachers' views on digital distraction. The sub-objectives of the study are to find out whether teachers experience digital distraction, in which environments they experience digital distraction, what they feel when they experience digital distraction and what precautions they take against digital distraction. The participants of the research, which was designated adopting with a phenomenological design, were a total of 81 teachers. As a result of content analysis, the reasons for encountering digital distraction were listed as advertising, latest news, alerts, the large amount of content on the Internet, being asked to look at a social media account, look at other studies when doing research, and other videos suggestions while watching a video interest/curiosity and boredom. The environments in which teachers experience digital distraction are social media, conducting research, social environment, shopping websites, work life and leisure time. The reasons for experiencing digital distraction in these environments include interest/curiosity, advertisements, notifications, boredom, news and the huge amount of content on the internet. Teachers experience negative emotions such as anger, sadness, and regret when they experience digital distraction. Teachers reported feeling happy because they were learning new information, they felt relaxed because they were moving away from the subject and resting, and happy because they were looking at things they were curious about. The precautions taken by teachers are self-control, turning off notifications, limiting the time spent digitally, taking the phone/computer away, not opening/closing too many tabs and installing ad/cookie blocker software.
... Öte yandan bu etkiler hem toplumsal hem ekonomik hem de bireysel açıdan birçok sorunla birlikte ortaya çıkmaktadır. Konuyla ilgili literatürün problemli internet kullanımı (Beard ve Wolf, 2001), sanal kaytarma (Lim, 2002), nomofobi (Allcott vd., 2022) olguları üzerinde yoğunlaştığını söylemek mümkündür. ...
Bu bölümde sosyal medya ve akıllı telefonların çalışma etiğinin dönüşümü üzerindeki rolü incelenmektedir. Çalışmada, küreselleşme ve dijitalleşmenin çalışma etiği üzerindeki etkileri bireyselleşme, tüketim, denetim ve esneklik boyutlarıyla tartışılmaktadır. Akıllı telefonlar ve sosyal medya, bireylerin tüketim alışkanlıklarını tetiklerken bireyselleşmeyi artırmakta, aynı zamanda iş ve özel yaşam arasındaki sınırları bulanıklaştırarak çalışanların daha fazla kontrol ve denetim altında olmasına neden olmaktadır. Çalışma, bu yeni durumun çalışanlar üzerindeki sosyal ve psikolojik etkilerini ele alarak, politika yapıcılar ve işverenlere yönelik önerilerde bulunmaktadır.
... For this reason, cyberloafing is a phenomenon that the modern business world will constantly encounter. Cyberloafing is defined as the use of ICT for personal purposes during working hours [10]. These uses have increased, especially with the development of technologies such as smartphones, tablets, lightweight computers and electronic book readers. ...
ABSTRACT
Objectives. The purpose of this study is to determine the causal relationships among positive and negative cyberloafing dimensions, safety behaviors and occupational incidents among hospital employees during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods. Data were obtained from 210 healthcare employees working in public hospitals in Turkey. The data were analyzed using Bayesian network analysis. This study examines the factors that have the most significant impact on occupational incidents through Bayesian belief updating. Results. The findings demonstrated that 28.7% of the sample experienced occupational incidents. Safety behaviors had the strongest impact on occupational incidents. When recovery (66.2%) and developmental cyberloafing (53.1%) are high and deviant (64.3%) and addictive cyberloafing (35.6%) are low, the probability of safety behaviors increases (79.6%) and occupational incidents decrease. The development dimension of positive cyberloafing and the deviance dimension of negative cyberloafing had the greatest impact on hospital employees’ safety behaviors and occupational incidents. Conclusions. Minor/positive cyberloafing behaviors have a high impact on safety behaviors and occupational incidents, whereas major/negative cyberloafing behaviors have a low impact. Therefore, the hospital administration should specifically control deviant and addictive cyberloafing behaviors. Furthermore, the analysis results recommend that managers consider allowing some positive cyberloafing behaviors to reduce occupational incidents.
... A typical item is "I often get bored with my work," which has a reported Cronbach alpha of 0.9 on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Finally, cyberloafing was assessed using Lim's (2002) 11-item cyberloafing scale, with Cronbach's alpha values ranging from 0.85 to 0.90. The item "I browse non-work-related websites during work hours" is rated on a five-Likert scale from 1 (never) to 5 (constantly). ...
