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Complex Systems and Applied Linguistics
Abstract
The book introduces key concepts in complexity theory to readers concerned with language, its learning, and its use. It demonstrates the applicability and usefulness of these concepts to a range of areas in applied linguistics including first and second language development, language teaching, and discourse analysis. It concludes with a chapter that discusses suitable approaches to research investigations. This book will be invaluable for readers who want to understand the recent developments in the field that draw on complexity theory, including dynamic systems theory, ecological approaches, and emergentism.
... Second, there is a proliferation of diverse operationalizations of linguistic complexity within the TBLT domain (Long, 2014;Pallotti, 2022). Finally, L2 development and the response of the L2 writer to the demands of the genre of the writing task have often not been considered in the selection of linguistic complexity metrics (Abdi Tabari, 2023;Biber et al., 2022;Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008;Lu, 2011;Norris & Ortega, 2009). These salient factors have potentially obscured the effects of task planning on linguistic complexity, especially in the L2 writing domain, as no single stable finding has yet emerged. ...
... For example, one of the included studies illustrates the fundamental mismatch between conceptions of linguistic complexity at the level of the construct and operational definitions of linguistic complexity. Citing the seminal work of Larsen-Freeman and Cameron (2008), the study provides a sound rationale for considering linguistic complexity as a dynamic, adaptive, multi-componential construct. However, the study examined only two metrics of syntactic complexityboth of which were global metricstogether with a single lexical complexity metric. ...
... These results further illustrate a mismatch between conceptions of linguistic complexity as a multidimensional construct and operational definitions selected to reflect this construct. If, as Larsen-Freeman and Cameron (2008) argue, language use is a dynamic response to the context of language usea view consistent with the functional view of linguistic complexity advocated by Biber et al. (2020) as well as the views of systemic functional linguistics (Byrnes, 2014) then the operational definition of syntactic complexity at a single level (Norris & Ortega, 2009) seems at odds with such a view. Further still, if, as Bulté and Housen (2012) argue, measuring linguistic complexity involves iterating the number of linguistic components and their articulation as well as the use of diverse, elaborate, sophisticated linguistic forms, then the selection of a handful of metricsin the case of 26 of the included studies, the selection of only one (n = 15) or two metrics (n = 11)as operational definitions of syntactic complexity falls short of capturing the syntactic complexity of written L2 production. ...
Task planning and its effect on the complexity of second language (L2) written production have been studied extensively. However, the results of these studies are inconclusive, and at times contradictory, potentially as a result of variation in metrics of linguistic complexity. This study is an extension of earlier research syntheses and quantitative meta-analyses on the effects of planning on oral and written L2 production. It examines the identification and selection of linguistic complexity metrics in previous research on planning and its subsequent effects on the linguistic complexity of written L2 production. This research-focused synthesis of studies surveys construct definitions and operational definitions of linguistic complexity in the research domain and provides an overview of rationales for metric selection in the included studies. Methodological implications for future research are discussed in light of the findings.
... Ao colocar os alunos no centro da discussão, considerando, por exemplo, seus contextos, vivências, gostos pessoais e dificuldades, tal abordagem carrega elementos pertinentes de serem analisados sob a perspectiva da complexidade (Larsen-Freeman, 1997;Larsen-Freeman;Cameron, 2008;Hiver;Al-Hoorie, 2022). No campo da Linguística Aplicada, tal perspectiva tem contribuído significativamente para a construção de uma visão mais holística acerca do ensino e aprendizagem de línguas adicionais, visto que, em vez de se considerar os elementos e agentes constituintes desse processo isoladamente, passa-se agora a entendê-los a partir de suas inter-relações, e como estas são capazes de afetar toda a trajetória de aprendizagem dos alunos . ...
... O caráter dinâmico dos SACs está significativamente relacionado às mudanças sofridas pelo sistema a partir da interação entre seus elementos e agentes constitutivos (Larsen-Freeman;Cameron, 2008). No contexto do curso, essa característica se traduziu na promoção de diversas oportunidades de comunicação, a partir de variados padrões de interação, cujo objetivo era permitir aos alunos trocas em pares, em grupos e até mesmo com os professores. ...
... A partir dos excertos, pôde-se observar uma sensibilidade às condições iniciais. Essa característica ressalta o papel das mudanças iniciais, que, mesmo sendo mínimas, podem provocar variações significativas no comportamento futuro do sistema, influenciando assim sua trajetória à medida que ele se transforma (Larsen-Freeman, 1997;Larsen-Freeman;Cameron, 2008). Ao criar condições para que os alunos se sentissem mais acolhidos, as atividades propiciaram uma maior produção e, consequentemente, promoveram mais oportunidades de uso da língua ao longo do curso. ...
