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Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women's Empowerment

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This paper begins from the understanding that women's empowerment is about the process by which those who have been denied the ability to make strategic life choices acquire such an ability. A wide gap separates this processual understanding of empowerment from the more instrumentalist forms of advocacy which have required the measurement and quantification of empowerment. The ability to exercise choice incorporates three inter-related dimensions: resources (defined broadly to include not only access, but also future claims, to both material and human and social resources); agency (including processes of decision making, as well as less measurable manifestations of agency such as negotiation, deception and manipulation); and achievements (well-being outcomes). A number of studies of women's empowerment are analysed to make some important methodological points about the measurement of empowerment. The paper argues that these three dimensions of choice are indivisible in determining the meaning of an indicator and hence its validity as a measure of empowerment. The notion of choice is further qualified by referring to the conditions of choice, its content and consequences. These qualifications represent an attempt to incorporate the structural parameters of individual choice in the analysis of women's empowerment.

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... Women's ability to make their own decisions about sexual and reproductive health (SRH) (SRH) 1 is both an essential right and a key part of reaching gender equality and better health for all (World Health Organization, 2019). Approximately two-thirds of the Bangladeshi population resides in rural areas, where women's SRH autonomy is often constrained by social norms, economic dependence, and power structures that uphold male authority in family and health-related matters (Kabeer, 1999;Lazo & Pillai, 2018;Mahmud et al., 2012;Mahmud & Tasneem, 2014). Even with improvements in education and employment opportunities, women's independence to make their own SRH choices is still restricted due to a variety of factors. ...
... In many families, men control or undervalue women's financial contributions. This limits women's ability to make independent SRH decisions (Biswas et al., 2017;Kabeer, 1999;Mahmud et al., 2012). ...
... As a result, these studies often miss the full picture of rural women's unique experiences. Research shows that patriarchal structures strongly shape women's decisionmaking, affecting both their health and independence (Jahan & Habib, 2024;Kabeer, 1999;Koli, 2024 In Bangladesh's rural areas women are rarely able to decide for themselves when it comes to SRH due to patriarchal norms. Norms vary by region, community, and economic status, creating diverse barriers to women's SRH autonomy; for example, Chowdhury et al. (2013) found that women from poorer or minority groups face more obstacles in getting SRH services than women who are wealthier or better educated. ...
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Background: Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) decision-making is key to understanding gender issues, especially for women in rural Bangladesh. In these communities, women’s health is shaped by family and societal power dynamics. Research Objective: This study aims to understand how factors such as family authority, cultural norms, and economic conditions affect women’s choices and autonomy regarding SRH decision-making. Data material and methods: Using qualitative methods, interviews with ten rural Bangladeshi women reveal the challenges they face in making SRH decisions. Thematic analysis identifies patterns in their experiences. The analysis is guided by three theories: Kabeer’s "power to choose," Kandiyoti’s "bargaining with patriarchy," and Crenshaw’s intersectionality theory. Together, these frameworks provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors limiting women’s SRH autonomy. Findings: The findings show that educated and financially independent women can challenge gender roles to some extent, but their freedom is still limited by patriarchal norms and family structures. Older, financially stable women have more decision-making power but face cultural restrictions, while younger, less educated women experience stricter control. Support from male family members improves women’s emotional well-being, but male-dominated decisions and elder female relatives often reinforce traditional norms. To maintain marital harmony, some women discreetly resist these limitations by secretly using contraception. Conclusion: Women’s SRH autonomy is shaped by the intersection of social, cultural, and economic factors. Policies that promote education, financial independence, and shared decision-making within families are essential for improving women’s health and well-being. Publisher
... Conversely, sources that draw on poor people's own perceptions of their situation often report that agency is central to their description of well-being (ibid.). Because people cannot be developed but can only develop themselves (Nyerere 1974), empowerment schemes result in increasing people's agency to make strategic choices for development (Sen 2000;Rowlands 1995;Kabeer 1999;Mosedale 2005). ...
... Researchers such as Ibrahim and Alkire (2007) and Clifford et al. (2013) have been proposing indicators such as control over personal, household, and community decisions among others, for internationally comparable measures that analyze empowerment. Theories on measuring empowerment generally agree that empowerment or social impact is embedded in the organization model that aims to empower (Kabeer 1999;Ibrahim and Alkire 2007;Clifford et al. 2013). ...
... From their studies, empowerment is perceived as a theory of change or improvement (financial and non-financial) over a period of time, and should be analyzed from the beneficiaries' perspectives (ibid.). This framework is consistent with Kabeer's (1999) oft-cited article on measuring women's empowerment. Defining empowerment as the "ability to make a choice," Kabeer suggests three interrelated dimensions required for women's empowerment-as previously stated: (a) access to resources, including preconditions; (b) agency, including process; and (c) achievements, including outcomes (437). ...
... This dynamic perpetuates women economic dependency and constrains their empowerment. Empowerment, as defined by Kabeer (1999), refers to the process by which individuals gain access to resources, develop agency, and achieve outcomes that enhance their well-being. Within this conceptual framework, cultural events -particularly those with entrepreneurial themes -serve as transformative spaces for women empowerment (Almathami et al., 2021). ...
... In the context of women empowerment, such events transcend mere enjoyment, becoming a mechanism for developing autonomy and self-worth. Empowerment, as defined by Kabeer (1999), is the process through which women access resources, exercise agency, and achieve well-being-enhancing outcomes. This aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly the emphasis on gender equality and women empowerment as key factors for sustainable societal growth (UNDP, 2018). ...
... Whereas women who have access to resources (social entrepreneurs), play a groundbreaking role in bridging this divide, leveraging cultural events to empower local community women (Dickel & Eckardt, 2021). This aligns with Kabeer's (1999) empowerment framework, which emphasises the importance of accessing resources and exercising agency to achieve well-being-enhancing outcomes. The significance of this interplay becomes particularly evident when considering the gendered dimensions of entrepreneurship. ...
... Further, the study also relates to the widely cited women empowerment framework by Kabeer (1999), which segregates empowerment into the dimensions of resources (preconditions), agency (process), and achievement (outcomes). Resources represent the material, human, and social assets that serve as the preconditions for empowerment, agency refers to the processes by which individuals exercise choice, voice, and control in their lives, encompassing both observable actions and internal motivations such as aspirations and self-efficacy, while achievements reflect the tangible outcomes of empowerment, such as increased income, improved health, or enhanced decision-making capacity within households (Kabeer, 1999). ...
... Further, the study also relates to the widely cited women empowerment framework by Kabeer (1999), which segregates empowerment into the dimensions of resources (preconditions), agency (process), and achievement (outcomes). Resources represent the material, human, and social assets that serve as the preconditions for empowerment, agency refers to the processes by which individuals exercise choice, voice, and control in their lives, encompassing both observable actions and internal motivations such as aspirations and self-efficacy, while achievements reflect the tangible outcomes of empowerment, such as increased income, improved health, or enhanced decision-making capacity within households (Kabeer, 1999). These dimensions are built from indicators constructed using data from women empowerment questionnaires. ...
... The classification of the domains was guided by the KNBS (2020) guide on the construction of women empowerment. Based on Kabeer (1999), the domains were anchored in the resource and agency components. The five domains are attitudes towards socio-cultural norms, access to human and social resources, decision-making over general household decisions, decisionmaking over sexual and reproductive health and rights, and economic empowerment. ...
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This study investigates the determinants of women empowerment among refugee women living in Nairobi, Kenya. First, the study constructs an index to examine empowerment drivers using data from the Refugee and Host Household Survey (RHHS) 2021. A fractional logit regression model was employed in the study. The results obtained show that the incidence of refugee women empowerment among refugees living in Nairobi was six percent. In addition, the study finds evidence that age; the gender of the household head; the education level of the refugee woman; employment status; and the education of the household head play substantial roles in enabling women empowerment. Conversely, marital statuses (divorced/separated/widowed and single/never married) and religious affiliations (Muslim) hinder women empowerment. Efforts geared towards improving wage employment and education are likely to empower refugee women. The study emphasizes the recognition of the role played by women in household income through care work.
... Compared with previous cross-country studies on the drivers of income inequality, this study substantially increases the temporal and geographic coverage. We also use a broader definition of WPE that includes not only political representation, but also two other significant strands of empowerment, namely freedom of choice and participation in civil society, proving us with a more comprehensive measure of empowerment (Kabeer, 1999). In addition, addressing the different dimensions of political empowerment jointly is crucial because of their interdependencies and mutual reinforcement (Liu and Banaszak, 2017, Morgan-Collins and Rueda, 2023, O'brien and Rickne, 2016. ...