Drawing from conservation of resources theory, the purpose of this study is to examine the effect of workplace boredom on employee engagement. The study also tests the mediating role of cyberloafing on the workplace boredom-employee engagement relationship. This study employs a quantitative method to analyse the link between constructs applying statistical, mathematical and computational techniques to extract generalizable findings. Utilizing survey research, data were collected through standardised questionnaire, along with a cross-sectional methodology that gathered data at a specific moment in time to investigate correlations among variables within a given group. The survey addressed all employees in Giwa Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. Given the unknown number of workers, Cochran's formula for an infinite population was applied, giving a sample size of 384. To avoid potential difficulties such as partial replies or nonresponses, the sample size was raised by 20%, leading to the distribution of 461 questionnaires. Over a period of 90 days, 386 correctly completed copies of questionnaire were received, generating 84% response rate. Data were examined using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), with preliminary tests for multicollinearity, outliers, normality and common method bias validating the adequacy of the dataset. The studies found that workplace boredom does not directly affect work engagement but significantly influences it indirectly through cyberloafing. This emphasises the mediating function of cyberloafing in lowering employee engagement. The study recommended that government should employ methods to prevent boredom and control cyberloafing by creating compelling work assignments and fostering digital responsibility.
... We measured cyberloafing with a nine-item scale (Lim 2002), and the items included "I shop online during work hours" and "I send non-work-related emails during work hours" (Cronbach's alpha = 0.939). ...
The pervasiveness of the work-related use of information and communication technologies after hours (W_ICTs) has raised concerns about its impact on employees. However, research on the relationship between W_ICTs and employee outcomes presented inconsistent findings. To address this issue, this study draws on the cognitive appraisal theory of stress to explore the double-edged sword effect of W_ICTs on employee cyberloafing and its boundary condition. By analyzing three-wave survey data from 340 employees in China, this study found that when employees have high job control, W_ICTs is positively associated with their needs satisfaction, which can decrease their cyberloafing. Conversely, when employees have low job control, W_ICTs is positively associated with workplace anxiety, which can increase their cyberloafing. This study contributes to understanding of the mixed effects of W_ICTs on employee behavior in the workplace. Furthermore, this study identifies an important boundary condition that can shape the consequences of W_ICTs for employees. This study provides valuable implications to organizations for effectively managing W_ICTs and mitigating potential negative outcomes in the Asia Pacific context.
... Griffin and Lopez (2004) emphasize that every individual in the workplace has the potential to display these destructive behaviors, which can be classified into minor and major deviance. Minor deviance includes "production deviance" behaviors such as intentionally working slowly, taking excessive breaks, or engaging in cyberloafing using workplace internet for personal purposes (Iqbal, 2019;Iqbal et al.,2020;Lim, 2002). Major deviance, on the other hand, encompasses serious misconduct like theft, misuse of company resources, and unauthorized use of office equipment for personal gain (Iqbal, 2019;Iqbal et al., 2020;Spector & Fox, 2005). ...
... Siber aylaklık, günümüzde teknolojinin dikkat dağıtıcı veya olumsuz yönlerini ifade eden çağdaş bir kavramdır (Nweke ve ark., 2024). Siber aylaklık terimi, ilk olarak çalışma saatleri sırasında eğlence ve sosyal etkileşim için internette gezinme davranışı olarak kavramlaştırılmıştır (Lim, 2002). Daha sonra kavramın kapsamı genişleyerek akademik yaşamı da içine almıştır (Ravizza et al., 2014). ...
... An employee's attitude towards their work and the organisation is directly related to the level of care and attention they receive. Justice in the workplace, according to Lim (2002), is "one's individual evaluation of the firm's appraisal of its employees." Justice, according to Cao, Yao, and Zhang (2023), boosts output, motivates employees to be proactive, and keeps them loyal to their companies. ...
This research aims to provide researchers with a fresh perspective on the topic of employee turnover in the textile industry of Pakistan by illuminating the connections between work environment, organizational justice, job embeddedness, employee engagement, and turnover intention. By conducting a thorough literature review, researchers are able to identify individual studies that investigated the connection between work environment, organizational justice, job embeddedness, employee engagement, and turnover intention in Pakistan's textile sector. 384 workers in the textile and garment industry in Pakistan provided the data for this study. In order to examine the hypothesized relationships, we used partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Employee engagement is shown to be most strongly influenced by factors like a positive work environment, organizational justice, and job embeddedness of belonging in one's employment. Employees' intentions to leave the company are impacted negatively by their level of work engagement. Furthermore, the connection between the work environment, organizational justice, job embeddedness, and turnover intentions is mediated by employee engagement. Work engagement is strengthened by all of these factors, and a company's ability to recruit and retain top employees is ensured. For the first time, turnover intention with the work environment, organizational justice and job embeddedness are being considered and studied together in the single research model. Such findings hold important implications for the managers of textile industry in Pakistan to mitigate the issue of employer turnover.
... The term "cyberloafing" was first introduced by Kamins (1995) to describe this phenomenon. It gained further prominence in academic literature through the work of Lim (2002). While the internet was initially expected to enhance employee productivity, it has also provided This research is part of the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) (Project ID: FRGS/1/2021/ SS02/SYUC/03/1) funded by the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. ...
Purpose-This study aims to advance the understanding of the relationship between responsible leadership and cyberloafing (defined as employees' non-work-related online activities during work hours) through the mediating effect of felt obligation by drawing on the social identity theory of leadership. Also, organisational identification is also examined as the moderator of the relationship between felt obligation and cyberloafing.
