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Distributed and massed practice: From laboratory to classroom
Applied Cognitive Psychology
Abstract
The benefit to memory of spacing presentations of material is well established but lacks an adequate explanation and is rarely applied in education. This paper presents three experiments that examined the spacing effect and its application to education. Experiment 1 demonstrated that spacing repeated presentations of items is equally beneficial to memory for a wide range of ages, contrary to some theories. Experiment 2 introduced ‘clustered’ presentations as a more relevant control than massed, reflecting the fact that massed presentation of material is uncommon in education. The scheduling of clustered presentations was intermediate between massed and distributed, yet recall was no different than for massed. Experiment 3, a classroom-based study, demonstrated the benefit of distributed over clustered teaching of reading through modification of the scheduling of everyday lessons. Thus, the effectiveness of teaching may be improved by increasing the degree to which lessons are distributed. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... The researchers, however, postulate that there are occasions where learners are not eager enough to pay money for such a way of learning, nor do the teachers like to spend time being on call. Also, studentinitiated use of language supported by teachers can foster vocabulary learning by increasing the 'Cognitive Involvement Load' (Hulstijn & Laufer, 2001, p. 542) through the'Spacing Effect' (Greene, 1989;Dempster, 1996;Seabrook, Brown, & Solity, 2005). By using the word to make a sentence, sending it at spaced intervals to teachers via text-message, and receiving the feedback learners can build a net of well-connected and well-practiced paths and thus retrieve the target word more easily. ...
... The spacing effect also sheds light on the present study. Based on research on memory and learning, for an item to be stored in long-term memory, distributed practice is superior to massed practice (Dempster, 1996;Seabrook, Brown, & Solity, 2005). Study conditions in which repetitions of items to be acquired or learned appear in spaced or distributed sequences have been found to lend themselves better to subsequent retention than presentations in which repetitions occur quickly (Braun and Rubin, 1998;Cuddy and Jacoby, 1982;Dempster, 1987;Greene, 1989;Hintz-man, 1976;Seabrook, Brown & Solity, 2005). ...
... Based on research on memory and learning, for an item to be stored in long-term memory, distributed practice is superior to massed practice (Dempster, 1996;Seabrook, Brown, & Solity, 2005). Study conditions in which repetitions of items to be acquired or learned appear in spaced or distributed sequences have been found to lend themselves better to subsequent retention than presentations in which repetitions occur quickly (Braun and Rubin, 1998;Cuddy and Jacoby, 1982;Dempster, 1987;Greene, 1989;Hintz-man, 1976;Seabrook, Brown & Solity, 2005). This phenomenon has been known as the spacing effect which further argues that memory for items which are presented and then immediately repeated, i.e., massed practice, is worse than for items which are repeated after some intervening items have appeared, i.e., distributed practice. ...
p>The present research investigates the effectiveness of text-message vocabulary learning on EFL freshmen. The results of the pretreatment interview with EFL learners showed that many of them have difficulty learning vocabulary through the traditional paperand-pencil way; therefore, text-message vocabulary learning was hypothesized to be a potential way to help EFL learners consolidate their vocabulary knowledge. To this end, 43 participants from among 85 freshmen studying in Torbat-e-Heydarieh Azad University participated in the study. The participants were divided into two groups of 21 and 22 on the basis of their proficiency. The book Check Your Vocabulary for Academic English by David Porter (2001) was taught to both groups, and they were told to make some sentences in the class to become familiar with these words; they were requested to work cooperatively in small groups of 3 or 4 in order to have the opportunity to talk more about these words. Fifteen to 20 words were introduced and taught to these students on each session. Then, the participants in the experimental group sent the researcher one text-message containing an original sentence for each word covered in the class. They were also asked to send a text-message containing a sentence to their three predetermined partners. The participants in the control group wrote one sentence using each covered word, and they were also asked to write one sentence to exchange with their three partners and bring their assignments to the class next session. The results of independent samples t-test for the post-test and the delayed post-test showed that there was no statistically significant difference between the initial vocabulary learning and the retention of the vocabulary between the two groups.</p
... The effect of distance has been confirmed in several learning areas, such as mathematics, for knowledge recall (Rohrer & Taylor, 2006), acquisition of L1 vocabulary by children ( (Childers & Tomasello, 2002); ), recall details about physics and pronouncing pictures (Toppino, 1991). In-text processing assignments, distance effects have also been shown to be efficient ( (Rogers, 2017); (Seabrook et al., 2005)). ...
... Miles & Kwon, 2008); (Nakata, 2015)) , and reading ((S. Miles & Kwon, 2008); (Nakata, 2015)) (Seabrook et al., 2005). There is emerging evidence that distance distribution training in the preservation of target language constructs is greater than mass distribution training, that is, when learning is assessed after a delayed post-test test. ...
... The results showed that spacing training strengthened the learning outcomes of Indonesian education students. The results are consistent with previous cognitive psychology experiments (Seabrook et al., 2005) that verify the impact of the spatial distribution of teaching across various learning disciplines. In addition, these findings also validate several types of previous research (for example, (SW Miles, 2014); (S. ...
This study is comparing the effects of spacing instruction and massed instruction on Indonesian education students. To fulfill this objective, two intact classes were selected; one as a spacing group and another one as a massed group. Afterward, researcher administering a pre-test measured the skills of participants Islamic education. After that, only then did they receive treatment. In mass classes, the material is taught in an intensive 90-minute session, while the material is taught to space groups in three short sessions (each 30-minute session). After the instructions were carried out, a post-test was carried out in both groups, both mass classes and space groups. Then the post-test result data were analyzed using paired and independent sample t-test. The results showed that there was a significant difference between the post-test spacing group and the mass group. The results of this study indicated that the spacing group significantly outperformed the mass group at the final test. Finally, the implications of the study are discussed. Keywords: Learning Outcomes, Massed instruction, Spacing instruction, education skills;
... Almost 140 years ago, Ebbinghaus (1948) found that when a set of to-be-remembered nonsense syllables were repeated in a way that was distributed across a 3-day period, it only took 38 repetitions to achieve the same memory outcome as did 68 repetitions that had occurred on the same day. Since that time, hundreds of rigorously controlled experimental studies have been conducted with various materials and in various settings (ranging from simple word list memorization materials in research laboratory settings to actual complex course materials in real-world classroom settings), and the consensus among learning scientists is that spacing is a generalizable practice that boosts learning across every type of learning, learning materials, setting, and for just about every learner age (e.g., Baddeley and Longman 1978;Carpenter et al. 2012;Cepeda et al. 2006, 2008, Cepeda et al. 2009Delaney et al. 2010;Dempster 1989;Emeny et al. 2021;Kapler et al. 2015;Kornell 2009;Kornell and Bjork 2008;Lyle et al. 2022;Rawson 2012;Rawson et al. 2013;Rohrer 2015;Rohrer et al. 2015;Seabrook et al. 2005;Sobel et al. 2011;Vlach and Sandhofer 2012). ...
... However, as noted by Weinstein (2018aWeinstein ( , 2018b in her 30-year-later reflection on Dempster's article, these reasons no longer hold true. Since Dempster's article, numerous studies have demonstrated the spacing effect with course-like materials in both simulated (e.g., Kapler et al. 2015;Kornell and Bjork 2008;Rawson 2012) and real classroom contexts (e.g., Carpenter et al. 2012;Emeny et al. 2021;Kang 2017;Lyle et al. 2022;Rawson et al. 2013;Rohrer 2015;Rohrer et al. 2015;Sobel et al. 2011;Seabrook et al. 2005;Vlach and Sandhofer 2012). Today, the underselling of spacing in education might arguably be a form of inadvertent science denial for which, like with learning styles, the literature on misinformation is relevant. ...
Similar to medicine and climate science, education suffers from the spread of misinformation in the United States. Learning styles are an approach that, despite being shown to be ineffective at benefiting learning, is oversold in education, continuing to be extensively implemented, institutionalized, and widely believed to benefit learning. At the same time, over a century of rigorous experimental evidence indicates the effectiveness of spaced learning efforts for enhancing memory retention, skill acquisition, and coming to new understandings in the learning process, yet spacing is undersold in US education. We suggest that research on misinformation spread, pseudoscience, and science denial in domains like vaccines and climate change is relevant to misinformation spread regarding learning styles. We further suggest that the misinformation literature could inform the development of methods for decreasing the spread of misinformation concerning learning styles while increasing the spread of accurate information about spacing's benefits. These efforts could help to accelerate the rate at which the integration of new developments across disciplines can pave the way for a better integration of rigorous experimental science and policy and practice in US education.
... Spacing effect studies also varied in the type of memory test employed (free recall, cued recall, form recall, or recognition), the 1 out of 9 e time lag between the presentation of the stimuli in the spaced condition, the presence of a pretest, and the delay of the memory test that ranged from 15 min (Vlach et al., 2012) to 11 weeks (Goossens et al., 2016) after the study sessions (see Table 4). Most of the studies found a spacing effect in free recall, cued recall, or recognition in children as young as 2 years (Slone & Sandhofer, 2017;Vlach et al., 2012) and until late adolescence (Seabrook et al., 2005), compared to massed, clustered or clumped, simultaneous, and single presentation of learning materials. The only exceptions were Goossens et al. (2016), Rogers and Cheung (2021), and Toppino and DiGeorge (1984), which are worth discussing for their characteristics. ...