... This definition has three components that encompass the three most significant aspects of empowerment. First, freedom of choice since, as noted in Kabeer (1999), "women's empowerment is about the process by which those who have been denied the ability to make life choices acquire such an ability". Indeed, when women are free to move and gain control over resources (such as property or land) they increase their economic power and therefore their ability to exercise choice. ...
... Indeed, when women are free to move and gain control over resources (such as property or land) they increase their economic power and therefore their ability to exercise choice. Second, agency, defined as women's "ability to be an active agent of change through the ability to define one's goals" (Kabeer, 1999), which can be effectively achieved by voice. Women can freely voice their preferences and political opinions through their participation in the public debate, in civil society organizations or in the media. ...
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This study investigates the relationship between women's political empowerment and income inequality in a global sample of 142 countries from 1990 to 2019. Employing a combination of machine learning techniques with an instrumental variable panel data approach, our analysis reveals a significant negative association between women's political empowerment and income inequality. The robustness of this finding is confirmed through sensitivity analyses addressing concerns on the impact of unobserved heterogeneity and violations of the exclusion restriction. Crucially, our results support the hypothesis that the primary mechanism through which women's political empowerment reduces income inequality is the implementation of redistributive policies, suggesting that increased female presence in politics leads to more egalitarian economic outcomes.
... It is a central thematic focus (Asian Development Bank, 2016) and a critical issue in attaining sustainable development goals and targets. Women's economic autonomy is closely tied to their ability to independently control their cash earnings and own assets (Kabeer, 1999). Nevertheless, women's access to cash and asset ownership remains unchanged, indicating minimal influence on their bargaining power (Agarwal, 1997;Prillaman, 2023). ...
... About 71% of women in Nepal neither own housing units nor land property (National Statistics Office, 2021). Economic concepts suggest that access to assets, such as land, provides women with financial security and enhances their bargaining power within the household (Anderson & Eswaran, 2009;Kabeer, 1999). Women's autonomy is closely influenced by their understanding of the connection between their income and their rights to inherited property. ...
... For this reason, cash and inherited properties received from the maternal side (Pewa) are especially valuable to women as they offer more independence than other property types. Whether women acquire property through inheritance, such as Pewa, or earn it themselves, they have the freedom to use, sell, or dispose of both movable and immovable assets according to their preferences without needing anyone's approval (International Organization for Migration, 2016) Therefore, women's independent control over their resources in working and earning cash is recognised as an essential indicator of economic autonomy (Kabeer, 1998(Kabeer, , 1999Kishor, 1995;O'Neil et al., 2014;Sathar & Kazi, 2000;Vaz et al., 2016). The labor force's participation and control over earnings is needed for a woman to expose their ideas that emphasise women's autonomy. ...
... Defined as a multidimensional process, women's empowerment enables women to freely choose their life paths and fully participate in society (Kabeer 1999). Within the feminist framework, this concept is an evolving field aimed at overcoming gender inequalities and different forms of historical oppression faced by women (Accerenzi and Duke 2023). ...
... Sci. 2025, 14, 94 4 of 30 and is exercised through decision-making) and achievements (well-being outcomes) (Ishfaq et al. 2023;Kabeer 1999;Moore 2016). ...
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Rural women in the agricultural sector face greater challenges than men in accessing productive resources and equitably participating in agrifood value chains. This article highlights the empowerment experiences of rural women involved in the cocoa production chain in Sardinata, Norte de Santander, Colombia. A qualitative methodology was used, employing an inductive, interpretative approach and a case-study design. Interviews were conducted with 10 female cocoa producers from Sardinata. The coding process, grounded in theoretical material, generated five subcategories with corresponding theoretical codes, leading to the emergence of a new subcategory. The narratives revealed that women continue to face inequality in participation, decision-making and autonomy, which are reinforced by gender roles and stereotypes. Despite their involvement in agricultural production, they are often overburdened with unpaid caregiving duties. Land ownership, control and access to productive resources remain largely male-dominated. In addition, gender-based violence and patriarchal expectations continue to be significant barriers. The study underscores the fact that women’s empowerment and improved access to resources enhance their participation in decision-making, boost productivity and contribute to the economic and social development of their communities.
... While the term is not exclusively associated with women's issues, it is frequently applied in this context. According to Kabeer (1999), empowerment is defined as the "expansion of people's ability to make strategic life choices in a context where this ability was previously denied to them." Among the various definitions, Kabeer's framework has gained widespread acceptance and has become a primary reference for understanding women's empowerment. ...
... Regarding to empowerment, achievements are viewed in terms of exercised agency and the outcomes of those choices. For instance, taking up paid employment would be considered progress in women's empowerment (Kabeer, 1999). ...
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This paper is derived from the findings of community service programs aimed at improving women's access to Islamic microfinance Institutions, thereby empowering them and increasing their financial inclusion. The method to achieve the objective was through three educational sessions. The first session introduced participants to Islamic microfinance institutions, mainly focusing on BMT. The second session concentrated on women's empowerment, while the final session highlighted the importance of financial inclusion for women. The outcomes of these activities were increased knowledge, awareness, and skills among women regarding BMT, women's empowerment, and financial inclusion. In the future, additional training programs are necessary to further enhance women's empowerment, primarily related to financial and digital literacy, as these skills still need to be developed among the participants.
... Other scholars have argued that 'women's empowerment' occurs at a number of levels, covers a range of different dimensions and materialises through a variety of different processes (Alsop, 2006). Other studies define empowerment according to the different processes/domains which make up the definition of empowerment, for example, agency and achievements (Kabeer, 2001); control over resources and agency (Malhotra, et al., 2002); agency and opportunity structure (Alsop et al., 2006). The three different processes or domains through which women's empowerment occurs are resources, agency and outcomes (Alsop et al., 2006;Kabeer, 2005). ...
... These choices are expressed as increased ability to: hold and express opinions; learn, analyse and act; organize own time; obtain and control resources (Mosedale, 2014). Empowerment can also be defined as the process of enhancing an individual's or a group's capacity to make choices; and having the ability to transform these choices into desired actions and outcomes (Kabeer, 2001;World Bank 2002). A similar definition is proposed by Alsop et al. (2006:10), but the authors emphasize the process of enhancing an individual's or group's capacity to make "effective choices". ...
Article
When land was redistributed in Zimbabwe at the turn of the millennium, women were also beneficiaries, despite there being a gender dimension in land redistribution. This study examines the socioeconomic benefits of women empowerment in small-scale farming (A1 farming) among female farmers in Raffingora, Zimbabwe. The study employed a qualitative approach through an exploratory case study design. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 24 participants and 5 key informants. From the data analysed through thematic analysis, the participants reflected that they benefitted from women empowerment programmes in farming through asset accumulation, independence in decision-making, improved nutrition, improved housing conditions, and improved agricultural practices, despite a plethora of challenges. The researchers then suggest a need to include women in agricultural decision-making processes by removing gender barriers if sustainable agriculture and women's empowerment are to be fully achieved.
... Its primary objective is to enhance individuals' ability to autonomously make decisions and lead lives they value. This approach is pivotal for understanding women's empowerment, as further elaborated by Kabeer (1999), who emphasizes the expansion of freedoms and capabilities, aligning with empowerment goals by fostering agency, autonomy, and decision-making capacity. Kabeer describes empowerment as a tripartite process encompassing resources, agency, and achievements. ...
... Additionally, Kabeer's (1999) model underscores the importance of incorporating societal context in assessing women's empowerment, thereby facilitating comprehensive and pertinent insights across various scenarios and policy decisions. Indicators that reflect the impact of societal norms, accessible opportunities, and barriers to individual agencies are essential for formulating localized strategies (Glennerster et al., 2018). ...
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This study investigates the impact of education on women’s empowerment in Zimbabwe using data from the Zimbabwe Demographic Health Survey in 1999, 2005–6, 2010–11, and 2015. We use Zimbabwe’s 1980 expansion of secondary education as a natural experiment to explore its effects on various aspects of women’s empowerment, such as reproductive self-determination, household decision-making power, and attitudes towards and experiences of domestic violence. Results indicate that women affected by the reform received an average of 2.73 additional years of education compared to their peers. The impact is particularly significant for women in rural areas and those from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. One additional year of education resulted in a 0.43-year delay in first cohabitation, a 0.26-year delay in first birth, a 5 percentage point increase in household purchase decision-making, and a 1.2 percentage point increase in decision-making power regarding contraceptive use. Furthermore, there was a 4.1 percentage point decrease in agreement on beating by a partner is justified for any reason, a 3.7 percentage point reduction in agreement on beating is justified if a woman refuses to have sex with her partner, and a 0.6-percentage point decrease in the probability of experiencing unwanted sexual intercourse. The study remains robust through various checks. The mechanism is elucidated, demonstrating that secondary education reform significantly promoted women’s empowerment through improved access to information, assortative matching, and labor market involvement.