... Conforme veremos no quarto capítulo, para uma série de pesquisadores que realizam suas investigações a partir de uma concepção dinâmico-complexa Cameron, 2008;Verspoor;Larsen-Freeman, 2014, 2015aDe Bot, 2017;Al-Hoorie, 2020;Verspoor;Lowie;De Bot, 2021 dentre outros), ao passo que "aquisição" implicaria um processo com um término predefinido (a chegada à "gramática-alvo"), o termo "desenvolvimento", de caráter mais recente, diria respeito a um processo sem um momento final predefinido, estando em constante evolução e transformação. No que diz respeito a esse termo mais recente, conforme argumenta Larsen-Freeman (2015a, p. 502), trata-se "de um novo termo, e, portanto, uma nova maneira de pensarmos, centrada no processo de aprendizado e nos aprendizes", em vez de focalizar as estruturas que já foram ou ainda precisam ser alcançadas. ...
... Não nos deteremos nos aspectos pontuais dessas escolas, 102 sobretudo pelo caráter se transforma em outro estado ao longo do tempo. Por sua vez, dizer que um sistema é "complexo" implica afirmar que esse é composto por diversos elementos que interagem entre si e apresentam comportamento emergente, sendo que sua totalidade não corresponde à mera soma das partes Cameron, 2008;Beckner et al., 2009). 105 A partir dessas premissas, podemos conceber uma nova maneira de desenvolver o processo de desenvolvimento linguístico: no caso do desenvolvimento multilíngue, podemos dizer que "os subsistemas 106 multilíngues são caracterizados por interações dinâmicas adaptativas entre subsistemas interconectados, bem como por interações adaptativas dos sistemas com seus ambientes" (Opitz, 2017, p. 163-4). ...
... Um resumo da análise de mudança de pontos realizada pela autora pode ser encontrado em Schereschewsky e Alves (2022).114 Dos dois modelos a serem discutidos nesta seção, ao considerarmos os estudos desenvolvimentais, cabe mencionar que a Teoria de Exemplares apresenta maior afinidade com os estudos dos Sistemas Adaptativos ComplexosCameron, 2008;Beckner et al., 2009, dentre outros), ao passo que a Fonologia Articulatória se mostra epistemologicamente associada à Teoria dos Sistemas Dinâmicos (Van Gelder;Lowie;Verspoor, 2007). Nesta seção, entretanto, utilizaremos o termo "dinâmico-complexo" em consonânciacom De Bot (2017), conforme já afirmado na seção anterior. ...
Em “Percepção e produção dos sons de Línguas Não Nativas: Fundamentos teóricos
e questões de investigação no contexto brasileiro”, são apresentados os modelos de
percepção e produção de sons que enfocam o processo de desenvolvimento de uma
nova língua, com a intenção de fundamentar tais modelos epistemologicamente. O
livro apresenta uma discussão introdutória voltada a estudantes de pós-graduação,
sobretudo àqueles que se encontram na etapa preliminar de seus projetos de
pesquisa. Além desse objetivo maior, a obra também visa a discutir os trabalhos já
desenvolvidos no contexto brasileiro, para que Mestrandos e Doutorandos possam
desenvolver seus futuros estudos. Através desse objetivo, o livro mostra-se de
interesse a diversos alunos de pós-graduação, sejam eles das Letras ou de áreas
afins, como a Pedagogia, a Psicologia, a Fonoaudiologia, dentre outras.
... This pyramid model, as noted by MacIntyre (2020), was proposed ten years ahead of the advancement of the CDST articulated in Larsen-Freeman and Cameron's (2008) work. The CDST is considered a significant theoretical enhancement to WTC theory and research. ...
... The conceptualization of WTC as a dynamic system, as proposed by MacIntyre and Legatto (2011), has paved the way for a dynamic perspective in WTC research. Dynamic systems are characterized by several properties: they consist of interrelated components, are in a state of constant change, and self-organize into either repeller states (unstable states prone to change from slight perturbation) or attractor states (stable states that dynamic system settles into overtime; Hiver, 2015;Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). Embracing this perspective, MacIntyre and Legatto (2011) conceptualized WTC as a dynamic system subject to continuous transformation due to the interaction of multiple factors across different timescales. ...