Design/methodology/approach-Using a survey research design, 261 full-time employees were recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk to examine the direct, indirect and interaction effects. Partial least squares structural equation modelling was used to analyse the data.
Findings-The results demonstrate that responsible leadership does not affect cyberloafing. However, responsible leadership positively affects felt obligation and felt obligation negatively affects cyberloafing. In addition, it is found that felt obligation mediates the relationship between responsible leadership and cyberloafing. Furthermore, organisational identification moderates the relationship between felt obligation and cyberloafing.
Originality/value-This study explores the mechanism through which responsible leadership leads to cyberloafing through felt obligation. Apart from that, organisational identification plays a crucial moderating variable in the relationship between felt obligation and cyberloafing.
Purpose-The purpose of the paper is to understand whether, why and when role overload predicts an organization-directed CWB: cyberloafing. To do so, we utilize the Stressor-Emotion-CWB theory and social exchange theory.
Design/methodology/approach-The authors collected data from 506 employees working in five Information Technology (IT) firms in India using a multiwave survey design. Results revealed support for all the hypotheses. Findings-This study found that negative affect partly carries the influence of role overload to cyberloafing. Secondly, the results indicate that role overload has a direct and positive relationship with cyberloafing. Third and finally, we found that narcissism moderates the positive relationship between role overload and negative affect, followed by cyberloafing. Originality/value-This paper showcases that role overload can evoke cyberloafing both as a coping mechanism and a retaliatory response directed at the organization. This paper further demonstrates that employees high in narcissism are vulnerable to stressors like role overload, and as a result, they experience more negative emotions and engage in more cyberloafing.
Purpose
This research sheds light on how workplace gossip may affect employees' emotional well-being via self-esteem. Further, the study examines the moderating role of cyberloafing in the examined relationship.
Design/methodology/approach
The study employs a moderated mediation model to examine the linkage among workplace gossip, self-esteem, and emotional exhaustion, incorporating cyberloafing as a moderator. Data were gathered from 249 employees working in various industries from the US.
Findings
Workplace gossip substantially diminishes self-esteem, which is inversely related to emotional exhaustion. Notably, cyberloafing positively moderates the relationship between self-esteem and emotional exhaustion, heightening the adverse effects of gossip.
Practical implications
The findings have critical implications for human resource management strategies. To mitigate the impact of gossip, HR managers should foster positive work environments, promote emotional well-being, and implement policies to curb cyberloafing.
Originality/value
This study expands the discussion on workplace gossip while probing the role of self-esteem and cyberloafing. It contributes to the application of the conservation of resource theory to analyze emotional well-being in organizational settings.
Daylight saving time (DST) affects millions of people in various everyday situations and is a common topic of debate in legislative parliaments around the world. This paper presents a literature review on the effects of the clock change and DST on electricity usage, health, crime rates, road safety, and economic aspects. This addresses a gap in current literature reviews, as there is a lack of linked analyses considering these research fields. We show that there are partial positive effects on crime rates and road safety generally that result from the delay in ambient light availability. This contrasts with the clearly negative effects on health and the economic aspects, which are mainly driven by the disturbed circadian rhythm and the resulting sleep problems. Furthermore, we find that the initial idea of DST to save electricity will probably no longer apply and may even lead to increased usage. This literature review provides a basis for future research and promotes interdisciplinary research by summarizing current findings in a cross-disciplinary manner and identifying research gaps and opportunities. Furthermore, the findings may guide policy-making discussions and decisions.
Purpose
Based on social cognitive theory, this study aims to investigate the influence of perceived overqualification (POQ) on employees’ cyberloafing behavior. The mediating role of moral disengagement and the moderating roles of organizational identification (OID) and organizational decline are further examined.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors collected 740 valid questionnaires from participants across multiple organizations. To minimize common method bias (CMB) and enhance the reliability of the findings, data were gathered at two different time points, with a 30-day interval.
Findings
POQ positively impacts cyberloafing through the mechanism of moral disengagement. Additionally, the indirect relationship between POQ and cyberloafing via moral disengagement is moderated by OID and organizational decline. Specifically, a higher degree of OID weakens the indirect effect of POQ on cyberloafing, while a higher level of perceived organizational decline strengthens this effect.
Originality/value
While most existing studies on cyberloafing focus on insufficient resources, such as role conflict and workload, the authors propose that surplus personal resources, exemplified by POQ, can also lead to cyberloafing. This research contributes to a broader understanding of antecedents of cyberloafing, highlighting the mechanism of ethical considerations and the interplay between personal qualifications, organizational identification and organizational decline.