... In this study, agency is a central concept, particularly in understanding how women with disabilities navigate resource-constrained contexts. Agency refers to the capacity of individuals to make strategic choices and take actions that influence their lives, despite the constraints imposed by their environment (Kabeer 1997(Kabeer , 1999. In this study it is understood as the 'capacity to act' (Ahearn 2001), make choices and take actions that influence women with disabilities' lives (Mustaniemi-Laakso 2023). ...
... Social contexts-including material resources, social relationships, and physical health-significantly impact the extent to which women can exercise agency (Campbell and Mannell 2016). For example, a woman with disabilities may have the will to act, but her ability to do so may be limited by a lack of access to resources, social capital, or institutional support (Kabeer 1999;Richardson et al. 2019). Internal and external resources made available to an individual through formal and informal institutions are critical enablers of agency (Jackson 2013). ...
... They further need to overcome various barriers and challenges and need to act with agency. Agency is the basic capacity for pursuing goals, overcoming barriers, and acting (Charrad, 2010;Kabeer, 1999). Research indicates that choices of breast cancer patients are often constrained, even foreclosed, due to situational and relational dynamics, therefore their agency might be limited (Lewis et al., 2021). ...
... The current study suggests that the concept of agency (Charrad, 2010;Kabeer, 1999;Kook & Harel-Shalev, 2021) is crucial to studies aiming to explore experiences of women BCSs. While analyzing the data and the narratives, we wonder why it takes breast cancer and its treatment to reveal to a woman that she has agency? ...
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Breast cancer is the most commonly occurring cancer in women, and has profound effects on patients' physical health, their well-being and interpersonal relationships. The research examines the intersection between two significant life events among women breast cancer survivors (BCSs): experience with breast cancer and divorce. Interviews were conducted with 18 Israeli BCSs who had decided to divorce during their illness or recovery. Feminist narrative analysis was used in analyzing the interview transcripts. Three themes that characterized the experiences of our participants emerged from the analysis: (1) "Cancer as an alarm clock": Change; (2) "Putting myself at the top of the list": New priorities; and (3) "I coped with cancer, I can handle divorce": Agency. Based on the findings, women's agency is a meaningful prism for the study and therapy of BCSs. In terms of practical implications, therapists should pay closer attention to the understudied intersection of dissatisfaction with intimate relationships and illness.
... Wang y Noe (2010), destacan que la formación en gestión del conocimiento a través de la alfabetización digital y el acceso a plataformas de aprendizaje contribuye al empoderamiento de las mujeres en educación media y media superior. Pues como asegura Kabeer (1999), el acceso a la información a través de una capacitación continua permite que las mujeres adquieran nuevos conocimientos y habilidades. Estos estudios respaldan los resultados de esta investigación, pues las mujeres encuestadas aseguran que al que participar en programas de capacitación dentro de la Institución, esto les asegura tener un mayor nivel de confianza en sus capacidades y habilidades laborales. ...
... Women's empowerment is not a single-dimensional phenomenon (Moghadam (1996); Kabeer (1999); Janssens (2010)). Rather it is a multidimensional and multiscalar process and is experienced at the individual as well as the household level. ...
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The paper examines the short-term implications of urbanization on women’s empowerment in India. India is currently experiencing rapid urbanization, and it is imperative to understand how this might affect women who continue to be marginalized in society. In theory, urbanization can affect women either positively or negatively. Women in urban areas, compared to their rural counterparts, are thought to enjoy greater social, economic, and political opportunities and freedoms. At the same time, research shows barriers to women’s empowerment remain widespread in urban environments. Using satellite-based nighttime light intensity as a measure of urbanization, we leverage variations over time and across regions to assess its impact. Our findings indicate that urbanization provides limited benefits for women. While it is associated with improved mobility, there is no significant relationship between urbanization and women’s labor market participation, access to information, financial autonomy, intrahousehold agency, or gender beliefs. Moreover, urbanization appears to increase the risk of intimate partner violence for women. In contrast, urbanization is linked to improved labor market participation for men, thus suggesting that the effects of urbanization are gendered. These findings suggest that, at least in the short-term, urbanization is unlikely to be very helpful in economically empowering Indian women.
... Furthermore, it emphasises the importance of individual capacities as a basis for collective participation through the exercise of inclusive and active citizenship that demands a greater understanding of the micro-politics of participation as a situated practice, which implies approaches that locate spaces of participation in the places where they occur by considering the possibilities of participation in the face of historical, political, social, and cultural particularities [103]. In this context, empowerment processes must consider both structural constraints and internal factors that affect women's ability to participate in decision-making spaces [104]. ...
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This study addresses gender inequality in rural areas, focusing on the structural and socio-cultural constraints faced by women, despite the increasing feminisation of agriculture. The research question posed is: what are the leadership experiences of rural women in the cocoa production chain in Tibú, Norte de Santander, Colombia? The objective is to unveil the leadership experiences of rural women in the cocoa production chain in Tibú, Norte de Santander, Colombia. Using a qualitative and interpretative approach and a case study design, the experiences of ten women cocoa producers were analysed. The coding technique was based on theoretical material, generating two subcategories and the respective theoretical codes. The subcategories are associativity and time use. The findings reveal barriers such as shyness or fear of rejection, low participation in community groups, limited education, decision-making restrictions, unpaid work overload, lack of leisure time, and gender-based violence, factors that perpetuate poverty and hinder their community leadership. However, it highlights how women’s leadership and associativity positively impact sustainable agriculture and community cohesion. Although public policies recognise their key role, their implementation remains insufficient. This study highlights the need for comprehensive strategies that overcome inequalities and promote inclusive rural development.
... The results on Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 suggests a significant gender disparity, with adult males being the predominant group in both membership and non-membership categories. This trend aligns with existing literature that often finds men more involved in formal memberships and organizational activities, possibly due to sociocultural roles and economic opportunities (Kabeer, 1999). The variations across states could be attributed to different socioeconomic factors and the presence of institutions or programs that encourage membership. ...
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Aims: Analyzing mediating and non-mediating factors influencing cooperative membership among couples and non-couples in addition to addressing gaps in understanding motivations and barriers so as to provide insights for tailored policies and effective cooperative models to enhance economic status and social well-being was the focus of this study. Study Design: Original research using primary data. Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in six Nigerian states in 2023. Methodology: Six Nigerian states were randomly selected to collect data from 820 farmers using structured questionnaires. Analytical techniques employed included descriptive statistics, factor analysis, structural equation and bivariate recursive models. Results: The study revealed that adult-male-cooperative members outnumber non-members across all states which suggest wide gender disparities. Regional variations in gender disparities in cooperative membership also exist stressing the need for inclusive policies and targeted programs for youth and elderly. Significant driving factors identified at 1% levels of significance included commitment, transparency, economic status, and employee efficiency. On the other hand, significant constraints affecting participation included inadequate infrastructure, poor communication, and limited education. Distance to cooperative meetings (average=7.61km) is negative, indicating a lower likelihood of increasing membership but does not impact on off-farm participation in the short and long run. Recursive logit and probit models reveal long-term impacts, stressing the importance of careful intervention design and policy planning. Conclusion: Varying prediction of cooperative membership benefits, especially for non-couples, emphasize the need for complementary geographical and longitudinal studies, but off-farm activities show potential long-term negative effects. Robust cooperative institutions effectively linked to off-farm participation require improved infrastructure, access to education, corporate governance and sound financial management.
... Los autores mencionados permiten comprender las distintas dimensiones del empoderamiento femenino según Kabeer (1999), quien plantea un proceso que involucra recursos, agencia y logros. Además, permiten abordar las dimensiones individual y colectiva de este empoderamiento. ...
Article
Neste artigo apresentamos a situação das mulheres do povo Shipibo na cidade de Lima, onde fundaram a Comunidade Nativa Shipiba de Cantagallo. Contamos a história da sua fundação e da sua integração na sociedade de Lima, bem como as suas lutas para permanecer no seu local de origem como Comunidade Nativa, mesmo depois da tragédia ocorrida a 4 de novembro de 2016, quando toda a comunidade foi incendiada. A história é contada pelos seus protagonistas e o nosso papel é entrevistar e sistematizar o que encontramos. Os testemunhos das mulheres Shipibo mostram-nos como mantêm a sua cultura num outro espaço que poderíamos dizer que territorializaram enquanto Comunidade Indígena e como desenvolveram autonomia e agência, longe das práticas ancestrais da sua cultura de mutilação genital feminina.