... Regarding the period between stimuli presentation in a spaced condition, Rea and Modigliani (1987) found that item recall was superior when the lag was increased. In the same way, Seabrook et al. (2005) reported a greater recall for eight intervening items than for three items in young children, old children, and adults, independent of working memory capacity. Studies with longer lags, such as the 7-day gap implemented by Sobel et al. (2011), also support these findings, as opposed to Goossens et al. (2016), who found partially better outcomes in short-lag conditions. ...
It is critical to promote solid and long-lasting learning techniques in children and adolescents worldwide, including the most underprivileged ones, to improve various aspects of life. Consequentially, research should identify learning techniques that are beneficial for school-age children and that could be easy and inexpensive to apply in educational settings. We systematically reviewed 75 experimental papers that examined the effects on children’s episodic memory of the most effective learning principles identified in adults’ research: distribution of study time (i.e., spacing study sessions is better than massing as shown in the spacing effect), retrieval practice (i.e., retesting at study is better than restudying as in the testing effect), and encoding enrichment (i.e., creating multiple pathways for retrieval is better than relying on fewer pathways, as found in levels-of-processing effect, generation effect, production effect, self-reference effect, and survival effect). We found that these techniques had a beneficial effect on children and adolescents, regardless of their ages. Additionally, we checked whether the materials used in the experiments were educationally relevant. Few experiments have used these materials, except for the testing effect. Researchers interested in the area should undertake projects that help to unveil to what extent these learning techniques could be useful with educationally relevant materials. A starting point could be to use materials more ecological in lab settings and then move to schools to test curricula content. We conclude that the reviewed learning techniques are low-cost and effective and can be a powerful tool to improve memory in children and adolescents.
... Before starting learning activities, 10 minutes of preparation is carried out to warm up and explain the objectives and overview of the day's learning as well as provide motivation. In learning using massed practice, the material presented is carried out using minimal rest time, so that there are more repetitions of movements (Seabrook et al., 2005). After repeating the movement for 15 minutes, students are given a break for 1 minute. ...
... However, other scientific references show that there are research results that favor the distributed practice method. For example, research in the field of rereading learning (Fini et al., 2010), in the field of learning basic mathematics (Schutte et al., 2015), reading skills (Seabrook et al., 2005;Sobel et al., 2011), science (Vlach & Sandhofer, 2012), foreign language vocabulary (Cepeda et al., 2009) andmedical rehabilitation (Krishnan, 2019) show that the distributed practice method is very well applied in the learning process. Apart from that, research in the context of motor learning also found distributed practice to be superior (Dail & Christina, 2004;Shea et al., 2000;Taylor & Rohrer, 2010). ...
The main aim of this research was to determine the influence of learning methods and motor skills on the learning outcomes of fencing attack skills. A 2 x 2 factorial design was used in this study to investigate two learning methods (massed practice and distributed practice) and two categories of motor ability (high and low). A total of 40 students were involved in this study and divided into four groups (A1B1, A1B2, A2B1, and A2B2), each group consisting of 10 people. Each group was given treatment for 16 meetings. The research data were analyzed using the t-test and analysis of variance at a significance level of α = .05. The results of the research found (1) there was a significant difference in influence between massed practice and distributed practice learning methods on fencing martial arts attack skills (F = 72.654; p < .01), (2) there was no significant difference in learning outcomes for fencing martial arts attack skills between groups that have high motor ability versus low motor ability (F = 3.144; p > .05), and (3) there was no significant interaction between massed practice, distributed practice, and motor ability learning methods with fencing attack skills (F = .0001; p > .05). Massed practice learning methods appear to be superior in improving fencing attack skills compared to distributed practice. Keywords: Learning methods, massed practice, distributed practice, motor ability, fencing attacks
... The broader literature on spaced instruction in language learning, including grammar acquisition, supports our findings. Consistent with prior studies (Miles, 2014;Nakata, 2015;Seabrook et al., 2005), our research underscores the effectiveness of spaced instruction in fostering superior learning outcomes compared to massed instruction. The evidence presented in this study, combined with the theoretical foundations, supports the notion that spacing training is not only advantageous for rote memorization but also for the development of complex language skills, such as grammatical proficiency. ...
... As the results of this experiment revealed, both spaced and massed instruction ameliorated Iranian EFL Learners' grammar although spaced instruction proved to be superior in effect. This is consistent with the findings of cognitive psychology pointing to the supremacy of spaced retrieval across a large number of learning modes (Seabrook et al., 2005). The outcomes also support certain earlier studies (e.g., Kargar Behbahani & Kooti, 2022;Miles, 2014;Miles & Kwon, 2008;Namaziandost et al., 2018;Namaziandost et al., 2020a;2020b;Rohrer & Pashler, 2007) which found that spaced instruction enhanced foreign language learning. ...
Despite grammar receiving greater emphasis than other language skills in Iranian schools, Iranian EFL students encounter challenges in acquiring the linguistic structures they are exposed to, resulting in insufficient grammar knowledge. This experiment looked into the effects of spaced versus massed instruction on learning modal auxiliaries among Iranian EFL learners with a lower-intermediate command of English. To this end, through an Oxford Quick Placement Tests (OQPT), 78 lower-intermediate learners were selected and assigned in three conditions, with 26 subjects in each: Spaced condition, Massed condition, Control condition. Using a Levene’s test, it was shown that the subjects were homogenous prior to the experiment. Then, a pretest was used. The results of the pretest showed that there was no between groups’ difference prior to the treatment. Afterward, the spaced group received three 30-minute sessions on modal auxiliaries based on Fundamentals of English Grammar by Azar (2016), while the massed condition received the instruction in just a single 90-minute session. The subjects in all conditions were then posttested. The results of a one-way between groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that both treatment groups outperformed the comparison group (p < .05) with a large effect size (eta squared = .63). The results of post-hoc analyzes using Bonferroni adjustment further revealed that there was a statistically significant difference between the two experimental conditions (p < .05). That is, the spaced subjects gained more compared to their massed counterparts with regard to the targeted L2 form. Pedagogically, this study suggests ESL/EFL instructors could integrate spaced instruction strategies for enhancing students' proficiency in modals. Material developers may also leverage these findings to create more engaging and effective instructional materials.
... In order to recall knowledge, the spacing impact has been validated in a wide variety of learning realms, such as mathematics (e.g., Rohrer & Taylor, 2006), childrenís development of L1 vocabulary (Childers & Tomasello, 2002), the recollection of physical facts (Franzenburg, 2020) and the memorization of images (e.g., Toppino, 1993). The spacing impact has also been shown in the tasks of text processing (e.g., Seabrook, Brown, & Solity, 2005). ...
... Meanwhile, a majority of studies have demonstrated the beneficial impacts of spaced instruction over massed instruction in grammar learning (Miles, 2014), vocabulary learning (Nakata, 2015), and reading skills (Seabrook, Brown, & Solity, 2005). There is recent evidence that spaced distribution instruction is better than massed distribution instruction in the retention of target language structures, i.e., when learning is measured after administering a delayed post-test (Miles, 2014). ...
This study investigated the impact of spaced and massed instruction on foreign language reading motivation and reading attitude among Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners. To fulfil this objective, 60 Iranian participants were chosen among 120 students based on the results of Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT). The selected pre-intermediate participants were then divided into two equal experimental groups: spaced group and massed group. Afterwards, the researcher measured the participantsí reading motivation and reading attitude by administering a reading motivation questionnaire and a reading attitude survey as a pre-test. Then, both groups received the treatment. During the treatment phase of the study, the massed group was taught the reading comprehension in an intensive 60-minute session, while the spaced group was taught in three short sessions (twenty-minute session). After the instruction, a reading motivation questionnaire and a reading attitude survey as a post-test were carried out to both groups and finally the data were analyzed by running paired and independent sample t-tests. The outcomes demonstrated that there was a significant difference between the post-tests of spaced and massed groups. The findings indicated that the spaced group significantly out performed the massed group (p < .05) on the reading motivation and reading attitude post-test. The implications of this study make teachers know that teaching through spaced periods can produce better outcomes than teaching through one massed session.
... The spacing effect, which is the finding that distribution of learning episodes across time leads 11 Schwartz and Cleary Journal of Cognition DOI: 10.5334/joc.447 to better learning than massing learning episodes together, has been established since the time of Ebbinghaus (Ebbinghaus, 1885;1964) and widely replicated across time (Greene, 2008;Hintzman, 1974) as well as shown to be a highly generalizable principle of learning (e.g., Baddeley & Longman, 1978;Hartwig et al., 2022;Kang, 2017;Kapler et al., 2015;Rohrer et al., 2015;Seabrook et al., 2005). However, research over the past 15 years or so has demonstrated a pervasive disconnect between people's conscious experience of what spacing is doing for their learning and their actual learning. ...
The Doctrine of Concordance is the implicit assumption that cognitive processes, behavior, and phenomenological experience are highly correlated (Tulving, 1989). Tulving challenged this assumption, pointing to domains in which conscious experience did not accompany a particular measured cognitive process and to situations in which consciousness did not correlate with the observable behavior. Schwartz (1999) extended this view, asserting that the underlying cognitive processes that produce conscious experience may differ from those that produce observable behavior. Though research on conscious experience blossomed during the last quarter century and progress has been made in moving past the Doctrine of Concordance, we argue that some subdomains within memory research remain hampered by an implicit endorsement of it. We outline two areas of memory research in which current research and interpretations appear to fall prey to the Doctrine today: research on the dual- vs. single-process theory in recognition memory, including work on remember/know judgments, and research on retrospective memory confidence. We then describe four areas of research that show progress in understanding conscious experience by rejecting the Doctrine of Concordance: These are 1) metacognitive disconnects in the science of learning, 2) recognition illusions, 3) déjà vu experiences, and 4) aha experiences. We claim that there is often a dissociation between the mechanisms that create conscious experience and the underlying cognitive processes that contribute to behaviors, which may seem causally correlated with conscious experience. Disentangling the relations between process, behavior, and conscious experience in the human mind’s operation are important to understanding it.