Since cyberloafing has become prevalent across organizations, scholars have increasingly focused on exploring its antecedents. Based on ego depletion theory, we explore how and when interest incongruence, a particular type of person‐environment misfit, influences employee cyberloafing behaviours. Using three‐wave survey data of a sample from 443 Chinese employees, we found that interest incongruence is associated with ego depletion, leading to employee cyberloafing. Furthermore, our results demonstrated the moderating roles of trait self‐control and moral identity internalization in the interest incongruence‐ego depletion‐cyberloafing link at different stages. Specifically, trait self‐control mitigated the effect of interest incongruence on ego depletion and the indirect effect of interest incongruence on cyberloafing via ego depletion. Moral identity internalization mitigated the effect of ego depletion on cyberloafing and the indirect effect of interest incongruence on cyberloafing via ego depletion. These findings suggest that employee cyberloafing is not only an immoral issue but also a behaviour affected by employees' self‐regulatory resources.
This study offers suggestions for the ethical and responsible use of these technologies in educational settings by comprehensively addressing the effects of artificial intelligence (AI) in the field of education, its potential negativities and the concept of cyberloafing. Artificial intelligence is revolutionizing learning processes by offering innovative solutions such as providing individualized learning experiences, monitoring student performance, optimizing learning processes and personalizing teaching materials. However, along with these positive effects, it also carries various risks such as data privacy violations, ethical issues, reduced human interaction between teachers and students, systematic biases and inequality among students.
Cyberloafing has taken on a new dimension with the proliferation of artificial intelligence technologies. Cyberloafing refers to students' use of digital tools for extracurricular or personal entertainment purposes when they should be using them for educational purposes. In particular, the use of AI-based chatbots and creative content tools by students for noneducational activities can lead to negative consequences such as a decrease in academic achievement and distraction. However, AI also has the potential to monitor and limit such behaviors.
This study makes recommendations such as including AI literacy in curricula for all age
groups, providing comprehensive in-service trainings for teachers, and strengthening ethical and privacy policies. In addition, the importance of teachers' collaborative use of AI technologies is emphasized. Guidelines and strategies for the responsible use of AI in education should be developed and integrated into education in a way that protects students' critical thinking, creativity and ethical values. In this way, artificial intelligence can be considered as an opportunity rather than a threat in education.
As well as the facilitating impacts of technological developments in the globalizing world on human life, it is seen that they also provide sociological, psychological, cultural and behavioral changes. This new change in social and cultural life has revealed behavioral innovations in daily habits. Perhaps the most important of these behaviors is the bond established with social media and living within the axis of this bond. This new change in social life has affected daily habits. The new habits that people acquire also bring about different behavioral changes in working life. Examining the impacts of these changes has opened a new field for researchers. In this context, the present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of career satisfaction in the impact of person-organization fit on cyberloafing. To this end, a quantitative study based on the survey technique was conducted with employees and managers of manufacturing enterprises operating in Kayseri Organized Industrial Zone. According to the data obtained from the surveys from 430 manufacturing sector employees and managers, it was concluded that person-organization fit has a negative impact on cyberloafing, a positive impact on career satisfaction , and career satisfaction has a negative impact on cyberloafing. Also, it was found that career satisfaction mediates the insignificant relationship between person-organization fit and cyberloafing.
The widespread adoption of digital devices in educational settings has significantly improved due to technological advancements in modern history. However, this has also raised concerns about students utilizing the Internet for personal reasons that influence their time management, and motivation. Consequently, they affect their time management, decline academic motivation, and increase cyberslacking behaviour among students. In hindsight, this study aimed to examine the relationship between time management skills, academic motivation, and reduced cyberloafing habits among university students, employing the theoretical foundation of Self-Determination as the primary lens. Also, to explore the mediating role of academic motivation in the relationship between time management skills and cyberloafing behaviours. This study employed a quantitative approach and a questionnaire-based survey; 384 students participated in the survey. Data were obtained from the participants’ responses and assessed using a structured equation modelling statistical approach. In summary, the findings of the study showed a positive relationship between effective time management and academic motivation among students, which ultimately resulted in a reduction in cyberloafing behaviours during class hours. Furthermore, the results show that the utilization of time management skills has the potential to diminish instances of cyberloafing through its influence on academic motivation. Further results are based on theoretical and practical implications.
With the advancements in Communication technology, the state of the communications network has become considerably improved. When it comes to organizations, they are moving towards digitalization, and it leads to a rise in internet usage within the workplace. employees are misusing company-provided internet instead of using it for work-related tasks Therefore, the objective of the current study was to identify the impact of Cyberloafing on Job performance and the mediating effect of self-efficacy. This study intends to contribute to filling the empirical gap in the existing literature within the Sri Lankan context. Hence this was a quantitative and cross-sectional study which was based on an organization in IT industry employees. Data was collected through a structured questionnaire and 181 employees participated in this study. The data was analyzed by using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The analyzed results show that there is a significant negative impact of cyberloafing on job performance while there is a significant impact of self-efficacy as a mediator on the relationship between cyberloafing and job performance. Furthermore, this study is an initiative of organizational management with the support of supervisors and colleagues, to take necessary actions to reduce employee cyberloafing. It will increase productivity, efficiency and reduce time wastage within the organization, and improve job performance. Moreover, this study was limited only to one particular company in the IT industry in Sri Lanka. Therefore, the current study suggested that to conduct the study by considering all organizations in the business world within Sri Lanka to get an effective output from future research.