... Most importantly, the awareness and individual availability of and ability to make choices need to be placed in the particular setting. Finally, the degree to which a setting is an enabling environment needs to be considered separately because some dimensions of empowerment are more relevant to resilience than others (Kabeer, 2002). ...
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Background Women empowerment programs may reduce domestic violence (DV) by taking control of their lives. In a cognizant effort to empower pregnant women who have experienced DV, a Behaviour Intervention Package (BIP) was developed and used. It incorporates yoga-based techniques for self-development, interpersonal skill development, and awareness sessions. The study aims to assess the effects of a BIP on empowerment and resilience among pregnant women who have experienced violence and were attending antenatal care at a tertiary care hospital in India. Methods A randomised controlled trial was conducted with 211 pregnant women recruited between 18 to 20 weeks of pregnancy and randomly assigned to intervention (n = 105) or control (n = 106). The intervention group received behavioural intervention and standard care, while the control group received only standard care for 28 weeks. The study tools were completed once before the intervention and again at six weeks postnatal. The assessments were compared using methods as appropriate to estimate the effect size at baseline and post-intervention. Results The results showed that at a personal, relational, and socio-environmental level, the BIP intervention effectively improved quality of life, reduced DV, reduced stress and depression, and all parameters enabled women to develop a positive self-perception. They also reported being resilient and hopeful about their future. Conclusion The BIP may effectively empower pregnant women from low socioeconomic backgrounds facing DA in India, enhancing their quality of life. With no standardized intervention currently available, the BIP can be implemented in supportive settings to address the psychosocial health needs of women in distress and protect their health. Trial registration The Indian Registry of Clinical Trials number is CTRI/2019/01/017009 dated 9.1.2019.
... Across each of these policymaking stages, WEAGov assesses the extent of women's empowerment, which we define as the process of increasing capacity and opportunities for women to participate in and to influence agrifood decision-making, realizing their own choices and goals (Ragasa et al. 2022, 11). This definition captures three of the most prominent dimensions of women's empowerment from the literature: the ability to make choices, the ability to participate in a process, and the ability to exercise agency throughout the process by both defining goals and being significant actors within a process (Kabeer 1999). ...
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Women’s equal participation and leadership in political and public life can boost a country’s long-term economic growth, foster social inclusion, and help countries reach the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Beyond these important outcomes, women’s inclusion in public life is a basic human right: Women deserve a role in making decisions, controlling resources, and shaping policies. Despite the importance of women’s voices and their empowerment in policy and decision-making processes, available metrics show that women’s policy and political empowerment remains low. Moreover, these metrics are inadequate in systematically tracking women’s voices and empowerment across different levels of decision-making. IFPRI developed an assessment framework—Women’s Empowerment in Agrifood Governance (WEAGov)—to assess women’s voices and empowerment in national policy processes in agrifood systems. This paper presents results from the pilot testing of WEAGov in India from January to March 2024. In this paper, we present how the WEAGov tool works in the Indian context, analyze trends in the data that we collected during the pilot, and provide an overview of the status of women’s voices and empowerment in the agrifood policy process as of March 2024. The pilot testing in India provides useful lessons on improving the measurement of these outcomes and offers valuable policy insights on critical entry points for increasing women’s voices and empowerment in the national agrifood policy process, design, implementation, and evaluation.
... Women's empowerment: Women's empowerment will be measured using the Women's Multidimensional Empowerment Index, which was developed using the 2015 Colombian Demographic and Health Survey [28]. The index assesses empowerment multidimensionally based on the definition of empowerment proposed by Kabeer [29] (Resources, domestic decision making, decision making on personal matters, and achievements), while capturing the notion of disempowerment. ...
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Colombia currently hosts nearly three million Venezuelan refugees and migrants and is home to seven million internally displaced Colombians. For forcibly displaced populations in Colombia, and especially for women, gender-based violence (GBV) poses a threat during transit and in their new homes where xenophobia, lack of accessible and adequate services, limited safe economic opportunities, and lack of information on access to services, further increase risk. The dearth of livelihood opportunities also affects forcibly displaced populations, especially women. This study will conduct a randomized-controlled trial (RCT) of HIAS’ Entrepreneurship School with Gender Lens (ESGL), a program that targets forcibly displaced GBV survivors and women at-risk to help them develop business ideas, access needed support for the prevention of and response to GBV, and improve overall self-reliance. The RCT will be conducted within three cities in Colombia; approximately 80 eligible participants will be enrolled in each city and randomized to a treatment or control arm. Survey questionnaires will be administered to participants at baseline, eight months following baseline (endline), and 3–4 months after endline. Outcomes of interest include household self-reliance, mental health, resilience, empowerment, utilization of GBV services, and social support.
... Specific studies have explicitly focused on the role of ICTs and women. Chen (1997) and Kabeer (1999) point out that the development of ICTs can enhance self-respect and confidence in women in general and provide opportunities specifically to rural women at the bottom of the pyramid. Other studies have also emphasised the importance of ICT in improving women's lives (Ashraf et al., 2008;London & Hart, 2011). ...
Article
This article examines the determinants of India’s information and communications technology (ICT) access. We use the second wave of the India Human Development Survey (IHDS) of 2011–2012, a nationally representative survey at the individual level, and find that ICT ownership and usage are abysmally low for women compared to men. Using probit and sample selection models to capture determinants of ICT access, we find women are disadvantaged in owning and using ICT systems. By re-estimating our models separately for men and women, we find that marriage has an opposite effect on the two genders—it has a positive impact on men owning and using ICT systems and a negative effect on women. As an extension, we also find that networks strongly influence ICT access. While social networks improve the probability of owning ICT devices for women, political connections enhance the propensity to use ICTs for men. JEL Codes: O33, O35
... Women's empowerment is a multifaceted concept encompassing various dimensions such as economic, social, political, and personal empowerment. According to Kabeer (1999), empowerment is defined as the process by which those who have been denied the ability to make strategic life choices acquire such an ability. Malhotra et al. (2002) further elaborate that empowerment includes increasing women's access to material resources, knowledge, and the ability to make decisions that affect their lives. ...
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Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have emerged as vital tools in promoting women's empowerment, particularly in rural settings. This study investigates the impact of SHG participation and microfinance on women's empowerment in the Rohilkhand region, a socioeconomically diverse area in Northern India. Using a mixed-methods approach, the research analyzes the relationship between SHG membership and multiple empowerment dimensions-economic, social, political, and personal. Furthermore, it explores the role of microfinance in enhancing economic independence and decision-making abilities among women in SHGs. The study utilizes both quantitative data from a survey of 150 respondents and qualitative insights derived from in-depth interviews. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses, including regression and clustering, are employed to identify key factors influencing empowerment outcomes. The findings highlight significant associations between education level, membership duration, and economic independence, revealing that SHG participation substantially fosters empowerment, particularly when complemented by microfinance services. This research provides evidence that supports the development of tailored policy interventions and targeted support programs to enhance the effectiveness of SHGs and microfinance in empowering rural women. The study's findings offer valuable insights for policymakers, NGOs, and other stakeholders involved in designing and implementing women's empowerment initiatives in similar socioeconomic contexts.
... It is a process where individuals denied decision-making abilities acquire this ability, thereby enabling change. Empowerment can be measured in three dimensions: resources (economic, social, and human), agency (decision-making, negotiation, bargaining), and achievements (valuable outcomes in different contexts) (Kabeer, 1999). ...
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The Sustainable Development Goals recognize women’s empowerment and gender equality as development objectives to combat poverty and advance the development of human resources. Despite these development efforts, women face discrimination and gender inequality globally, particularly in developing countries which impedes their social and economic potential. About 75% of women work in the informal sector and the global unpaid household sector is worth $ 10 trillion, accounting for one-eighth of the world’s GDP (ILO,2019). Access to electricity particularly solar electricity in remote rural areas can enhance women’s empowerment in many ways. This review examines the social, economic, and environmental effects of solar electricity access on women’s empowerment in developing countries like Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Kenya, and Ethiopia. Solar electricity is a clean energy source that improves women’s health via a reduction in indoor air pollution, increases women’s indoor and outdoor mobility, increases the sense of security, and saves time from household activity. Therefore, women can spend more time teaching children, socializing, and visiting friends and neighbours. Solar electricity could increase household income by extending working hours and involvement in income- generating activities (IGAs). Based on the literature review we developed a theoretical framework that depicts various channels through which clean and reliable solar electricity might improve women’s empowerment. The framework confirms the pathways that demonstrate how solar electricity empowers women by providing access to human, and social resources, increasing mobility, control over assets, and decision-making capacity to improve the everyday lives of women in developing countries.