... Regression analysis is a common methodology used in examining the effects of spaced repetition, e.g. (Rohrer, Taylor, 2006;Seabrook et al, 2005), as is the use of ANOVAS, e.g. (Maass et al, 2015;McDaniel et al, 2013). ...
This study compares two digital flashcard spaced repetition algorithms to evaluate whether the SuperMemo 2 (SM2) algorithm produces better outcomes for law student learning as measured by assessment results than the older Leitner algorithm. Academic staff prepared hundreds of digital flashcards related to an undergraduate law unit – Introduction to law. Undergraduate law students (n=47) were randomly assigned flashcards using two variations of a software program FlashCram, one version of which used a simple Leitner algorithm, another version the SM2 algorithm for spaced repetition. Students completed three practical assignments, two worth 10%, one worth 20%. and a theoretical examination worth 60% of their final grade. The results confirmed SuperMemo 2 to be a superior algorithm over Leitner with respect to the theoretical examination. There was no significant difference between the algorithms for practical assessment that was skills based, not dependent on memory and not subject to any significant time pressure. The results suggest that the usefulness of spaced repetition digital flashcard systems for legal studies may depend upon the nature of the assessment task.
... As mentioned earlier, this could be explained by the fact that students may be successful even if they mass their study sessions. In other words, examinations may not measure long-term, transferable learning-properties of learning usually enhanced by spaced practice (Carpenter et al., 2022)-but rather reflect the ability to remember information for a short period of time, something that cramming contributes to achieving quite well (Seabrook et al., 2005). In fact, back in 1988, Frank N. Dempster already wondered why such an important research outcome as the spacing effect had not become standard practice in education, so he suggested nine potential explanations. ...
Research in cognitive science has highlighted the effectiveness of several learning techniques, and a number of studies have analyzed their prevalence among university students and their relationship with academic achievement. In this study, we surveyed a large, heterogeneous sample of secondary school students to reveal how often they use research-supported techniques in comparison with other frequent techniques, and we analyzed the association between their study strategies and school achievement. We also assessed the associations between study techniques and several students’ beliefs and attitudes toward learning (self-efficacy, goal orientation, control beliefs, growth mindset, and examination anxiety). Results showed that, except for distributed practice, only those techniques that are supported by previous research yielded an association with achievement, and they exhibited higher associations with self-efficacy, growth mindset, control beliefs, and learning goal orientation than non-supported techniques.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s41235-024-00567-5.
... Third, the CP necessitates students' spreading out their engagement with the material over time, and is purposefully offset from examinations on the same topic. Such spaced learning is superior to massed studying (Cadaret & Yates, 2018;Reynolds & Glaser, 1964;Seabrook et al., 2005). The assignment also serves as an element of the scaffolding learning method, where material is introduced and gradually support is decreased as student capability increases (Doo et al., 2020). ...
... Thus, the parsing of practice over multiple sessions has been proposed to foster greater performance as a result of encoding variability (Dempster, 1996), and in line with the classification of spacing as a desirable difficulty, many studies further revealed that spacing yields long-term benefits for learning, whereas massing is often more beneficial when the test is administered immediately after the learning phase (e. g., Dunlosky et al., 2013;Rawson & Kintsch, 2005 and see also Ebersbach et al., 2022). Distributed training has been shown to promote long-term knowledge and skills retention, for instance in tasks regarding verbal recall (Cepeda et al., 2006), English as a second language (Bird, 2011), reading (Seabrook et al., 2005), mathematics (Rohrer & Taylor, 2007), arm movements (Boutin et al., 2013), and dynamic balance (Shea et al., 2000). For example, Stafford and Dewar (2014) analyzed gameplay data of 854,064 players and found that players who spread their practice over multiple sessions tended to achieve higher scores in later trials of the game, stressing better skill retention (see also Shea et al., 2000, for another motor skill learning task). ...
Studies suggest that the amount of practice and practice protocols can affect the long-term retention of motor skills. We tested how a practice schedule affects young adults' learning and retention of a simple grapho-motor skill. Young adults trained on the construction of a letter-form by connecting dots (Invented Letter Task, ILT) in a single-session 24-blocks practice were compared to a distributed practice group afforded 6-blocks ILT practice on four consecutive days. The single-session practice outper-formed the distributed practice group in the speed performance at the end of training but also 24-h post-training. However, the distributed practice group was comparable to the single-session group in terms of speed by 4-5 wk post-training and showed significant gains between 24-h and 4-5 wk post-training while the massed practice showed significant deterioration. Both groups were comparable in terms of accuracy at the three assessment time points. The results suggest that, even in a simple motor task, comparing single sessions to multi-session (distributed) practice could be a straightforward method for determining the efficiency of a practice schedule in young adults.
... Distributed across time. In general, distributed practice or "a little but often" results in better learning than when learning opportunities are condensed together in one session (Seabrook et al., 2005). This is also true of vocabulary learning, and distributed practice seems to be especially important for learning the phonological form of words (Childers & Tomasello, 2002; McGregor et al., Table 4. Examples of activities to promote active processing of word meanings. ...
Purpose
The purposes of this tutorial are to (a) summarize the relationships between vocabulary and reading, in order to provide a justification for including vocabulary as part of literacy instruction and intervention; (b) outline ways to identify children with vocabulary deficits; (c) provide an overview of treatment for vocabulary intervention, which address the goals of developing word-specific knowledge, increasing awareness of the effect of context on word meaning, and developing the ability to infer the meaning of new words; and (d) outline evidence for a range of service delivery models for vocabulary intervention.
Method
This tutorial includes a review of research related to vocabulary and reading development, strategies for identifying students who struggle with vocabulary learning, and intervention strategies that support vocabulary growth and reading development and role of the speech-language pathologist in vocabulary instruction and intervention.
Conclusions
Vocabulary knowledge is critical to reading at all developmental phases. This tutorial outlines key information about vocabulary that speech-language pathologists can use to plan assessment and effective intervention for this foundational skill in written language.
... When it occurs during a single educational event, it is referred to as "mass repetition," and when it occurs during various health education sessions, it is referred to as "spaced repetition (15). The present study practiced spaced repetition as suggested by Rachel Seabrook in improving oral health skills by repetition and reinforcement (16).In this study, direct communication by dentists was effective in developing oral health skills. This is in accordance to Chachra et al. research conducted in India in which the researchers found that dentists were the most successful as compared to the other educators for oral health education (17).Our results of improving oral health status of 35 % children by repetition and reinforcement are in favor of Emler et al. study conducted in Kentucky, as they found repetition and reinforcement to be an important tool in improving health status of children by 31.53% (18). ...
Background: Oral health skills (OHS) programs about brushing techniques have been found to have a lasting impact when repetition and reinforcement are used. Existing dental research doesn't apply to school-based surgeon-led oral health skill programs. Objectives: To determine the effectiveness of Oral Health Skills with regard to proper brushing techniques, based upon repetition and reinforcement on the oral health status of school children through the Community Periodontal Index of Treatment Needs. Methodology: A quasi-experimental intervention study was conducted in a public school of Rawalpindi with 100 students (ages 13-17) demonstrating proper brushing techniques. These students were given intervention for OHS to demonstrate proper brushing technique. Other forms of awareness such as panaflexes and brochures were also shared. Brushing techniques were demonstrated and examined on dummies. Students received four OHS sessions at weeks 0, 3, and months 3 and 6, each followed by oral examinations by a dentist. Results: Proper brushing technique habit at the baseline was 1%. Which rose to 66% at the end of intervention. The CPITN index of participants at baseline was 1.06 and after the 1 st , 2 nd and 3 rd intervention lowered to, 0.94, 0.68, and 0.28 respectively. Paired t-test was conducted with findings of p < 0.001. This highly significant result proved that it is advantageous to include OHS based on repetition and reinforcement to improve the oral health status of children. Conclusion: Programs promoting Oral Health Skills with a focus on repetition and reinforcement have a long-lasting impact on the oral health status of school children.
... Task practice method (MP vs. DP). The present study deals with two methods of training task practice, i.e., MPM and DPM, where the difference between both lies in the factors of work intensity and rest periods within sessions [40]. MPM depends on increasing and intensifying the trainees' work to accomplish the required tasks within the session, i.e., learning, practicing, and applying a greater number of skills, in addition to reducing or not allowing rest periods. ...
Mobile training is one of the modern training systems resulting from the integration of innovations in information and communication technology (ICT), which can be used to solve the problems of traditional training in educational institutions. Therefore, it is important to study the design variables of such training that enhance its effectiveness. Thus, the present study aims to design a mobile training context (MTC) and to investigate the effect of interaction between the training method, i.e., whole task (WT) versus part task (PT), and the task practice method, i.e., massed practice (MP) versus distributed practice (DP), on the skills of e-content production of 52 public education teachers in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, through using the semi-experimental approach and the factorial design (2 × 2). Furthermore, an application-oriented knowledge test was used to measure the participant teachers' skills through their application of 208 items related to e-content design, production, and publishing. Findings showed the effectiveness of part-task training (PTT) compared to whole-task training (WTT) and the effectiveness of the massed practice method (MPM) compared to the distributed practice method (DPM). In addition, there was a preference for the massed practice for part-task (MPPT) treatment in comparison to other treatments. This result encourages the possibility of providing a successful MTC for training in different skills. However, further research is still required to optimize the expected future potential of the mobile training context.