The increasing prevalence of Internet use in the recent years has led to a growing interest among researchers on cyberloafing behaviors. In general, cyberloafing at work is defined as the employees’ voluntary usage of the Internet for personal purposes. The previous research has shown its link with individual and organizational outcomes. This study in particular examines the effects of abusive supervision and perceived stress on cyberloafing behaviors among employees. In addition, it investigates whether perceived stress mediates this relationship. The sample consisted of 265 employees working at various sectors. They participated in an online survey, and filled out a questionnaire consisting of items that assess abusive supervision, perceived stress and cyberloafing behaviors at workplace. The results showed that abusive supervision positively predicts employees' cyberloafing behaviors It was also revealed that supervisor’s abusive behaviors predict greater levels of perceived stress among employees. However, the experience of stress did not play a mediating role in the relationship between abusive supervision and cyberloafing. This study contributes to a better understanding of the effects of leaders’ misbehaviors on employees’ psychological well-being and counterproductive behaviors at work. It also provides suggestions for managing with workplace mistreatment.
The authors investigated the relationship between organizational justice and organizational retaliation behavior —adverse reactions to perceived unfairness by disgruntled employees toward their employer—in a sample of 240 manufacturing employees. Distributive, procedural, and interactional justice interacted to predict organizational retaliation behavior. A relation between distributive justice and retaliation was found only when there was low interactional and procedural justice. The 2-way interaction of distributive and procedural justice was observed only at a low level of interactional justice, and the 2-way interaction of distributive and interactional justice was observed only at a low level of procedural justice.
Employee theft rates were measured in manufacturing plants during a period in which pay was temporarily reduced by 15%. Compared with pre- or postreduction pay periods (or with control groups whose pay was unchanged), groups whose pay was reduced had significantly higher theft rates. When the basis for the pay cuts was thoroughly and sensitively explained to employees, feelings of inequity were lessened, and the theft rate was reduced as well. The data support equity theory's predictions regarding likely responses to underpayment and extend recently accumulated evidence demonstrating the mitigating effects of adequate explanations on feelings of inequity.
Although the study of organizational justice has increased markedly in the past few years, little work has focused on the relationship between justice perceptions and extrarole behaviors. This study examined the relationship between perceptions of fairness and organizational citizenship behaviors in a sample drawn from two firms in the midwestern United States. A theoretical basis for a relationship between fairness and citizenship was drawn from equity theory and other theories of social exchange. Structural equation analysis with LISREL 7 found support for four hypotheses, including support for a relationship between perceptions of procedural justice and four of five citizenship dimensions. Conversely, perceptions of distributive justice failed to influence any dimension of citizenship. Implications for the relationship between procedural justice and citizenship are discussed.
In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed.
This article focuses on the phenomenon of on‐the‐job deviance among nurses. Deviant behaviors such as supply theft, drug theft, drug use, and procedural shortcuts are addressed from a theoretical perspective that incorporates components of differential association, social learning, and techniques of neutralization theories. Interview data from 25 registered nurses working in hospital critical care units are used to illustrate how nurses readily neutralize their deviant behaviors by using established rationalization schemes. The data suggest that the nature and limits of these rationalizations are created, perpetuated, and disseminated by the nursing work group. Moreover, evidence is presented that suggests that these rationalizations function as a priori discriminate stimuli, not simply as post hoc justifications for deviant behaviors.
Using a sample of hospital employees this study addressed whether job satisfaction mediates the relationship between absenteeism predictors and absenteeism and how well absenteeism predictors explained different measures of absenteeism. The results suggest that job satisfaction is not a mediator and that the independent variables explain more variance in records-based time lost than in self-reported time lost or self-reported absence frequency. Implications are discussed in terms of using job satisfaction as a mediator as well as the viability of alternative measures of absenteeism. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The goals of both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis are described and procedural guidelines for each approach are summarized, emphasizing the use of factor analysis in developing and refining clinical measures. For exploratory factor analysis, a rationale is presented for selecting between principal components analysis and common factor analysis depending on whether the research goal involves either identification of latent constructs or data reduction. Confirmatory factor analysis using structural equation modeling is described for use in validating the dimensional structure of a measure. Additionally, the uses of confirmatory factor analysis for assessing the invariance of measures across samples and for evaluating multitrait-multimethod data are also briefly described. Suggestions are offered for handling common problems with item-level data, and examples illustrating potential difficulties with confirming dimensional structures from initial exploratory analyses are reviewed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this study, we developed a typology of deviant workplace behaviors using multidimensional scaling techniques. Results suggest that deviant workplace behaviors vary along two dimensions: minor versus serious, and interpersonal versus organizational. On ...