... While some focus that women empowerment is about decision making ability, others argue that it is more of the ability to make strategic life choices (7,8). It has been defined as a process by which women acquire the ability of making strategic life choices after having been denied this ability previously (9). As per Brody et al. ...
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Background and Objectives: Women empowerment and health literacy are very important concepts in societal development and improvement of health status of the community. We aimed to assess the effect of women's self-help group (SHG) membership on health literacy and women empowerment. Materials and Methods: We performed a cross-sectional study using quantitative method and PLA tool. Semi-structured questionnaire-based survey was conducted with randomly selected 180 SHG and non-SHG women each. 3 gender resource mapping activities were also conducted with both the groups. Ordinal and logistic regression analysis was performed to study the determinants of health literacy and women empowerment respectively. Results: Overall, 65% and 20% SHG and non-SHG women respectively had sufficient health literacy. The proportion with excellent health literacy was very poor (1% and 0% respectively). The overall women empowerment index was 0.376 (0.548 in SHG and 0.208 in non-SHG women). SHG women had higher odds of being empowered [aOR=1.18 (1.09-1.30)] and about 8 times higher odds of having better health literacy [aOR=8.70 (5.24-14.79)]. Belonging to open and scheduled caste [aOR=0.81 (0.66-0.99) and 1.19 (1.07-1.34) respectively], having sufficient/excellent health literacy [aOR=1.20 (1.02-1.42)] were other significant determinants of women empowerment. Age [aOR=0.96 (0.94-0.98)], belonging to Scheduled tribe [aOR=0.47 (0.22-0.97)], having standard of living index class 3 [aOR=3.42 (1.29-9.11)] were other significant determinants of health literacy among women. Mostly, men had better access and control of resources i.e. basic needs and assets of day-today living. Women from both groups had better access and control over clothes, jewellery and their own earnings. In addition, SHG women had equal or better control over household stuffs, education, and food than their spouses. Conclusion: Further promoting such groups and understanding of the group dynamics may help in enhancing health literacy and women empowerment in addition to overall efforts of improving these in the community as a whole. Paper Type: Research Article
... Advocates of empowerment theory, for example, posit that green technologies could make it easier to directly empower women by rebalancing economic power relations and reducing female dependence on males. This in turn contributes to more access to education, employment, and sustainable income (Kabeer, 1999). Green technologies are viewed in the theory on sustainable development (advocated by Sen (1999) as among key components of inclusive and equitable growth that seek to integrate economic, social, and environmental imperatives. ...
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This study aims to evaluate the effects of green technology innovations on the socio-economic integration of women in Africa from 2014 to 2023. To achieve this goal, a quantitative analysis of longitudinal data has been utilized through econometric techniques such as fixed effects models, Lewbel 2SLS (Two Stage Least Square) 2SLS estimates, and panel quantile models to address and mitigate potential endogeneity bias. The findings show a direct impact on women’s employment in high- and middle-income countries, particularly in renewable energy generation and sustainable agriculture, as a result of increased use of green technologies. Additionally, in these countries, better availability of renewable energy is related to the advancements made by women's education and household health. Yet, access to the economic opportunities that this technology enables for many women in lower-income parts of the world remains scarce. Hence, it is necessary to mainstream gender and institutional issues more into the green technology policies in Africa. It would lead to a fairer sharing of the socio-economic gains arising out of green technology adoption and help in promoting sustainable development.
... However, it is operationally conceived as a concept that refers to civil and social rights, and relates to increasing capabilities, equal access to opportunities and possessing the agency to utilize these for strategic decisions and choices (Malhotra & Schuler, 2005). Kabeer (1999) conceptualized empowerment as a process through which women gain agency, and agency is considered as the ability to make meaningful choices. Agency acts as a medium through which women control resources with the outcome being achievements (Richardson, 2018). ...
Article
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Progress towards universal birth registration coverage has continued to lag in many developing countries despite continued interests and investments by governments and international agencies. As the primary caregiver, women are often saddled with the responsibility of getting their children’s birth registered and may be motivated to do so. However, this may not come to reality in situations where they are not empowered to participate in household decision-making that allows them to mobilize resources for this purpose. This study set out to investigate the spatially varying relationship between women’s empowerment and birth registration coverage at disaggregated level of States in Nigeria. Using data from the 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, we constructed indices for women’s empowerment regarding household decision-making and healthcare utilization through factor scores generated from factor analysis that pooled several related questions on each of the empowerment indicators. Each woman was then classified into one of highly empowered, moderately empowered or less empowered category, and a geostatistical model that considers the neighbourhood structure of the spatial units was used to quantify the spatially-varying relationship with birth registration while accounting for other possible determinants. The results show huge variation in the likelihood of registering births among the highly empowered women. Though coverage appears to be generally lower in most northern States, there are a few States where the highly empowered women have high chances of registering their births. Birth registration coverage could benefit from interventions that seek to enhance women’s participation in household decision-making everywhere in the country.
... Kadınların güçlenmesi, kadınların eğitim, sağlık, istihdam fırsatları ve siyasi temsile eşit erişim sağlayarak yaşamları ve kaderleri üzerinde kontrol sahibi olmalarını sağlamaktadır. Dahası güçlenmenin kadınların özel/kamusal alanda mevcut olumsuz konumlarını dönüştürücü ve iyileştirici bir işlevi olmaktadır (Kabeer, 1999;Gholipour vd., 2010;Datta ve Gailey, 2012;van Eerdewijk vd. 2017;Özçatal, 2023). ...
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z: Bu çalışmanın amacı, Türkiye'deki kadın kooperatiflerinin faaliyetlerinin kooperatifçilik ilkeleri temelinde inşa edilip edilmediğini ortaya koymaktadır. Böyle bir incelemenin temel maksadı ise, kooperatifçilik ilkelerinin kadın kooperatifçilik hareketinin başarısı 2 üzerindeki etkisini tartışmaya açmaktır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda öncelikle, kooperatifçilik ilkeleri ve bu ilkelerin ne anlama geldiğine değinilmiş ve Türkiye'de kadın kooperatiflerine ilişkin genel bir değerlendirme yapılmıştır. Sonrasında çalışmanın metodolojisi ve örnek profili açıklanarak bulgulara yer verilmiştir. Araştırma yöntemi olarak nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden biri olan yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme tekniği kullanılarak 20 kadın girişimi, üretim ve işletme kooperatifinden 70 kadın ortak/çalışan ile görüşmeler yapılmıştır. Görüşmeler kapsamında Türkiye'de kadın kooperatiflerinin topluma karşı sorumlu olma, eğitim-öğretim ve bilgilendirme, gönüllü ve herkese açık üyelik ilkelerinin gereklerini tam anlamıyla yerine getirdikleri görülürken; üyelerin demokratik denetimi, özerklik ve üyelerin ekonomik katılım ilkelerinin ortaklar tarafından tam anlamıyla anlaşılamadığı 1 Bu makale, TÜBİTAK 3501 Kariyer Geliştirme Programı tarafından desteklenen bir proje kapsamında hazırlanmıştır.
... Reproductive agency is a key concept within this study. Reproductive agency can be viewed as being able to set individual reproductive goals and take actions to achieve them (Kabeer 1999). However, controlling fertility and making active reproductive decisions are not common practices worldwide, as many people perceive having children as a destiny or a divine gift (Willan et al. 2020). ...
Article
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Migrants with refugee backgrounds in the Netherlands face significant reproductive health challenges, including higher rates of unintended pregnancies and limited access to contraception. This study explores how post-migration realities affect the reproductive agency of refugees from Afghanistan, Somalia, Eritrea and Syria. Utilising a participatory approach, eight peer researchers from these communities conducted eight focus-group discussions and 118 in-depth interviews, involving four migrant grassroots organisations and two Dutch non-governmental organisations. The findings reveal that refugees must navigate multiple tensions: (1) adapting to a new country, including securing housing, employment and adjusting to social norms and gender dynamics; (2) navigating cultural norms and family expectations; and (3) obtaining resources such as knowledge and contraception, within a healthcare system that may lack cultural sensitivity and reflect broader societal stigma. These challenges may require strategies that differ from Dutch notions of individualistic reproductive choices. Reproductive services must be sensitive to this complex navigation and adopt a culturally sensitive approach, focusing on refugees' strengths and agency rather than solely on issues like cultural taboos, lack of knowledge, low literacy or language barriers.