This Element offers a review of advancements in willingness to communicate (WTC) in a second language (L2) over the past twenty-five years. It begins with the origin of the concept of WTC in first language (L1) communication research and the seminal and novel conceptualizations of WTC in the L2 context. This Element then categorizes six key perspectives that have informed WTC research: social psychological, cultural, dynamic, ecological, multimodal, and digital. By analyzing representative studies, it elucidates insights gained from these perspectives. The Element then discusses key factors associated with WTC, including individual attributes, situational factors, and outcome factors. This is followed by an overview of and critical commentary on methodological approaches in WTC research. Implications for enhancing L2 learners' WTC in in-class, out-of-class, and digital contexts are discussed. The Element concludes by proposing important venues for future WTC research. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
... Perante uma análise de processo, e não de produto, como também defendem os autores, nos é permitido conhecer pontos importantes do desenvolvimento linguístico do participante. A variabilidade, captada nas oscilações de valores formânticos nos pontos de coleta observados, revela as mudanças que estão acontecendo no sistema vocálico do participante na produção das vogais do PB, o que, condizente com a proposta da TSDC Cameron, 2008;Larsen-Freeman, 2015Verspoor, 2015;De Bot, 2021), é inerente a um sistema em desenvolvimento, dinâmico e adaptativo. Nesse processo, devemos levar em conta que atuam as condições próprias do indivíduo (tais como seu estado emotivo, sua motivação, entre outros) e os agentes externos (tais como assunto da narrativa, tempo, sessões de treinamento, entre outros), que podem influenciar e modificar sua trajetória Verspoor, 2015). ...
... ☺Neste estudo, apresentamos uma análise longitudinal do desenvolvimento das vogais orais tônicas do PB por um falante hispânico (variedade rioplatense), com suporte teórico e metodológico da Teoria dos Sistemas Dinâmico e Complexos -TSDC Cameron, 2008;Larsen-Freeman, 2017;De Bot, 2015. Os dados analisados são provenientes de entrevistas de fala espontânea, com coletas mensais, realizadas no período entre outubro de 2018 e setembro de 2020. ...
Ancorado na perspectiva teórico-metodológica da TSDC – Teoria dos Sistemas Dinâmico Complexos (De Bot, 2015; Larsen-freeman, 2017; Verspoor, De Bot; Lowie, 2011, dentre outros), este artigo discorre sobre a trajetória desenvolvimental das vogais orais tônicas do português brasileiro por um falante nativo do espanhol, variedade rioplatense, domiciliado no Brasil, com vistas a observar as movimentações e mudanças de seu sistema vocálico, de forma a alocar as médias baixas / ɔ/ e /ɛ/, não presentes no sistema vocálico do espanhol. O corpus conta com dados de gravações de fala espontânea, longitudinais, realizadas numa janela temporal de 24 meses, com observações mensais, no período entre outubro de 2018 e setembro de 2020. O participante, já proficiente em português, participou de sessões semanais com instrução explícita dos aspectos fonético-fonológicos do PB, por um tempo aproximado de três meses. As análises foram realizadas a partir da descrição e mapeamento da dispersão do sistema vocálico em desenvolvimento, com base nos dois primeiros formantes (F1 e F2), com testes inferenciais de análises de pico, a partir de Simulações de Monte Carlo. O acompanhamento da trajetória do participante, numa análise de processo (cf. Lowie, 2017), permitiu identificar movimentações e dispersões vocálicas no espaço acústico, com alterações nos padrões de altura e anterioridade, sobretudo nas vogais médias, características próprias de um sistema em desenvolvimento
... Uma perspectiva conciliadora entre reflexão e uso da língua no ensino de LA vai ao encontro dos preceitos da Teoria dos Sistemas Dinâmicos Complexos (TSDC) Cameron, 2008;De Bot, 2017;Larsen-Freeman, 2017;Verspoor, 2017). Tal concepção tem amparado uma série de estudos sobre como se dá o desenvolvimento de uma nova língua, bem como sobre as práticas pedagógicas na sala de aula de LA. ...
... De fato, à luz de pedagogia amparada nos preceitos da TSDC, um plano estanque não seria sequer concebível. Trata-se, apenas, de um intento de demonstrar como os cinco passos do modelo de Celce-Murcia et al. (1996, aplicados à luz de uma visão dinâmicocomplexa de sala de aula Cameron, 2008;De Bot, 2017;Larsen-Freeman, 2017;Verspoor, 2017), podem ser adaptados ao desenvolvimento de habilidades metafonológicas na Educação Infantil, tanto na L1 quanto na LA. Para além de promover a reflexão e a manipulação sobre os sons, as atividades em questão devem levar o aprendiz a se sentirem livres para falar sobre si, sobre sua realidade, seus gostos e anseios. ...
Neste artigo, discutimos a importância da realização de atividades de consciência fonológica referentes a sílabas, aliterações e rimas na Educação Infantil Bilíngue. Iniciamos o artigo abordando a relevância dessas atividades tanto na língua materna quanto na língua adicional. Em um segundo momento, ao integrarmos construtos dos campos da Aquisição de Linguagem (referentes ao componente fonético-fonológico) e da Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino de Línguas Adicionais, discutimos a implementação de tais atividades. Defendemos que as habilidades metafonológicas devem ser integradas aos demais componentes formais a partir de um contexto de língua em uso, como parte de um plano de ensino a serviço de uma temática comunicativa clara. Ao final do artigo, buscamos exemplificar essa integração a partir de sugestões de atividades em português e em inglês. Amparado em bases teóricas formais e aplicadas, o presente artigo visa a contribuir não somente com uma maior integração dos aspectos formais ao ensino comunicativo na Educação Infantil Bilíngue, mas, também, com o estabelecimento de uma base teórica robusta que fundamente a prática docente.