This study tests a model that uses organizational justice variables and the personality trait of negative affectivity to explain two forms of deviant employee behavior. Prior research suggests that deviance can be directed interpersonally or against organizations. We propose a model that links unfavorable perceptions of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice, as well as the dispositional trait of negative affectivity, to both types of deviant acts. To test the model, a survey was distributed to employees from a government agency and an international manufacturer of paper products. Responses to the survey were analysed using structural equation modeling to evaluate the fit of the theoretical model to the data. Results showed that the model fits the data well and that nearly all of the hypothesized relations among constructs were supported. Implications of the results for the prediction and control of deviant behavior are discussed and future research directions are offered. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Although the study of organizational justice has increased markedly in the past few years, little work has focused on the relationship between justice perceptions and extrarole behaviors. This study examined the relationship between perceptions of fairness and organizational citizenship behaviors in a sample drawn from 2 firms in the midwestern US. A theoretical basis for a relationship between fairness and citizenship was drawn from equity theory and other theories of social exchange. Structural equation analysis with LISREL 7 found support for 4 hypotheses, including support for a relationship between perceptions of procedural justice and 4 of 5 citizenship dimensions. Conversely, perceptions of distributive justice failed to influence any dimension of citizenship. Implications for the relationship between procedural justice and citizenship are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It has been argued that behavior on the Internet differs from similar behavior in the “real world” (Joinson, 1998a). In the
present study, participants completed measures of self-consciousness, social anxiety, self-esteem, and social desirability,
using either the World-Wide Web (WWW) or pen and paper, and were assigned to either an anonymous or a nonanonymous condition.
It was found that people reported lower social anxiety and social desirability and higher self-esteem when they were anonymous
than when they were nonanonymous. Furthermore, participants also reported lower social anxiety and social desirability when
they were using the Internet than when they were using paper-based methods. Contrast analyses supported the prediction that
participants using the WWW anonymously would show the lowest levels of social desirability, whereas participants answering
with pen and paper nonanonymously would score highest on the same measure. Implications for the use of the Internet for the
collection of psychological data are discussed.
Surveying use policies of three organizations--- educational institutions, ISPs, and non-ISPs.
The article informs that the brokerage industry has been significantly transformed by the e-commerce revolution as of August 1, 2002. Considering that the powerful and relatively inexpensive web platform is extremely well suited for conducting trading and other financial service activities globally, brokerage firms are constantly trying to devise innovative web-based business applications and practices. and practices. As companies continue to experiment with these evolving web and Internet-related technologies, new business models are emerging in this industry. The global connectivity of the Internet provides a relatively economical medium for marketing products and services over vast distances. Brokerage firms are leveraging the reach and range of this platform to compete for clients and gain access to new markets. Web technologies are also helping firms realize their goal of mass customization. Web technologies also allow integration of information via web sites, which can be linked to corporate databases to provide real-time access to information.
The ubiquitos nature of the Internet is dramaticlly revolutionizing the manner in which organizations and individuals acquire and distribute information. Recent reports from the International Data Group indicate the number of people on the Internet will reach 320 million by 2002 [5]. Studies also indicate that in the U.S. alone, e-commerce will account for approximately $325 billion by 2002.
This article identifies ethical and management challenges facing public managers and speculates about what the consequences may be for the public when government agencies in the United States go on line (i.e., access the Internet and establish Web sites). The article is organized into five sections. The first section discusses the meaning of cyber management as a prelude to developing organizational strategies for promoting Internet use and discouraging Internet abuse. Section 2 draws the reader's attention to the specific content of acceptable use policies for the Internet. Section 3 then explores the challenges facing public managers to understand and abate the undesirable and sometimes unethical consequences that Internet usage may have for social or group life in public organizations. This discussion is followed by an examination of government use and abuse of the Internet. The final section highlights questions that must be answered in order for public managers to become effective cyber-age managers.
The manner in which the concept of reciprocity is implicated in functional theory is explored, enabling a reanalysis of the concepts of "survival" and "exploitation." The need to distinguish between the concepts of complementarity and reciprocity is stressed. Distinctions are also drawn between (1) reciprocity as a pattern of mutually contingent exchange of gratifications, (2) the existential or folk belief in reciprocity, and (3) the generalized moral norm of reciprocity. Reciprocity as a moral norm is analyzed; it is hypothesized that it is one of the universal "principal components" of moral codes. As Westermarck states, "To requite a benefit, or to be grateful to him who bestows it, is probably everywhere, at least under certain circumstances, regarded as a duty. This is a subject which in the present connection calls for special consideration." Ways in which the norm of reciprocity is implicated in the maintenance of stable social systems are examined.
Skarlicki and Folger (1997) found that distributive, procedural, and interactional justice interacted to predict workplace retaliation. In this follow-up and extension of that study, we investigated whether a person-by-situation interaction explained variance in workplace retaliation beyond what could be attributed to fairness perceptions alone. Negative affectivity and agreeableness were found to moderate the relationship between fairness perceptions and retaliation.