... The questionnaire included several questions covering complete information about sociodemographic profiles, education, ICT adoption intension, employment, and so forth. The study focuses on married women in rural Bangladesh, as conventional indicators of empowerment often focus on marriage circumstances (Kabeer 1999). Empowerment within marriage contributes to economic wellbeing and health safety for women and their families. ...
Article
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The expansion of women entrepreneurs in Bangladesh is essential for economic development, primarily driven by the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). This expansion is more noticeable in urban areas, generating a research gap to find out the adoption of ICT among rural women entrepreneurs. Our present study seeks to identify the factors influencing ICT adoption intentions among women entrepreneurs in rural Bangladesh. Data from 315 respondents were collected and analyzed utilizing partial least squares-structural equation modeling through Smart PLS 3.3v software. Our results reveal that women's utilization of ICT is positively associated with their access to material, mental, skill, usage, and ICT in microfinance. This adoption significantly upgrades the business skills of rural Bangladeshi women, offering essential insights for future entrepreneurs. Our study provides a comprehensive framework for assessing ICT adoption access points and offers policymakers' practical implications for empowering women by expanding ICT access to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 5.
... WEMNS is grounded in Kabeer's definition of empowerment as involving resources, agency, and achievements, 20 and included item sets addressing intrinsic, instrumental, and collective agency, along with agency-enabling resources. [21][22][23] Intrinsic agency, or "power within," is the critical reflection that allows individuals to become aware of their own ability to make choices and is related to Freire's concept of critical consciousness and increasing awareness of systems of oppression. ...
Article
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Educação formal e Empoderamento Económico para a Segurança Social de Mulheres Deslocadas do distrito de Palma em Cabo Delgado é uma das formas de luta para a mitigação a grave crise humanitária, mortes, destruição de infra-estruturas que gerou deslocamento de mais de um milhão de pessoas, impactando profundamente às mulheres. Elas enfrentam desafios como perda de meios de subsistência, violência de género e exclusão de oportunidades educacionais e económicas. Neste contexto, o acesso à educação formal e ao empoderamento económico emerge como estratégias cruciais para mitigar as vulnerabilidades a que se vêem mergulhadas. Pois, oferece habilidades para maior resiliência, enquanto a autonomia financeira fortalece a segurança social e a estabilidade comunitária. Este estudo qualitativo, baseado em análise bibliográfica e documental, examina como essas iniciativas promovem inclusão e segurança social para mulheres deslocadas em Palma, alinhando-se aos Objectivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável. Busca-se identificar desafios, evidenciar potencialidades em função das políticas públicas e programas implementados. O artigo visa orientar mulheres na superação de desafios, destacando seu potencial transformador para reconstrução social e diálogo inclusivo.
Chapter
This chapter gives an overview of how the issues addressed within the gender and energy nexus have evolved since the end of the Second World War in 1945. It describes how the focus of policymakers in the energy sector has expanded from a supply-side issue of improving energy supply to include a demand-side perspective which looks at households. Initial energy for cooking and women in the rural Global South was the key problem. However, research reveals that there are more energy issues related to households and the key role men play in decisions related to energy services. While the Global North’s interest in the gender and energy nexus took longer to emerge, with employment of women in the energy sector being the main focus, this chapter identifies areas of overlap with the Global South opening up the prospect for cross learning.
Article
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Women’s empowerment highlights the conditions of women regarding their health, social and economic, and decision-making power. Barak Valley is a Bengali-dominated region known as the southernmost administrative division of Assam. The current research focused on women’s empowerment among reproductive women workers in tea estates based on their socio-economic conditions and health status (nutritional status). Tea plantation workers belonging to marginalised and migratory groups took part in tea production and made tea famous as a drinking beverage. The British planters brought pride to the people of Barak Valley by introducing tea production in 1855. The study was done on the three tea estates of the Cachar district with 592 reproductive women workers in the tea estates (15 to 49 years) using the multistage sampling method. The researcher used in-depth interviews and a structured questionnaire to collect data, which was then analysed using a socioeconomic status scale and standard statistical methods. The study illustrated that women confront several hurdles, including discrimination, limited educational opportunities, and gender-based violence. The workers' household members indicated that all responsibilities rested on women's shoulders. The majority of the women workers are underweight and suffer from non-communicable illnesses, respiratory issues, skin irritation, and gastrointestinal disorders. Thus, the impoverished socioeconomic conditions and nutritional disparities among women workers in the tea estates have influenced women's empowerment.
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This research investigates the challenges and opportunities in the evolution of cooperatives in Nepal. Using a mixed-method approach grounded in secondary material and thematic analysis, the study explores the historical background, present situation, and future directions of the cooperative movement in Nepal. Key findings highlight significant problems such as insufficient legal frameworks, poor access to capital, governance concerns, and a lack of professional management. Simultaneously, the study identifies opportunities in areas like financial inclusion, women's empowerment, rural development potential, and support for sustainable economic growth. Recommendations for legislators, cooperative leaders, and stakeholders include enhancing governance and management practices, improving financial sustainability, strengthening the regulatory framework, promoting technology adoption, fostering innovation and diversification, and aligning cooperative strategies with national sustainable development goals. These measures aim to bolster cooperatives' contributions to Nepal's socioeconomic growth.
Article
This article examines the role of the SCT programme as an economic empowerment tool for women in Mwanachingwala, Mazabuka District of Zambia. Social Cash Transfers (SCTs) have been used to promote the lives of poor and vulnerable people especially in developing countries, (Ben Hanan, 2018). In Zambia, the programme began in 2003 in Kalomo District, (Schubert, 2005; Chiwele, 2010). The programme has more female than male beneficiaries. Mwanachingwala is among the wards where the programme is being implemented in Mazabuka District, Zambia, with women being among the beneficiaries. The programme has had a number of positive outcomes. Despite this, poverty has continued among recipients of the social protection service. Those experiencing it in its worst form are women as the Zambia Statistics Agency (2020) reveals that women headed households are more affected by poverty. Being on the SCT programme has helped to reduce women’s vulnerabilities and some forms of poverty. Despite the programme’s area of focus being poverty reduction, this study established that the programme has the potential to go beyond this goal to economically empower women. This study used the qualitative method. The sample size for this study was thirty-six, of whom thirty are women beneficiaries of the SCT and six are key informants who were all purposively selected. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. Results revealed that the programme has helped to reduce poverty and bring about a number of associated outcomes among the women. Some women have been able to engage in small scale Income Generating Activities (IGAs). Hence, this study concluded that the SCT has the potential to empower women economically if deliberately tailored in that direction, or if such an aspect is strongly included and executed. This study therefore recommends that the government considers including a serious economic empowerment aspect in the planning and implementation of the programme targeting women.
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If one social group has more of something because another has less we speak of relational inequality. The fight against relational inequalities is a tough, centuries-long battle characterized by trial and error. Results can be achieved only through very persistent pressure—what Max Weber described as “a strong and slow boring of hard boards.” The essays in the present issue discuss both obstacles that perpetuate inequality and forms of resistance to them. Some contributions focus more on top-down activities, while others emphasize the perspective from below. Taken together, they reveal that the struggle for more just and egalitarian societies is tough, but gradually making progress.
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Female workers have long been the face of the textile and garment manufacturing industry around the globe. They are considered as not only having naturally “nimble fingers,” but also being naturally more “docile and willing” to work in difficult situations. There is an underlying assumption that employment of women in the manufacturing industry will increase their job opportunities, enhance their access to and/or control over valuable resources, and empower them in decision-making. The development of the textile and garment manufacturing industry in Ethiopia has unquestionably opened employment opportunities for women constituting more than 80% of the labor force. By filling in an existing gap in research through addressing the workers’ self-perception of empowerment (referred to as mebkat in Amharic), this paper examines the emic views of how women perceive and experience empowerment. This is juxtaposed with an external definition of empowerment, as it is defined by the government and its international development partners, which presumes a positive correlation between employment and empowerment. Based on the case study of female factory workers in Hawassa Industrial Park in Southern Ethiopia and a closer analysis of research participants’ understanding of empowerment, this paper argues that Ethiopia’s budding manufacturing sector has not delivered on its promises.
Chapter
This chapter explores the role of digital technologies in women's empowerment and economic development in Turkey. Digitalization, the availability of social technology platforms, and knowledge regarding the benefits of these platforms open doors to employment and economic growth for women. Digitalization cannot guarantee women's empowerment and eradicate gender inequalities if not policies for reducing the gender digital divide are not prioritized. Thus, the chapter highlights the potential of digital technologies in combatting the gender gap and enhancing women's empowerment.