... These time intervals between episodes of studying result in better retention than massed practice and protect against forgetting by improving the consolidation of newly learned material [106,107]. The spacing effect has been shown to improve learning in many different domains and populations, across age groups, and in memory impaired individuals, all resulting in substantial improvements in long-term memory [108][109][110]. In their compilation of seminal studies from the field of educational psychology, Kirschner and Hendrick [26] point to distributed practice as among the most well-established procedures for enhancing learning. ...
Purpose:
Cognitive science is essential to designing, implementing, and evaluating instruction for enhancing student learning. However, there may not be sufficient focus on the principles of cognitive science, as some educators hold learning beliefs that may be considered cognitive myths.
Procedures:
This review article analyzes examples of five learning myths (learning styles, pure discovery learning, digital natives, extrinsic motivation, multitasking) and five research-based learning strategies (dual coding, direct instruction, summarization, retrieval practice, spacing). It details the research evidence for each to explain those misconceptions of learning and also those underutilized or misunderstood but effective strategies shown to benefit student learning.
Conclusion:
Educational practices related to learning myths are widespread in education with potentially detrimental effects on student learning. We recommend that colleges of education be restructured to ensure greater emphasis on cognitive science in educator preparation programs to better promote research-based instructional strategies to meet students’ learning needs.
... Two studies from the developmental literature are also pertinent to the influence of temporal spacing on orthographic learning. Seabrook, Brown, and Solity (2005, Experiment 3) tested whether longer intervals between practice benefited learning more than shorter intervals. This is known as the lag effect, which is distinct from, but related to the spacing effect. ...
Distributing study opportunities over time typically improves the retention of verbal material compared to consecutive study trials, yet little is known about the influence of temporal spacing on orthographic form learning specifically. This experiment sought to obtain and compare estimates of the magnitude of the spacing effect on written word form learning across three different outcome measures, administered between participants. Skilled adult readers (N = 120) read aloud 16 sentences containing an embedded pseudoword a total of four times. Half of the items were temporally distributed (appearing once in each of four blocks), while half were massed (read on four consecutive trials within a block). After a short delay, learning was assessed using tests of recognition (orthographic choice) or recall (spelling to dictation or letter cue spelling). There was a significant effect of spacing across all outcome measures (all p < .001). When the magnitude of the spacing effect was compared across these three measures, letter cue spelling showed a significantly larger spacing effect than spelling to dictation (p = .039) while orthographic choice did not significantly differ from either (both p > .05). These findings indicate that temporal spacing influences the learning of orthographic form, regardless of the outcome measure used. Distributing study opportunities over time typically improves the retention of verbal material compared to consecutive study trials, yet little is known about the influence of temporal spacing on orthographic form learning specifically. This experiment sought to obtain and compare estimates of the magnitude of the spacing effect on written word form learning across three different outcome measures, administered between participants. Skilled adult readers (N = 120) read aloud 16 sentences containing an embedded pseudoword a total of four times.
... Thus, as matter of principle, a learning method that has been shown to be beneficial for adult learners is not guaranteed to work for younger learners. However, some studies suggest that distributed practice seems to be as beneficial for young children as for young adults (Seabrook et al., 2005;Toppino et al., 1991). ...
Distributed practice is a well-known learning strategy whose beneficial effects on long-term learning are well proven by various experiments. In learning from texts, the benefits of distribution might even go beyond distributed practice, i.e. distribution of repeated materials. In realistic learning scenarios as for example school or university learning, the reader might read multiple texts that not repeat but complement each other. Therefore, distribution might also be implemented between multiple texts and benefit long-term learning in analogy to distributed practice. The assumption of beneficial effects of this distributed learning can be deduced from theories about text comprehension as the landscape model of reading (van den Broek et al., 1996) in combination with theories of desirable difficulties in general (R. A. Bjork & Bjork, 1992) and distributed practice in particular (Benjamin & Tullis, 2010). This dissertation aims to investigate (1) whether distributed learning benefits learning; (2) whether the amount of domain-specific prior knowledge moderates the effects of distribution, (3) whether distributed learning affects the learner’s meta-cognitive judgments in analogy to distributed practice and (4) whether distributed practice is beneficial for seventh graders in learning from single text. In Experiment 1, seventh graders read two complementary texts either massed or distributed by a lag of one week between the texts. Learning outcomes were measured immediately after reading the second text and one week later. Judgements of learning were assessed immediately after each text. Experiment 2 replicated the paradigm of Experiment 1 while shortening the lag between the texts in the distributed condition to 15 min. In both experiments, an interaction effect between learning condition (distributed vs. massed) and retention interval (immediate vs. delayed) was found. In the distributed condition, the participants showed no decrease in performance between the two tests, whereas participants in the massed condition did. However, no beneficial effects were found in the delayed test for the distributed condition but even detrimental effects for the distributed condition in the immediate test. In Experiment 1, participants in the distributed condition perceived learning as less difficult but predicted lower success than the participants in the massed condition. Experiment 3 replicated the paradigm of Experiment 1 with university students in the laboratory. In the preregistered Experiment 4, an additional retention interval of two weeks was realized. In both experiments, the same interaction between learning condition and retention interval was found. In Experiment 3, the participants in the distributed condition again showed no decrease in performance between the two tests, whereas participants in the massed condition did. However, even at the longer retention interval in Experiment 4, no beneficial effects were found for the distributed condition. Domain-specific prior knowledge was positively associated with test performance in both experiments. In Experiment 4, the participants with low prior knowledge seemed to be impaired by distributed learning, whereas no difference was found for participants with medium or high prior knowledge. In the preregistered Experiment 5, seventh graders read a single text twice. The rereading took place either massed or distributed with one week. Immediately after rereading, judgements of learning were assessed. Learning outcomes were assessed four min after second reading or one week later. Participants in the distributed condition predicted lower learning success than participants in the massed condition. An interaction effect between learning condition and retention interval was found, but no advantage for the distributed condition. Participants with low domain-specific prior knowledge showed lower performance in short-answer questions in the distributed condition than in the massed condition. Overall, the results seem less encouraging regarding the effectiveness of distribution on learning from single and multiple texts. However, the experiments reported here can be perceived as first step in the realistic investigation of distribution in learning from texts.
... As already discussed, many more studies on the spacing effect have been conducted in the laboratory than in the classroom. Many of the classroom studies addressed verbal skills, such as the acquisition of vocabulary (e. g., Sobel et al., 2011), historical facts (Carpenter et al., 2009), or reading skills (Seabrook et al., 2005) and reported positive effects of spacing on long-term retention. However, only a few experiments that included a spacing and a massed learning condition and no further confounding factors were conducted in educational settings with coherent material that went beyond the rote learning of mere words or sentences (see Wiseheart et al., 2019, for an overview). ...
Spacing repeated study phases across multiple sessions instead of studying and restudying the learning material in one session only is an effective strategy to promote lasting learning. However, most studies demonstrating the spacing effect were conducted in the laboratory, using simple verbal material. Learning in educational contexts differs regarding the complexity and coherence of the learning material and concerning the role of motivational and affective learner characteristics. Studies conducted in educational contexts suggest that the spacing effect is not as robust here. For example, acquiring mathematical skills or nonrepeated, consecutive information does not reliably benefit from spacing. After an overview of studies addressing the spacing effect in the laboratory and in educational contexts, we discuss various open questions that need to be addressed by future research before recommending spacing as a learning strategy to promote meaningful and lasting learning at schools and universities.
... It is critical that students learn to formulate their own investigative questions and refine them over time (Watson & English, 2017). Students with MD may need explicit guidance on how to formulate questions and many opportunities for practice on this specific skill using a variety of examples and nonexamples (Seabrook et al., 2005). Circle back to the (a) Formulate Questions step as new questions arise throughout the course of the statistical investigation. ...
Being able to understand, interpret, and critically evaluate data is necessary for all individuals in our society. Using the PreK-12 Guidelines for Assessment and Instruction in Statistics Education-II (GAISE-II; Bargagliotti et al., 2020) curriculum framework, the current paper outlines five evidence-based recommendations that teachers can use to build understanding of statistical investigation and data analysis for students with mathematics difficulties, including: (1) Explicitly teach important vocabulary related to statistical investigation and data analysis, (2) Introduce the steps and purpose of statistical investigation, (3) Guide students through the statistical investigation process, (4) Link investigative questions to word problem types to solve, and (5) Build understanding of variability throughout.
... Studies have consistently shown that, given the same total learning time, practice which is distributed over a number of learning occasions separated by intervals produces stronger and more lasting memory (see the comprehensive synthesis in Cepeda et al., 2006). In a real classroom setting studied by Seabrook et al. (2005), "children whose teaching [in core literacy skills] consisted of three 2-min sessions per day showed more than six times the improvement of those who were taught for one 6-min session per day. " The implications for language teachers are obvious but in most classroom settings, of course, a series of short sessions requires more complex organization than one single massed session. ...
This paper proposes a framework to guide us in designing and implementing our classroom language pedagogy. It is based on three major principles which the teacher can keep constantly in mind: that the learners need to be engaged, that the language needs to be memorized, and that learning needs to move toward communicative competence. Each principle generates between two and four dimensions which the teacher can use to develop specific strategies.