Honesty is a key element of ethical behavior in organizations, yet has received little theoretical or empirical attention. This article derives a model of the antecedents of deception in organizations. Self-interest theories, such as agency theory, and prosocial behavior theories of behavior are reviewed and an argument developed that intrapersonal conflict may meld the divergent theories and explain lying in organizations. Role theory identifies potential sources of intrapersonal conflict in organizations that may serve as antecedents to lying. Different types of role conflict are examined, each of which may lead to distress, and, in turn, may be resolved through deception: People may behave according to one role demand, and then state, or create the impression of, having behaved according to another role demand.
A review of the literature dealing with Sykes and Matza's theory of delinquency suggests that there is a need for a measure of their concept of neutralization that is both psychometrically sound and sensitive to the limited verbal skills of many delinquents. A neutralization scale was accordingly developed; evidence is offered to suggest that it is both reliable, in terms of internal consistency, and valid, in terms of (a) its relationship with other measures of a propensity toward delinquency, (b) its ability to differentiate between delinquents and nondelinquents, and (c) its ability to predict subsequent delinquency among incarcerated young offenders (both while institutionalized and during a 1-year postdischarge follow-up).
In their 1957 article, Sykes and Matza overstated the similarities between the value systems of delinquents and nondelinquents, and subsequent theorists have treated neutralization as a theoretical counterpoint to subcultural perspectives on delinquency. To overcome this artificial and unproductive dichotomization, a revision of neutralization theory is proposed that makes it compatible with subcultural interpretations of delinquency.
Prior neutralization research is flawed because it fails to (1) establish the correct causal order between excuse acceptance and delinquency and (2) con trol for youths' moral evaluations of delinquent behavior. This paper presents the results of a two-wave panel study designed to overcome these shortcomings. For several forms of minor deviance, excuse acceptance is found to be related to subsequent behavior in the manner predicted by the theory. Controlling for moral evaluations and prior behavior, these relationships hold primarily for youths who disapprove of the behavior in question (as expected) but who have previously engaged in that behavior (contrary to expectation). Theoretical im plications of these findings are explored.
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Using Sykes and Matza's (1957) “techniques of neutralization” paradigm, an adult sample of 9,175 retail, hospital, and manufacturing employees were examined to assess the empirical relationship of the concept with both self‐reported property theft and counterproductive deviant behavior in the workplace. Although the direction of causal order cannot be determined conclusively, above‐average employee rule breakers are significantly more likely than their less deviant peers to invoke guilt‐neutralizing techniques. The presence of age/ “denial of injury” and age/"denial of victim” interactions, however, suggests that the workplace deviance of younger employees does not depend nearly as heavily on neutralizing techniques as does that of their older co‐workers. This newly discovered age interaction may explain why earlier researchers prematurely (and erroneously) declared invalid the “techniques of neutralization” paradigm.
Introduction Contracting A Modern Dilemma Contract Making The Contract Makers Contemporary Contracts Violating the Contract Changing the Contract Business Strategy and Contracts Trends in the New Social Contract
In this chapter we have provided an overview of research on workplace deviance--sampling what has been done, what is being done, and most importantly, where we believe the future of research on organizational deviance is going. Our goal has not been to provide an exhaustive review of this research domain, but rather to highlight what we believe are interesting past, current, and future trends in the study of workplace deviance. We hope our efforts encourage much needed future research on this fascinating topic. We began this chapter with a consideration of the definition and conceptualization of workplace deviance. We discussed how the construct has evolved from one of narrow operationalizations of individual behaviors to numerous broader conceptualizations encompassing a wide range of behaviors committed by organizational members. We addressed antecedents of workplace deviance. Taken together, we identified three common trends in the study of antecedents of workplace deviance: examining workplace deviance as reactions to experiences such as injustice, as reflections of one's personality, and as adaptations to the social environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The authors investigated the relationship between organizational justice and organizational retaliation behavior—adverse reactions to perceived unfairness by disgruntled employees toward their employer—in a sample of 240 manufacturing employees. Distributive, procedural, and interactional justice interacted to predict organizational retaliation behavior. A relation between distributive justice and retaliation was found only when there was low interactional and procedural justice. The 2-way interaction of distributive and procedural justice was observed only at a low level of interactional justice, and the 2-way interaction of distributive and interactional justice was observed only at a low level of procedural justice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reports an error in the original article by J. Greenberg (Journal of Applied Psychology, 1990, Vol 75[5], 561–568). A corrected version of Table 2 is presented. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1991-07467-001.) Employee theft rates were measured in manufacturing plants during a period in which pay was temporarily reduced by 15%. Compared with pre- or postreduction pay periods (or with control groups whose pay was unchanged), groups whose pay was reduced had significantly higher theft rates. When the basis for the pay cuts was thoroughly and sensitively explained to employees, feelings of inequity were lessened, and the theft rate was reduced as well. The data support equity theory's prediction regarding likely responses to underpayment and extend recently accumulated evidence demonstrating the mitigating effects of adequate explanations on feelings of inequity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Summary Predictors of employee aggression against coworkers, subordinates, and supervisors were studied in a sample of 136 men employed full-time. Person behaviors (history of aggression, amount of alcohol consumed) predicted aggression against a coworker. In contrast, aggression against a supervisor was predicted by two perceived workplace factors (procedural justice, workplace surveillance). However, neither person behaviors nor perceived workplace factors predicted aggression against a subordinate. In addition, person behaviors and perceived workplace factors interacted to predict aggression. First, procedural justice interacted with amount of alcohol consumed in predicting both aggression against a coworker and aggression against a subordinate. Secondly, both job security and procedural justice interacted with history of aggression in predicting aggression against a subordinate. Finally, job security and amount of alcohol consumed interacted to predict aggression against a subordinate. Results suggest that both the understanding and prediction of employee aggression will be enhanced by taking into account the target of employee aggression, and by including both perceived workplace factors and person behaviors as predictor variables. Copyright #1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Psychological contracts are individual beliefs in reciprocal obligations between employees and employers. In a sample of 224 graduating MBA students who had recently accepted job offers, beliefs regarding employment obligations were investigated. Two types of obligation were demonstrated empirically: transactional obligations of high pay and career advancement in exchange for hard work and relational obligations exchanging job security for loyalty and a minimum length of stay. These types of obligations are connected with two forms of legal contracts: transactional and relational. Relational contract obligations for employers correlated with employee expected length of stay with the firm. Transactional contract obligations were associated with careerist motive on the part of new recruits. The relationship between these and other motives of new hires was also investigated.
The internet is the fastest growing computer network with millions of users worldwide. However, research on the internet in the Asian context has been relatively lacking. This paper examines internet usage in Singapore, a small island of 650 square kilometers in South-East Asia. Data on the demographic profile of internet users, usage patterns, uses of the internet as well as factors affecting an enjoyable internet experience were gathered via an electronic survey on the world wide web (WWW). A total of 1370 usable responses were received. Results of this survey showed that internet users in Singapore generally comprise teenagers and young adults. Messaging and browsing activities are performed more frequently than downloading or purchasing activities. The access speed of connection is rated as highly important by internet users. Implications of these results are discussed.
Despite its uses, the Internet is liable to be abused. “Internet Addiction” is a newly proposed construct, derived form DSM-IV criteria for substance abuse. As a very recent phenomenon, excess internet use probably arises through pre-existing mechanisms. The addictive element may be the search for stimulation through interactive services, or the Internet may serve the purpose of an escape from real-life difficulties. We therefore considered the extent to which sensation seeking or poor self-esteem predicts heavier Internet use. Fifty participants, recruited through the Internet or the Internet Addiction Support Group, completed an Internet Related Problem Scale, the MMPI-2 Addiction Potential Scale, the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and the Sensation Seeking Scale. The Internet Related Problem Scale showed a moderate level of internal consistency and demonstrated construct validity, predicting hours of Internet use and having a relationship with the Addiction Potential Scale. While poorer self-esteem predicted greater scores on the Internet Related Problem Scale, impulsivity did not. Researchers need to re-assess previous conceptualizations of the typical “computer addict” as a highly educated, male introvert with a constant need for intellectual stimulation (Shotton, 1991).
Internet usage in the American workplace is increasing at a phenomenal rate. This exploratory study examines factors influencing employee Internet usage and individual perceptions of the consequences of such usage. Using the Theory of Reasoned Behavior, a questionnaire was designed and administered to MBA students in the northeast sector of the United States. The results of this preliminary study indicate that personal and organizational variables are associated with beliefs and attitudes about the Internet, and that beliefs and attitudes are related to Internet usage. For someone who perceives the Internet as intimidating, Internet usefulness, time and frequency on the Internet, and business activity usage decreases. In contrast, for someone who perceives the Internet as useful, there is an increase in Internet use, and frequency. Additionally, Internet usage is related to several indicators measuring Internet impact. Time on the Internet is positively associated with enhanced job characteristics, job satisfaction, overall productivity, but also inefficiency.
This article focuses on the usefulness of Internet surveys. Internet surveys are cheaper and faster to carry out than postal surveys, and their electronic format facilitates analysis. Research results via the Internet can be collected around the clock from individuals who may be difficult to contact or unwilling to participate using traditional research methods. Incentives can be useful for conducting Internet surveys, and many see an exchange culture emerging, because Internet users may not be willing to give personal information without getting something in return. Posting on newsgroups may be a good method to recruit participants for online focus groups, where large numbers are not required, but characteristics of respondents are important. Using banner ads on appropriate sites can successfully target survey respondents. The main drawback of targeting survey respondents via the Internet is the anonymity of respondents. Multiple submissions can also be a problem as they invalidate data, and on the Internet they may be easier to create. Researchers must keep practical and ethical issues in mind when searching for survey respondents over the Internet.
Cyberloafing in an Asian context.