Book
This book assesses the digital Bangladesh initiative of the government through different lenses: supply-side and demand-side perspectives and policy diffusions. The Bangladesh government has been pursuing a big-push policy for digitalization, namely the “Digital Bangladesh Vision,” since 2009 as a shifting development strategy to leapfrog into the next level of development with the leverage of demographic dividend. However, historical anecdotes, dictated policy, international success stories and other related issues could lead to a rethinking on ICT-based development strategy. The content of the book draws on the author’s long-standing research works on ICTs and economic growth in Bangladesh.
Article
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Sex differentials in child mortality in rural Punjab persist unexpectedly despite relative wealth, socioeconomic development including rapid universalization of female education, fertility decline, and mortality decline. The most striking finding is that discrimination against girls is not generalized but highly selective: sex differentials in mortality are affected far more by birth order than by socioeconomic factors. While mother's education improves quality of childcare, it does not reduce discrimination against higher birth order daughters. Fertility reduction appears to heighten such selective discrimination. Sex discrimination has often been attributed to a lack of female participation in productive activities and also to economic hardship. This analysis emphasizes the role of women's structural marginalization in this patrilineally organized society in explaining the existence as well as the persistence of sex discrimination.
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The New Poverty Agenda is seen as incorporating gender within a new broader concept of poverty (Lipton and Maxwell, 1992) capable of measuring, evaluating and redressing gender bias along with poverty-reduction policies based on labor-intensive growth, targeted social services and safety nets. Multilateral positions on gender and development (GAD) for their part also stress the poverty of women as a primary justification for development interventions designed to improve the position of women. It is argued here however, that the concept of poverty cannot serve as a proxy for the subordination of women, that antipoverty policies cannot be expected to improve necessarily the position of women and that there is no substitute for a gender analysis, which transcends class divisions and material definitions of deprivation. The instrumental interest in women as the means to achieve development objectives such as poverty reduction may ultimately undermine GAD. Gender appears to have collapsed into a poverty trap; this essay raises a call for help, or at least a discussion about the relative benefits of captivity vs. escape.
Book
Steven Lukes' Power: A Radical View is a seminal work still widely used some 30 years after publication. The second edition includes the complete original text alongside two major new essays. One assesses the main debates about how to conceptualize and study power, including the influential contributions of Michel Foucault. The other reconsiders Steven Lukes' own views in light of these debates and of criticisms of his original argument. With a new introduction and bibliographical essay, this book will consolidate its reputation as a classic work and a major reference point within social and political theory.
Book
The book has three aims: to document with maximum precision the timing, magnitude, and nature of fertility change. Having established the demographic facts, the second aim is to assess alternative explanations. It reviews social and economic changes and their possible links to reduced demand or need for children. The focus then shifts to consideration of the role of the family planning program in reducing fertility. The implications of the analysis for future population policy and programs are then considered. The book concludes that it has been the easy availability of contraception, and not reduced demand for children, which has led to a decline in fertility. -after Editors
Article
To what extent does the recent emphasis upon accountability by development institutions augur well for women? This article firstly describes how accountability is grounded upon the concept of consent as the principal prerequisite of legitimate authority; secondly notes how consent has historically played an ambivalent role for women; and finally argues that placing consent within a ‘context of choice’ which recognizes cultural identity threatens to negate the value of consent for women in development.
Article
The main states of India are broadly grouped into two demographic regimes. In contrast to states in the north, southern states are characterized by lower marital fertility, later age at marriage, lower infant and child mortality and comparatively low ratios of female to male infant and child mortality. The division between the two regimes broadly coincides with the division between areas of northern kinship/low female autonomy and southern kinship/high female autonomy. The analysis suggests that female social status is probably the most important element in comprehending India's demographic situation. Women in the south tend to be more active in the labor force, are more likely to take innovative action in adopting fertility control, and are more apt to utilise health services for themselves and their children.-Authors
Article
In this new and brilliantly organized book of essays, Anthony Giddens discusses three main theoretical traditions in social science that cut across the division between Marxist and non-Marxist sociology: interpretive sociology, functionalism, and structuralism. Beginning with a critical examination of the importance of structuralism for contemporary sociology, the author develops a comprehensive account of what he calls "the theory of structuration." One of the main themes is that social theory must recognize, as it has not done hitherto, that all social actors are knowledgeable about the social systems they produce and reproduce in their conduct. In order to grasp the significance of this, he argues, we have to reconsider some of the most basic concepts in sociology. In particular, Giddens argues, it is essential to recognize the significance of time-space relations in social theory. He rejects the distinction between synchrony and diachrony, or statics and dynamics, involved in both structuralism and functionalism, and offers extensive critical commentary on the latter as an approach to sociology. The book, which can be described as a "non-functionalist manifesto," breaks with the three main theoretical traditions in the social sciences today while retaining the significant contributions each contains. In so doing Giddens discusses a range of fundamental problem areas in the social sciences: power and domination, conflict and contradiction, and social transformation. He concludes with an overall appraisal of the key problems in social theory today.
Article
Two villages in Nepal chosen for study were expected to produce a sharp contrast in gender inequality, especially in women's autonomy. Autonomy was measured through questions to wives about their freedom of movement and about their role in household decisionmaking. The two settings provide a sharp contrast in women's autonomy by these measures. The authors argue that this contrast in autonomy influences fertility: greater autonomy reduces the desire for additional children, increases contraceptive use, and lower levels of unmet need for contraception. The empirical analysis supports these arguments. -Authors
Article
The authors research indicates that there seems to be no real evidence that women have been the "winners' and men the "losers' as a result of the changes that have taken place during this century. However, although the economic and social life of both genders has clearly diminished in quality in some respects, these same historical processes have provided women with an emancipatory potential, whereas only a minority of men have been able to confront the challenge successfully. Many women have developed certain strengths in relation to men, because although they have been through an extremely taxing process of adjustment, this has been far less damaging to their sense of identity. This can be seen in their perceptions of themselves, in their daily survival strategies and, not least, in the relations between the genders. -from Author
Book
Commodities and Capabilities presents a set of inter-related theses concerning the foundations of welfare economics, and in particular about the assessment of personal well-being and advantage. The argument presented focuses on the capability to function, i.e. what a person can do or can be, questioning in the process the more standard emphasis on opulence or on utility. In fact, a person's motivation behind choice is treated here as a parametric variable which may or may not coincide with the pursuit of self-interest. Given the large number of practical problems arising from the roles and limitations of different concepts of interest and the judgement of advantage and well-being, this scholarly investigation is both of theoretical interest and practical import.
Article
The article examines the relationship between gender and consumption poverty and between gender and deprivation in the Republic of Guinea. National household survey data reveal that women are not more likely than men to be consumption poor or to suffer greater consumption poverty. Participatory Poverty Assessment data from the village of Kamatiguia reveal that women are “worse off” than men when deprivation includes, inter alia, excessive work load and reduced decision-making authority. When consumption poverty poorly correlates with other dimensions of deprivation, it should not be the sole guide for equity-based policy intervention.
Article
This paper presents findings from a study of Grameen Bank and the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), two programs that provide credit to poor rural women in Bangladesh. The programs were found to have significant effects on eight different dimensions of women's empowerment. The authors use a combination of sample survey and case study data to argue that the success of Grameen Bank, is particular, in empowering women is due both to its strong, central focus on credit, and its skillful use of rules and rituals to make the loan program function.
Article
The book was first published in 1970, as the first fully documented research into the changes affecting women throughout the Third World. It looks at land rights, marriage systems, industrialization and employment in Africa, Latin America and Asia. Makes the case that the change from traditional to modern economic systems hinders rather than helps women's participation in the labour force and that modernization widens the gap in levels of knowledge and training between men and women. -from Publisher
Article
We analyse the determinants of high growth expectations entrepreneurial entry (HGE) using individual data drawn on working age population, based on the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) surveys for the 1998-2004 period. Individual level explanatory variables are combined with country-level factors. Our results suggest that availability of venture capital and intellectual proper rights protection are strong predictors of HGE. In addition, we also find that innovative start-ups are associated with highest growth expectations in countries with extensive supply of venture capital and strongest intellectual property rights. Once we introduce venture capital, we detect no significant effects of other elements of financial systems on high-powered entry.