... Age Several L1 studies have examined the effects of spaced practice at different ages but have obtained inconsistent results: Older children showed spacing effects, but not younger children (e.g., Toppino & DiGeorge, 1984); young adults showed larger spacing effects than older adults (Maddox, Balota, Coane, & Duchek, 2011); there was no age difference between the effects of shorter and longer spacing (e.g., Seabrook, Brown, & Solity, 2005) or between the effects of equal and expanding spacing (e.g., Maddox et al., 2011). Furthermore, some findings conflict with Wilson's (1976) hypothesis that the effects of different types of spacing are dependent on working memory capacity (the ability to not only temporarily store information but also manipulate it for learning, Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson, 2015), which develops with age (Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge, & Wearing, 2004). ...
This meta‐analysis investigates earlier studies of spaced practice in second language learning. We retrieved 98 effect sizes from 48 experiments (N = 3,411). We compared the effects of three aspects of spacing (spaced vs. massed, longer vs. shorter spacing, and equal vs. expanding spacing) on immediate and delayed posttests to calculate mean effect sizes. We also examined the extent to which nine empirically motivated variables moderated the effects of spaced practice. Results showed that (a) spacing had a medium‐to‐large effect on second language learning; (b) shorter spacing was as effective as longer spacing in immediate posttests but was less effective in delayed posttests than longer spacing; (c) equal and expanding spacing were statistically equivalent; and (d) variability in spacing effect size across studies was explained methodologically by the learning target, number of sessions, type of practice, activity type, feedback timing, and retention interval. The methodological and pedagogical significance of the findings are discussed.
... As well, Page 3 of 20 Foot-Seymour and Wiseheart Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications (2022) 7:5 there aren't yet enough classroom studies to support use of the spacing effect across the entire range of educational materials. Some of the applied classroombased studies that have been conducted with verbal and factual material show spacing benefits for word and phonics learning (Seabrook et al., 2005), word and fact learning (Carpenter et al., 2009;Sobel et al., 2011), second language learning (Bloom & Shuell, 1981;Küpper-Tetzel et al., 2014), and text comprehension (Rawson & Kintsch, 2005;Verkoeijen et al., 2008). These studies all showed benefits of spacing. ...
Spaced learning—the spacing effect—is a cognitive phenomenon whereby memory for to-be-learned material is better when a fixed amount of study time is spread across multiple learning sessions instead of crammed into a more condensed time period. The spacing effect has been shown to be effective across a wide range of ages and learning materials, but few studies have been conducted that look at whether spacing can be effective in real-world classrooms, using real curriculum content, with real teachers leading the intervention. In the current study, lesson plans for teaching website credibility were distributed to homeroom elementary teachers with specific instructions on how to manipulate the timing of the lessons for either a one-per-day or one-per-week delivery. One month after the final lesson, students were asked to apply their knowledge on a final test, where they evaluated two new websites. Results were mixed, suggesting that classroom noise might lessen or impede researchers’ ability to find spacing effects in naturalistic settings.
... Regardless of mechanism, spacing effects are robust-occurring across various materials, procedures, and learner characteristics . Most important for the present study, spacing effects have been demonstrated in numerous classroom-based randomized studies (e.g., Seabrook et al., 2005;Sobel et al., 2011; for a review, see Dunlosky et al., 2013). Moreover, classroom studies have found spacing effects with math learning (Barzagar Nazari & Ebersbach, 2019;Hopkins et al., 2016;Lyle et al., 2020;Schutte et al., 2015). ...
Many randomized controlled experiments in the classroom have found that mathematics learning is improved dramatically when practice problems of one kind are distributed across multiple assignments (spaced) and mixed with other kinds of problems (interleaved). In two studies, we investigated students' knowledge of spacing and interleaving. In Study 1, 193 undergraduates designed learning schedules for a hypothetical math class. In Study 2, 175 undergraduates selected from among five hypothetical schedules in response to a variety of questions, provided reasons for their selections, and rated the utility of spacing and interleaving. In both studies, most participants incorrectly judged schedules with minimal degrees of spacing and interleaving to be most effective. Also, schedules with more spacing and interleaving were perceived as more difficult, less enjoyable, and less common. Participants' ratings of utility revealed mixed perspectives on spacing and an underappreciation of interleaving. Altogether, these findings demonstrate that most students fail to recognize the benefits of spaced and interleaved practice. Further, by identifying specific ways in which their beliefs about spacing and interleaving fall short, we reveal opportunities to reshape students' beliefs to foster these effective learning techniques. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... It is critical that students learn to formulate their own investigative questions and refine them over time (Watson & English, 2017). Students with MD may need explicit guidance on how to formulate questions and many opportunities for practice on this specific skill using a variety of examples and nonexamples (Seabrook et al., 2005). Circle back to the (a) Formulate Questions step as new questions arise throughout the course of the statistical investigation. ...
Measurement and statistical investigation are areas of mathematics visibly neglected in educational intervention research, particularly studies involving students with or at risk for mathematics difficulties (MD). This shortage is concerning given the importance these areas hold in students’ pursuit of mathematical proficiency. This study investigated the initial efficacy of the Precision Mathematics Grade 2 (PM-2) intervention, a Tier 2 (print and technology-based), integrated STEM intervention designed to increase second-grade students’ mathematics achievement in the areas of measurement and statistical investigation. A total of 130 second-grade students with or at risk for MD participated in the randomized, controlled trial. Students were randomly assigned within classrooms to either treatment (PM-2) or control (business-as-usual) conditions. Findings indicated a pattern of “promise” for PM-2 improving student scores on a proximal assessment of early measurement skills (Hedges’ g = .50). Differential effects of PM-2 by initial numeracy skill were not observed for 3 of the outcome measures. However, moderation results were found on a curriculum-based measure, suggesting the effects of PM-2 were greatest for students with higher initial skill. Implications for supporting students’ development of mathematics proficiency in areas beyond whole numbers and operations are discussed.
... word list learning, paired associates learning, see Cepeda et al., 2006), remembering faces (Xue et al., 2011), and learning various types of information in school, such as in physics (Grote, 1995), biology (Vlach & Sandhofer, 2012), mathematics (Rea & Modigliani, 1985), and for various medical school topics (Kerfoot & Brotschi, 2009). Indeed, spacing has shown promising results not only in laboratory experiments but also in studies conducted in classroom settings (for science lessons, see, for example, Gluckman, Vlach, & Sandhofer, 2014; for reading lessons, see Seabrook, Brown, & Solity, 2005). ...
We investigated whether learning and retaining vocabulary in a second language (L2) can be improved by leveraging a combination of memory enhancement techniques. Specifically, we tested whether combining retrieval practice, spacing, and related manipulations in a ‘multidomain’ pedagogical approach enhances vocabulary acquisition as compared to a typical learning approach. In a classroom-laboratory design, 48 Turkish university students studying L2 English were trained on 64 English words over 17 days. They were assigned to either a ‘typical’ study regimen of (re)studying the words on the first day (initial study) and last day (cramming) of training, or an ‘optimized’ regimen of retrieval practice (retrieving the words), moreover with feedback, spaced throughout the period, moreover with expanding gaps. The target words were tested before training (pre-test) and one and 11 days afterwards (post-tests). Mixed-effects modeling revealed a training-group by test-session interaction, due to greater improvements from optimized training (a striking 18 percentage-point accuracy increase from pre-test to both post-tests) than typical training (an 8 percentage-point increase). Further analyses showed that the optimized training advantages were mainly driven by high (rather than low) frequency words. Overall, the results suggest that a multidomain approach of combining different memory enhancement techniques can lead to substantial gains in both the learning and retention of L2 words, as compared to a typical study pattern. The findings have implications for L2 learning and pedagogy.
... More recently, meta-analyses estimate that about 75% of 400+ verbal learning studies in the distributed practice literature show a spacing advantage (Cepeda et al., 2006). Verbal learning in elementary school, where spaced or distributed learning is used, appears to be most beneficial for learning simple word recall (Seabrook et al., 2005) and word and fact learning (Sobel et al., 2011), including vocabulary and text comprehension. A recent study identified an effect size of +0.85 for the benefit of spaced learning with verbal contents (Wiseheart et al., 2019). ...
This article reports results of a phase 2 exploratory trial of a vocabulary program delivered in elementary schools to improve student’s reading ability, including their comprehension. The intervention was tested as a targeted intervention in classrooms with children aged 7–10 across 20 weeks during one school year, with eligible students learning in small groups of four. Teachers and support staff received training in this cooperative learning approach to develop children’s vocabulary with particular focus on Tier‐2 words. School staff received additional support and resources to equip them to develop and implement the vocabulary instruction sessions to targeted students. The trial was undertaken with a sample of 101 students in seven schools from three English district areas with high levels of socio‐economic disadvantage. A standardized reading test was used to measure reading outcomes, with significant gains found in student’s overall reading ability, including comprehension. Owing to the positive results found in this trial, including positive feedback about implementation of the technique, next steps should be a larger trial with 48 schools to avoid the risk of sampling error due to limited number of schools.
... Across the cognitive sciences, researchers have shown that distributed practice leads to larger effect sizes than concentrated practice (e.g., Warren et al., 2007). Again, research on this hypothesis in reading research is limited and inconclusive, with current research results suggesting that neither concentrated or distributed practice is more beneficial on measures of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, or reading comprehension Seabrook et al., 2005;Ukrainetz et al., 2009;Vaughn et al., 2010). Vaughn et al. (2010) and Denton et al. (2011) also proposed improving active student learning to impact dosage response. ...
Researchers have noted a nonlinear association between reading instruction dosage (i.e., hours of instruction) and reading outcomes for Grade K–3 students with reading difficulties (K–3 SWRD). In this article, we propose a nonlinear meta-analysis as a method to identify both the maximum effect size and optimal dosage of reading interventions for K–3 SWRD using 26 peer-reviewed studies including 186 effect sizes. Results suggested the effect sizes followed a concave parabolic shape, such that increasing dosage improved intervention effects until 39.92 hours of instruction (d max = 0.77), after which the intervention effects declined. Moderator analyses found that maximum intervention effects on fluency outcomes were significantly larger (d max = 1.34) than the overall maximum effect size. Also, when students received 1:1 instruction, the dosage response curve displayed a different functional form than the concave parabolic shape, showing the effect increased indefinitely after approximately 16.8 hours of instruction. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
... Indeed, a long history of experimental work reveals superior learning for time-distributed relative to massed practice for children and adults. Originating with the research of Ebbinghaus (1885)-who manipulated practice schedules to test learning of nonsense syllables-researchers conclude that distributed practice is advantageous over massed practice in domains spanning surgical skill training (Andersen et al., 2015); memory (Carpenter et al., 2012;Seabrook et al., 2005); second-language learning (Bird, 2010); motor learning (Schmidt & Lee, 2011), performance in academic subjects (Carpenter et al., 2012), and so on. Similarly, a long history of experimental work reveals superior learning for variable relative to blocked practice for learning motor skills such as landing baskets and kicking soccer goals, learning math concepts, and so on (Rohrer et al., 2015;Schmidt & Lee, 2011;Taylor & Rohrer, 2009). ...
Object play yields enormous benefits for infant development. However, little is known about natural play at home where most object interactions occur. We conducted frame‐by‐frame video analyses of spontaneous activity in two 2‐h home visits with 13‐month‐old crawling infants and 13‐, 18‐, and 23‐month‐old walking infants (N = 40; 21 boys; 75% White). Regardless of age, for every infant and time scale, across 10,015 object bouts, object interactions were short (median = 9.8 s) and varied (transitions among dozens of toys and non‐toys) but consumed most of infants’ time. We suggest that infant exuberant object play—immense amounts of brief, time‐distributed, variable interactions with objects—may be conducive to learning object properties and functions, motor skill acquisition, and growth in cognitive, social, and language domains.
... In comparison, courses with weekly noncumulative exams may fail to reinforce any added rehearsal until the end of the course, when the cumulative final is delivered. As a result, students in the cumulative exam condition may be more likely to engage in distributed practice in preparation for the final, which has been demonstrated to result in better retention than massed practice (otherwise known as cramming; Rohrer & Taylor, 2006;Seabrook et al., 2005). However, when student survey responses were analyzed in the current study, no significant differences were found between groups with respect to self-reported statements regarding "cramming" for the final or "disregarding" previously learned material. ...
Interteaching is a behavioral teaching method that has been empirically shown to increase student learning outcomes. The present study investigated the effect of combining interteaching with cumulative versus noncumulative exams in two sections of an online asynchronous class. Interteaching was used in both sections of the course. The noncumulative exam section experienced weekly exams with test questions that only covered material learned in that week of class. The cumulative exam section was given weekly exams in which half of the questions were from material learned that current week and the other half were cumulative up to that point in the class. This was followed by a cumulative final exam given to both groups. All exam questions were multiple choice. On average, students in the cumulative exam group scored 4.91% higher on the final exam than students in the noncumulative exam group. Students exposed to weekly cumulative exams also earned more As and Bs on the final compared to the noncumulative exam group. Overall, our experiment provides evidence that interteaching may be further improved when combined with cumulative weekly exams.
... When compared to long study sessions, or massing, spacing has been shown to improve transfer [27,43], understanding of prose passages [33,36], logic [15], and inductive reasoning [26]. The benefits of spacing have also been observed in a variety of disciplines, including mathematics [7,24,[37][38][39]47], biology [25,35,44], language learning [4,5,10,14], and especially psychology [6,16,41]. Building upon this research, we examine how spacing interacts with the field of computer science and gender. ...
... The results suggest that spaced distribution instruction will have positive and longstanding impacts on EFL learners' vocabulary acquisition and retention. Such findings are in line with those reported in some previous studies in the realm of cognitive psychology (e.g., Carpenter et al., 2012;Pavlik & Anderson, 2005;Seabrook et al., 2005), lending support to the primacy of spaced distribution instruction over massed distribution instruction. Furthermore, there are some previous studies that have demonstrated how spaced distribution instruction can enhance learning foreign languages (e.g., Miles, 2014;Pavlik & Anderson, 2005;Rohrer & Pashler, 2007). ...
There has been an ongoing debate on the effectiveness of spaced and massed distribution instruction in second/foreign language learning. A number of studies in the literature have investigated the impacts of spacing effect on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ vocabulary acquisition. This study aims to expand the body of existing research by exploring the impact of spaced versus massed distribution instruction on EFL learners’ vocabulary recall and retention. To this end, the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT) was administered to 120 Iranian EFL students to determine their level of English proficiency. Accordingly, 75 intermediate students were selected and randomly assigned to three equivalent groups: two experimental groups, namely spaced instruction (n = 25) and massed instruction (n = 25), and one control group (n = 25). After administering a pretest, the participants in both experimental groups received two different modes of instruction. The massed instruction group attended one intensive session to learn each set of target vocabularies; the spaced instruction group, on the contrary, had three sessions at irregular time intervals to learn the same vocabularies. The control group studied the same vocabularies but received no vocabulary-focused instructions. Overall, 180 vocabularies were taught to the students during a 12-week period (15 vocabularies per week). The instructions in each group took 60 min each week. Using a pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest design, the students first took a receptive vocabulary pretest before the treatment. One week after the treatment, a receptive vocabulary posttest was administered. Finally, after a 4-week interval, the students took the delayed posttest. The results revealed that the spaced instruction group significantly outperformed the massed instruction group on both immediate and delayed posttests. The findings lend support to the modulation of spaced instruction into the curricula in instructional settings as a valuable vocabulary instruction technique to promote vocabulary learning in real classroom environments.
Background
Memory and learning deficits are among the most impactful and longest-lasting symptoms experienced by people with chronic traumatic brain injury (TBI). Despite the persistence of post-TBI memory deficits and their implications for community reintegration, memory rehabilitation is restricted to short-term care within structured therapy sessions. Technology shows promise to extend memory rehabilitation into daily life and to increase the number and contextual diversity of learning opportunities. Ecological momentary assessment and intervention frameworks leverage mobile phone technology to assess and support individuals’ behaviors across contexts and have shown benefits in other chronic conditions. However, few studies have used regular outreach via text messaging for adults with chronic TBI, and none have done so to assess and support memory.
Objective
This study aimed to develop and test the usability of memory ecological momentary intervention (MEMI), a text message–based assessment and intervention tool for memory in daily life. MEMI is designed to introduce new information, cue retrieval of the information, and assess learning across time and contexts. We tested MEMI via an iterative, user-centered design process to ready it for a future trial.
Methods
We developed MEMI by leveraging automated text messages for prompts using a REDCap (Research Electronic Data Capture)/Twilio interface linking to the Gorilla web-based behavioral experimental platform. We recruited 14 adults with chronic, moderate-severe TBI from the Vanderbilt Brain Injury Patient Registry to participate in 3 rounds of usability testing: one round of ThinkAloud sessions using the platform and providing real-time feedback to an experimenter (n=4) and 2 rounds of real-world usability testing in which participants used MEMI in their daily lives for a week and provided feedback (n=5/round). We analyzed engagement and quantitative and qualitative user feedback to assess MEMI’s usability and acceptability.
Results
Participants were highly engaged with MEMI, completing an average of 11.8 out of 12 (98%) possible sessions. They rated MEMI as highly usable, with scores on the System Usability Scale across all rounds equivalent to an A+ on a standardized scale. In semistructured interviews, they stated that MEMI was simple and easy to use, that daily retrieval sessions were not burdensome, and that they perceived MEMI as helpful for memory. We identified a few small issues (eg, instruction wording) and made improvements between usability testing rounds.
Conclusions
Testing MEMI with adults with chronic TBI revealed that this technology is highly usable and favorably rated for this population. We incorporated feedback regarding users’ preferences and plan to test the efficacy of this tool in a future clinical trial.
Background and Aims Acquisition of cycling skills in autistic and healthy people has different results depending on the training conditions and type of educational intervention. Most people with autism do not learn this skill. The present study aimed to compare the effect of seven sessions of a special training program with the frequency of massed and distributed practice on the acquisition of cycling skills in autistic and healthy boys living in Tehran City. Methods 24 autistic boys (Mean±SD age:11.92±2.55 years) and 12 healthy boys (Mean±SD age: 9.33±2.38 years) living in Tehran City were available and, based on inclusion criteria, selected and after performing a pretest of cycling skills proficiency randomly into two homogeneous subgroups with different training frequencies including massed practice (7 consecutive one-hour sessions) and distributed practice (course every other day) was divided. The exercise was performed individually on a regular bicycle without support equipment. After 7 training sessions, repeat the proficiency test as at least 30 meters of independent driving, the ability to brake, start, and turn was done. Data were analyzed using percentage calculation, dependent t-test, and analysis of covariance at the significance level of 0.05. Results The results of the dependent t-test showed that the acquisition of cycling skills with massed practice in autism (0.01) and healthy (0.01) groups and distributed practice in autism (0.02) and healthy (0.00) groups, after the intervention, the educational program had a significant increase compared to the pretest. Also, the results of the analysis of covariance showed that between the effects of the group (0.106) frequency (0.063) and interaction group & frequency (0.269), there is no significant difference in skill acquisition. Conclusion Findings indicate that regardless of the lack of effect of exercise frequency and individual differences in autistic and healthy groups, the training program presented in this study led to the acquisition of cycling skills. Therefore, educators and families can be suggested to use the current program as a method with the lowest cost and highest efficiency to acquire cycling skills in autistic and healthy people.