Article
Special credit institutions in Bangladesh have dramatically increased the credit available to poor rural women since the mid-1980s. Though this is intended to contribute to women's empowerment, few evaluations of loan use investigate whether women actually control this credit. Most often, women's continued high demand for loans and their manifestly high propensity to repay is taken as a proxy indicator for control and empowerment. This paper challenges this assumption by exploring variations in the degree to which women borrowers control their loans directly; reporting on recent research which finds a significant proportion of women's loans to be controlled by male relatives. The paper finds that a preoccupation with “credit performance” — measured primarily in terms of high repayment rates — affects the incentives of fieldworkers dispensing and recovering credit, in ways which may outweigh concerns to ensure that women develop meaningful control over their investment activities.
Empowerment of Women in Egypt and Links to the Survival and Health of their Infants', paper presented at the Seminar on Female Empowerment and Demographic Processes
  • S Kishor
Kishor, S. (1997) `Empowerment of Women in Egypt and Links to the Survival and Health of their Infants', paper presented at the Seminar on Female Empowerment and Demographic Processes, Lund (20±24 April).
Impact of Grameen Bank on the Situation of Poor Rural Women
  • R I Rahman
Rahman, R. I. (1986) `Impact of Grameen Bank on the Situation of Poor Rural Women'. BIDS Working Paper No. 1, Grameen Evaluation Project. Dhaka: Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies.
Purchase of food; number of children; schooling of children; children's marriage; major household purchases; women's work outside the home; sale and purchase of livestock; household expenses; purchase of clothes, jewellery and gifts for wife's relatives
  • Pakistan
Pakistan: Purchase of food; number of children; schooling of children; children's marriage; major household purchases; women's work outside the home; sale and purchase of livestock; household expenses; purchase of clothes, jewellery and gifts for wife's relatives (Sathar and Kazi, 1997).
Operationalising Women's Empowerment: the Case of Rural India', paper presented at the Seminar on
  • S Jejeebhoy
Jejeebhoy, S. (1997), `Operationalising Women's Empowerment: the Case of Rural India', paper presented at the Seminar on Female Empowerment and Demographic Processes, Lund (20±24 April).
Questioning Empowerment Women's Autonomy, Livelihood and Fertility. A Study of Rural Punjab
  • J Rowlands
Rowlands, J. (1997) Questioning Empowerment. Oxford: Oxfam Publications. Sathar, Z. A. and S. Kazi (1997) Women's Autonomy, Livelihood and Fertility. A Study of Rural Punjab. Islamabad: Pakistan Institute of Development Studies.
Ability to make small and large consumer purchases; house repair; taking in livestock for raising; leasing in of land; purchase of major assets
  • Bangladeshhashemi
Bangladesh: Ability to make small and large consumer purchases; house repair; taking in livestock for raising; leasing in of land; purchase of major assets (Hashemi et al., 1996).
Household and Intrahousehold Impacts of the Grameen Bank and Similar Targetted Credit Programmes in Bangladesh', paper presented at Work-shop on Credit Programmes for the Poor: Household and Intrahousehold Impacts and Program Sustainability
  • M Pitt
  • S Khandker
Pitt, M. and Khandker, S. (1995) `Household and Intrahousehold Impacts of the Grameen Bank and Similar Targetted Credit Programmes in Bangladesh', paper presented at Work-shop on Credit Programmes for the Poor: Household and Intrahousehold Impacts and Program Sustainability, Education and Social Policy Department, Washington and Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka.
Wife's Empowerment and Fertility in Nigeria: The Role of Context', paper presented at the Seminar on Female Empowerment and Demographic Processes
  • M M Kritz
  • P Makinwa
  • D T Gurak
Kritz, M. M., P. Makinwa and D. T. Gurak (1997) `Wife's Empowerment and Fertility in Nigeria: The Role of Context', paper presented at the Seminar on Female Empowerment and Demographic Processes, Lund (20±24 April).
Purchase of food; purchase of major household goods; purchase of small items of jewellery; course of action if child falls ill; disciplining the child; decisions about children's education and type of school
  • India
India: Purchase of food; purchase of major household goods; purchase of small items of jewellery; course of action if child falls ill; disciplining the child; decisions about children's education and type of school (Jejeebhoy, 1997).
Paths to Fertility Decline: A Cross-country Analysis
  • G Sen
Sen, G. (1993) `Paths to Fertility Decline: A Cross-country Analysis', in P. Bardhan, M. Dattachaudri and T. N. Krishnan (eds) Development and Change: Essays in Honour of K. N. Raj, pp. 197±214. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
What food to buy; the decision by women to work outside; major market trans-actions; and the number of children to have
  • Nepal
Nepal: What food to buy; the decision by women to work outside; major market trans-actions; and the number of children to have (Morgan and Niraula, 1995).
The Sexual Politics of Labour in Western Nigeria and Hausa Niger
  • P Roberts
Roberts, P. (1989) `The Sexual Politics of Labour in Western Nigeria and Hausa Niger', in K. Young (ed.) Serving Two Masters. Third World Women in Development, pp. 27±47. New Delhi: Allied Publishers.
Wife working outside; making a major purchase; the number of children
  • Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe: Wife working outside; making a major purchase; the number of children (Becker, 1997).
Bangladesh: Children's education; visits to friends and relatives; household purchases; health care matters
  • Cleland
Bangladesh: Children's education; visits to friends and relatives; household purchases; health care matters (Cleland et al., 1994).
Household Structure and Poverty: What are the Connections?'. Population Council Working Papers No. 74
  • C Lloyd
Lloyd, C. (1995) `Household Structure and Poverty: What are the Connections?'. Population Council Working Papers No. 74. New York: Population Council.
Crossroads of Class and Gender Women's Role in Economic Development Outline of a Theory of Practice
  • L Beneria
  • M Roldan
  • E Boserup
Beneria, L. and M. Roldan (1987) Crossroads of Class and Gender. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Boserup, E. (1970) Women's Role in Economic Development. New York: St. Martin's Press. Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 462 N. Kabeer Chen, M.A. (1983) A Quiet Revolution. Women in Transition in Rural Bangladesh. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman.
Have Men Become the Weaker Sex? Changing Life Situations in Kisii District The Human Development Report She is a socio-economist with research interests in gender, poverty, population and household economics
  • M Silberschmidt
Silberschmidt, M. (1992) `Have Men Become the Weaker Sex? Changing Life Situations in Kisii District, Kenya', The Journal of Modern African Studies 30(2): 237±53. UNDP (1995) The Human Development Report 1995. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Naila Kabeer is a fellow of the Institute of Development Studies (IDS), University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9RE, UK. She is a socio-economist with research interests in gender, poverty, population and household economics. She has authored Reversed Realities: Gender Hier-archies in Development Thought (Verso, 1994), and The Power to Choose: Structure, Agency and Bangladeshi Women Workers in London and Dhaka ( forthcoming).
The Idea of a Critical Theory. Habermas and the Frankfurt School
  • R Geuss
Geuss, R. (1981) The Idea of a Critical Theory. Habermas and the Frankfurt School. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
The Policy Implications of Family Bargaining and Marriage Markets Intra-household Resource Allocation in Developing Countries: Methods, Models and Policy
  • M Mcelroy
McElroy, M. (1992) `The Policy Implications of Family Bargaining and Marriage Markets', in L. Haddad, J. Hoddinott and H. Alderman (eds) Intra-household Resource Allocation in Developing Countries: Methods, Models and Policy, pp. 53±74. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Rural Credit Programs and Women's Empowerment in BangladeshSome Men Really are Useless: The Role of Participation in a Women's Project, Empowerment and Gender in the Context of Two Zimbabwean Women's Organisations'. Occasional paper No
  • S M Hashemi
  • S R Schuler
  • A P Riley
Hashemi, S. M., S. R. Schuler and A. P. Riley (1996) `Rural Credit Programs and Women's Empowerment in Bangladesh', World Development 24(4): 635±53. Hoogenboezem, G. (1997) `Some Men Really are Useless: The Role of Participation in a Women's Project, Empowerment and Gender in the Context of Two Zimbabwean Women's Organisations'. Occasional paper No. 56. Nijmegen: Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen.
Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses Third World Women and the Politics of FeminismIs There a Crisis in the Family
  • C T Mohanty
  • Empowerment Moore
Mohanty, C. T. (1991) `Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses', in C. T. Mohanty, A. Russo and L. Torres (eds) Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, pp. 51±80. Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press. Re¯ections on the Measurement of Women's Empowerment Moore, H. (1994) `Is There a Crisis in the Family?', UNRISD Occasional paper No. 3. Geneva: UNRISD.
Legally Dispossessed. Gender, Identity and the Process of Law
  • M Mukhopadhayay
Mukhopadhayay, M. (1998) Legally Dispossessed. Gender, Identity and the Process of Law. Calcutta: Stree Publications.