Despite substantial evidence that spacing study opportunities over time improves the retention of learned verbal material compared with study trials that occur consecutively, the influence of temporal spacing on children’s learning of written words has not been investigated. This experiment examined whether temporal spacing influenced Grade 3 and 4 children’s (N = 37; mean age = 8 years 7 months) learning of novel written words during independent reading compared with massing. Children read 16 sentences containing a novel word under either a spaced (sentences appeared once in each of four blocks) or massed conditions (four consecutive trials). After a delay, orthographic learning was assessed using recognition (orthographic choice) and recall (spelling to dictation) measures. Words experienced in the spaced condition were better recognized than those in the massed condition, but there was no effect on recall. These findings suggest that temporal spacing influences the acquisition of new written word forms, extending the potential utility of the spacing principle to reading acquisition.
We examined students’ naturalistic decisions about spacing their study in an undergraduate course (N = 185) and whether self-selected spacing predicted course performance. Usage of two study tools – an online textbook and quiz tool – was recorded daily. We operationalized spacing as how often the tools were used and the timing of their use relative to exams. We found that students increased their study near deadlines and exams, used the textbook more often than the quiz tool, and used the tools infrequently when they were optional (vs. required). Importantly, spaced retrieval practice (via quiz tool) predicted course performance and GPA, whereas spaced reading (via textbook) was a weaker predictor. That is, when students opted for more frequent and early quizzing, they earned higher grades, even controlling for time spent quizzing. Thus, self-selected spaced study – especially spaced retrieval practice – supports student achievement.
Students with disabilities are less likely to be proficient with basic academic skills compared to peers, indicating a need for more quality instructional time. Parent tutoring has been identified as a promising practice for supplementing instruction to improve child outcomes. However, educators are not sufficiently prepared to collaborate with and provide guidance to parents in how to support academic goals at home. We describe how an academic assessment and intervention clinic trains future school personnel to work with families to develop and implement explicit instruction parent tutoring interventions. A case example illustrates the process.
Despite substantial evidence that distributing study opportunities over time improves the retention of learned verbal material compared to study trials that occur consecutively, the influence of temporal spacing on children’s learning of written words has not been investigated. This experiment examined whether temporal spacing influenced Grade 3 and 4 children’s (N=37; mean age 8 years, 7 months) learning of novel written words during independent reading, compared to massing. Children read sixteen sentences containing a novel word under either spaced (sentences appeared once in each of four blocks) or massed (four consecutive trials) conditions. After a delay, orthographic learning was assessed using recognition (orthographic choice) and recall (spelling to dictation) measures. Words experienced in the distributed condition were better recognised than those in the massed condition, but there was no effect on recall. These findings suggest that temporal spacing influences the acquisition of new written word forms, extending the potential utility of the spacing principle to reading acquisition.
Background
Psychology courses provide a good opportunity for instructors to teach students effective learning strategies integrated with content.
Objective
This replication and extension study explored changes in students’ self-reported use of learning strategies before and after a term paper assignment and examined the relationships between learning strategy use and academic performance.
Method
Three hundred eighty-five introductory psychology students completed surveys on their use of 11 learning strategies at the beginning and end of the semester, read an empirical article and wrote a term paper about the learning strategy of practice testing, and completed four exams among other assessments.
Results
Replicating prior work, students generally reported improvements in their use of learning strategies over the course of the semester, though improvements were largely attributable to grade point average (GPA). Two learning strategies—self-explanation and practice testing—were positively correlated with course performance in the second half of the semester, over and above the effects associated with GPA.
Conclusion
Teaching students about beneficial learning strategies may increase their adoption of those strategies as well as their course performance, replicating prior research.
Teaching Implications
In order to improve course performance, instructors may consider adapting assignments in ways that increase students’ knowledge and use of effective learning strategies.
I examined the applicability of the encoding variability hypothesis and the spacing phenomenon to vocabulary learning in five experiments. I manipulated encoding variability by varying the number of potential retrieval routes to the word meanings, using a one-sentence context condition, a three-sentence context condition, and a no-context (definitions-only) control condition. I evaluated the spacing effect by presenting each word with or without intervening words. The results provided no evidence that the opportunity to establish multiple retrieval routes by means of contextual information is helpful to vocabulary learning, a conclusion supported unequivocally by all five experiments. By contrast, spaced presentations yielded substantially higher levels of learning than did massed presentations. I discuss the results largely in terms of educational concerns, including the utility of the learning-from-context approach to vocabulary learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
F. N. Dempster's (see record
1989-03118-001) recommendation that distributed practice be implemented in the classroom fails to consider such impediments as costs and effects on educators' quality of work life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Memory for repeated items on a list improves as a function of the spacing between repetitions. It is shown that spacing effects are eliminated in relative frequency discrimination, absolute frequency estimation, and recognition when items are learned incidentally. Spacing effects in free recall are unaffected by intentionality of learning. The results suggest that spacing effects in tasks in which experimenter-supplied retrieval cues are available are due to a rehearsal strategy that allots fewer rehearsals to items repeated in massed fashion. Spacing effects in free recall are due to a separate process resulting from study-phase retrieval of repeated items. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The spacing effect would appear to have considerable potential for improving classroom learning, yet there is no evidence of its widespread application. I consider nine possible impediments to the implementation of research findings in the classroom in an effort to determine which, if any, apply to the spacing effect. I conclude that the apparent absence of systematic application may be due, in part, to the ahistorical character of research on the spacing effect and certain gaps in our understanding of both the spacing effect and classroom practice. However, because none of these concerns seems especially discouraging, and in view of what we do know about the spacing effect, classroom application is recommended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The spacing effect refers to the advantage in memory for information that is repeated at separated points of time over information repeated in massed fashion. Spacing effects have been demonstrated on numerous explicit measures of memory. A series of experiments reported here demonstrate spacing effects on 3 implicit memory measures: (1) spelling of homophonic words, (2) word-fragment completion, and (3) perceptual identification. The spacing effect in perceptual identification was not found when materials were studied incidentally or when spacing was manipulated between lists. Also, whereas recognition of synonyms decreased as a function of spacing between synonyms, perceptual identification was uninfluenced by the spacing between synonyms. The results are interpreted as evidence that spacing effects on cued memory tests (both explicit and implicit) reflect optional rehearsal strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
2 experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of (a) amount of S-R repetition and (b) the spacing of periodic review sequences upon retention of academic materials taught to junior-high-school Ss by programed instruction methods. Repetition was varied by constructing programed sequences which contained 3 different levels of stimulus and response repetitions for each of a number of scientific terms being taught. Spaced review consisted of presenting review frames of previously learned materials after Ss had received other interpolated learning tasks. Results indicated that variations in repetition had only transitory effects upon retention, but that spaced review produced a significant facilitation in retention of the reviewed material. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested a 2-process theory of the spacing effect in free recall in 4 experiments with a total of 216 college students and paid Ss. The 1st process, differential organization, produces a positive correlation between the spacing of the presentations of repeated words and the number of different retrieval routes that can provide access to the words. The retrieval process interacts with the differential organization to control performance. If the cues used to retrieve the words provide approximately equal access to all retrieval routes, then the function relating spacing to recall will increase monotonically. If only selected retrieval routes are used, then the spacing function will be nonmonotonic. Results supporting this theory are that (a) the monotonic spacing function was most robust when Ss studied the list using an organizational strategy, (b) cuing and directing retrieval with input words resulted in a nonmonotonic effect of spacing when Ss had used an organizational strategy, and (c) directing retrieval by instructions about the order of recall resulted in a nonmonotonic effect of spacing. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
An advantage has been found for acquiring textbook knowledge by studying textbook summaries rather than reading the original
prose (Reder & Anderson, 1980). Three studies are presented that help to establish the cause of the summary advantage. One
possible cause is that reading summaries allows the subject to reread the main points at spaced intervals, and spaced practice
is superior to massed practice. A second possible cause is that the presence of details distracts the subject’s attention
away from the critical ideas that should be attended to. In Reder and Anderson (1980), these two factors were confounded,
but they are unconfounded in the present studies. The results indicate that both possible causes, spaced practice and the
absence of details, have significant, independent, and positive effects on retention of the central ideas of a passage.
Infants of 5–6 months of age were tested for recognition of briefly presented photographs of faces. The interaction typically
obtained with adults, a beneficial effect on retention due to the temporal spacing of study, was obtained with these infants.
The results suggest that the distribution effect reflects a fundamental and automatic process of human memory.
This article argues that children identified as having special educational needs in mainstream school fail to meet set targets because special education is neither 'special' nor 'educational'. Special education has failed to establish, through classroom-based research, the most effective ways of teaching children perceived to have learning difficulties. Instead, it focuses on resources, provision and administrative procedures and does not require any evidence that these factors enable children to bridge the gap in attainments which exists with their peers. In part, all those working in the education system collude with this scenario through assuming that children's failure to progress results from a difficulty in learning rather than from what or how they have been taught. This article argues that the process of psychological assessment should start from the premise that all children can learn and reach age and skill appropriate targets in literacy and numeracy. The issues discussed are related to teaching literacy, given the number of children perceived to have special educational needs arising from their lack of progress in learning to read. A framework for teaching lower achieving pupils is introduced which is based on the Early Reading Research (ERR), a collaborative project between the University of Warwick and Essex LEA. The ERR is summarised and its implications for raising attainments discussed.
Memory for repeated items on a list improves as a function of the spacing between repetitions. It is shown that spacing effects are eliminated in relative frequency discrimination, absolute frequency estimation, and recognition when items are learned incidentally. Spacing effects in free recall are unaffected by intentionality of learning. The results suggest that spacing effects in tasks in which experimenter-supplied retrieval cues are available are due to a rehearsal strategy that allots fewer rehearsals to items repeated in massed fashion. Spacing effects in free recall are due to a separate process resulting from study-phase retrieval of repeated items.
The spacing effect would appear to have considerable potential for improving classroom learning, yet there is no evidence of its widespread application. I consider nine possible impediments to the implementation of research findings in the classroom in an effort to determine which, if any, apply to the spacing effect. I conclude that the apparent absence of systematic application may be due, in part, to the ahistorical character of research on the spacing effect and certain gaps in our understanding of both the spacing effect and classroom practice. However, because none of these concerns seems especially discouraging, and in view of what we do know about the spacing effect, classroom application is recommended.
Preschool and second-grade children studied a list of either pictures or their corresponding labels (words) and, 48 h later, received a yes/no recognition test involving either the same or the opposite type of stimuli. Some items on the study list were presented twice, with repetitions either massed or distributed (spaced). The results indicated that, when both study and test stimuli were pictures, the children’s recognition was better than when study and/or test stimuli were words. The children also recognized distributed repetitions better than massed repetitions (a spacing effect). However, the spacing effect was not altered by the type of stimuli presented for study and/or test. The results suggest that the spacing effect is mediated by a semantic representation and that, under these circumstances, it is produced by relatively automatic processes.
Spacing between two attempts to learn one item greatly increases the probability that it will be remembered later. We first note that a number of theories that explain this phenomenon also predict that spacing should improve the probability of remembering at least one of two different items each studied once. We then report results of two experiments designed to test this prediction. Subjects studied a series of 300 words. After a short rest they were tested for recognition, or—in the second experiment—free recall and then recognition. As usual a substantial spacing effect was observed for single words presented twice. In contrast the probability of correct recognition or recall of at least one word of a pair of two different words, each presented once, did not depend on their spacing in the study series.
Two experiments examined the effect of spacing repetitions within a word list on the free recall performance of elementary school children. In the first experiment, spacing repetitions facilitated recall, and the function relating recall of repeated items to the spacing between repetitions was the same throughout the age range investigated (first, third, and sixth graders). But, the function for these elementary school children reached asymptote at a much shorter spacing than the function typically reported for adults. The second experiment was designed to test an encoding variability explanation of spaced-repetition effects in elementary school children. Results for both third- and sixth-grade children were consistent with the hypothesis that differential encoding of repetitions facilitates performance and that spaced repetitions are remembered better because they are more likely to be differentially encoded. A theoretical framework was discussed that may be able to encompass both these results and another finding in the literature which indicates that differential encoding can sometimes impair rather than facilitate children's memory performance.
[discusses] the most effective ways of distributing and managing the conditions of encoding and practice / research suggests that the effectiveness of repetition depends on a number of factors, including the time interval between repetitions, the frequency of repetitions, and even the form of the repetition / a review provides an additional encoding opportunity, whereas a test provides retrieval practice / concluded that the effects of spaced practice, in particular, provide important insights into the basic mechanisms of learning and memory
encoding practice / retrieval practice / theoretical implications [spacing effects, testing effects] / educational implications (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In 2 experiments, preschoolers exhibited a spacing effect in free recall of both pictures and words, even though procedures were very similar to those used in T. C. Toppino and W. DiGeorge's (see record
1985-06329-001) experiment, in which preschoolers had not manifested a spacing effect. Exp 1 consisted of 30 preschoolers (aged 41–62 mo); Exp 2 consisted of 48 preschoolers (aged 47–59 mo). The experimental design was a 2 × 3 (stimulus type × repetition/spacing) mixed factorial, with the last factor manipulated within Ss. Depending on stimulus type, either words or pictures were used as stimuli. The repetition/spacing factor consisted of once-presented items and twice-presented items receiving either massed presentations or distributed presentations. Results indicate support that preschool children typically exhibit a spacing effect in free recall. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In the reported experiments, the spacing of repetitions improved performance on cued-memory tests (a frequency judgment test and graphemic cued-recall test) when items were studied in an intentional or an incidental-semantic condition but not in an incidental-graphemic study condition. The results imply that spacing effects on cued tests depend on level of processing carried out on the stimuli rather than on intentionality of learning per se, as suggested by R. L. Greene (1989, 1990). The findings undermine a voluntary rehearsal account of spacing effects in cued tests. Alternative accounts are discussed, including the view that involuntary processes akin to semantic (or lexical) priming play a critical role in spacing effects on cued-memory tests. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
To test the hypothesis that expanded practice is superior to massed practice in a classroom situation, a test series with expanded intervals to teach multiplication facts and spelling lists to 44 Grade 3 students, formed into massed and expanded groups based on their spelling and mathematical abilities, was conducted. Results show that, for multiplication facts, retention in the expanded series condition was almost twice that in the massed series condition; for spelling lists, a significant difference in the same direction was also obtained. These differences were obtained regardless of the level of ability of the Ss. It is suggested that an expanded test series not only engenders effective retention but also maintains a feeling of success throughout and that use of this type of series would therefore have obvious benefit if incorporated into remedial programs or used in learning centers. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Findings from a longitudinal study designed to investigate phonological working memory skills in preschool children are reported. Two phonological memory tests, digit span and nonword repetition, were given to a large cohort of children at 3,4 and 5 years of age. The majority of children at all ages cooperated on both tests even at 3 years of age, indicating that the tasks are in principle suitable for use with young children. Individual differences in nonword repetition scores at 3 years were highly stable across the following two-year period; there was, however, less stability in differences in the children's digit span scores across the same period. It is concluded that phonological memory skills can be reliably assessed in children as young as 3 years, and that the nonword repetition paradigm is highly suitable for this purpose.
Spacing repetitions generally facilitates memory for the repeated events. This article describes a theory of spacing effects
that uses the same principles to account for both facilitatory and inhibitory effects of spacing in a number of memory paradigms.
Increasing the spacing between repetitions is assumed to result in the storage of greater amounts of information of three
types or levels: contextual, structural (associative), and descriptive. Contextual information is encoded automatically, while
the encoding of the structural and descriptive information depends on control processes utilized. Remembering involves accessing
the stored information using retrieval cues containing information on any level that matches the stored information. The ultimate
effectiveness of the spacing is controlled by this matching between the retrieval cues and the stored information. Previous
experiments demonstrating the operation of these principles on the structural and descriptive levels are reviewed. Three new
experiments are reported that illustrate interactions between stored information and retrieval cues based on contextual information.
The revival of interest in the effectiveness of spaced practice, as compared with massed practice, in learning is attributed to the abandonment of the constraints of serial and paired-associate list learning and the discovery of stable benefits from spaced practice in continuous paired-associate learning, short-term memory for individual items, and single-trial free-recall learning. Comments are made about the preceding symposium papers by Underwood, Waugh, and Greeno, and some data on the differential effects of spacing of repetitions in free-recall learning are introduced in an effort to assess the current state of fact and theory.
A differential encoding hypothesis for the lag effect in free recall was tested developmentally. Fourth- and eighth-grade children and college adults were shown a list of words, with some repeated at various lag intervals. Lag functions in repeated word recall were found to vary with age. An encoding hypothesis, modified to provide specificity for the time at which differential encoding takes place, was used to account for the results. Finally, it was suggested that the lag paradigm could be utilized to assess developmental differences in processing strategies, as perhaps a more sensitive, and general, alternative to the overt rehearsal technique.
In Experiment 1, preschoolers, first graders, and third graders were presented a list of pictures that included twice-presented items separated by varying numbers of intervening items. Performance on a subsequent recognition test improved as the spacing between repetitions increased, but the effect of spacing did not interact reliably with grade level. In Experiment 2a, we replicated the spaced-repetition effect in young children and found a similar effect in college students. In Experiment 2b, we varied the conditions under which lists were presented to college students and again found a spacing function that was comparable to that of very young children. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that spaced-repetition effects in recognition are produced by fundamental memory mechanisms that are operational at a very early age and which undergo little change with development.
The effect of spacing repetitions on children's free recall was investigated in two experiments. In Experiment 1, both 4-year-old children and 7-year-old children exhibited a spacing effect in free recall, and the magnitude of the effect did not change with age. In Experiment 2, free recall was examined as a function of spacing, age (3 years old vs. 4 years old) and presentation rate (1 vs. 2 vs. 5 sec per stimulus). A spacing effect was obtained that did not differ as a function of age or presentation rate. Of particular interest was the fact that 3-year-olds exhibited a strong spacing effect even when stimuli were presented at a very rapid 1-sec rate. The results support the hypothesis that fundamental memory mechanisms that operate relatively automatically are sufficient to produce a spacing effect in free recall.
Experiment 1 of the current research failed to replicate Toppino and Di George’s (1984) finding that older children but not
preschoolers showed a spacing effect. Instead, we obtained the spacing effect in all the age groups tested (preschool, kindergarten,
first-grade, and third-grade children). The effect was demonstrated with two types of material, words and pictures. Experiment
2 focused on the role that very brief spacings, with no intervening items between repetitions, play in later retention. Age
groups and materials were the same as in Experiment 1. Four different levels of spacing were included (0-, 1.1-,2.5-, and
5-sec intervals). The spacing effect was again obtained for all age groups with both words and pictures. The results of both
experiments suggest that the spacing effect does not emerge with development.
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