... The idiodynamic approach is a method of studying individual differences in emotional experiences by examining the temporal patterns of emotions within individuals over time (MacIntyre and Ducker, 2022). It is rooted in CDST, which posits that human experiences, including emotions, are dynamic and constantly evolving rather than static (Cameron and Larsen-Freeman, 2007). This approach emphasizes the importance of studying emotions as dynamic processes that vary across situations and contexts. ...
... The students' reflections focused on significant emotional moments during the tasks. The factors that influenced this relationship were interconnected rather than separate, reflecting a dynamic system (Cameron and Larsen-Freeman, 2007). These factors exerted their influence over different time periods and affected learners in various ways. ...
Foreign language learners experience fluctuations in their levels of enjoyment and anxiety during communication tasks as they navigate communication challenges. These emotional surges can impact cognitive resources and speech-processing ability. However, there is scant empirical evidence on the associations between emotions at the personal level during foreign language learning (FLL) communication task performances. To address this gap, the present study utilized the idiodynamic approach to investigate the relationship between enjoyment and anxiety in monologue tasks performed by Arab Female undergraduate learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). Participants rated their emotions on a per-second basis after watching a video recording of their task performances and were interviewed about the reasons for fluctuations in their ratings. The study found that the negative relationship between anxiety and enjoyment varied from strong to moderate across 30 segments of speech per person. The emotions of anxiety and enjoyment were analyzed through triangulation of ratings, prompted recall interviews, and performance data. As a result of this investigation, four distinct sets of factors that affected these emotions were identified: Task execution (such as pre-task preparation and time constraints), task layout (including its structure and theme), cognitive-linguistic factors (such as transient disruptions in conceptualization and formulation speech processes), and performance measure (including assessment of one’s own linguistic proficiency).
... Além de ser uma característica do próprio design gamificado, o feedback é capaz de acompanhar o aluno ao longo da realização das atividades, estimulando o avanço nas tarefas. Ademais, baseado em uma perspectiva complexa de sala de aula, compreendemos que ela, seja no formato presencial, seja no formato a distância, é um sistema adaptativo complexo, o qual é aberto a influências internas e externas, sensível ao feedback e às condições iniciais, dinâmico, imprevisível e não-linear (Larsen-Freeman;Cameron, 2008). Entendemos, assim, que a motivação dos alunos em permanecer nos cursos, realizar as atividades e ter mais chances de desenvolvimento de seu processo de aprendizagem pode estar relacionada à estrutura do curso, de modo que tanto o feedbackquanto a forma pela qual ele é apresentado podem ter um impacto positivo em tais processos (Paiva, 2003;Costa et al., 2019). ...
... Além de ser uma característica do próprio design gamificado, o feedback é capaz de acompanhar o aluno ao longo da realização das atividades, estimulando o avanço nas tarefas. Ademais, baseado em uma perspectiva complexa de sala de aula, compreendemos que ela, seja no formato presencial, seja no formato a distância, é um sistema adaptativo complexo, o qual é aberto a influências internas e externas, sensível ao feedback e às condições iniciais, dinâmico, imprevisível e não-linear (Larsen-Freeman;Cameron, 2008). Entendemos, assim, que a motivação dos alunos em permanecer nos cursos, realizar as atividades e ter mais chances de desenvolvimento de seu processo de aprendizagem pode estar relacionada à estrutura do curso, de modo que tanto o feedbackquanto a forma pela qual ele é apresentado podem ter um impacto positivo em tais processos (Paiva, 2003;Costa et al., 2019). ...
Este estudo examina fatores que influenciam a motivação e a permanência dos alunos em um curso on-line de leitura em inglês. A partir de uma abordagem qualitativa, utilizou-se da pesquisa-ação e do método survey para a coleta de dados dos participantes. Observou-se que a metodologia da gamificação e o feedback utilizados no curso influenciaram a motivação e a permanência da maioria dos alunos. Contudo, fatores externos à situação de aprendizagem, como demandas da vida acadêmica e/ou pessoal, também estavam associados à motivação dos estudantes e exerceram um papel na permanência.
... With the emergence of complex dynamic systems theory (CDST; Cameron & Larsen-Freeman, 2007;De Bot et al., 2007;Larsen-Freeman, 1997, 2007) as a framework for examining psychological factors in language teaching and learning (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015), recent research on L2 boredom has increasingly underscored the dynamic and fluctuating nature of this emotion (e.g., Elahi Shirvan et al., 2024). Dynamic systems, which 'present a flexible, time-dependent, and emergent view of behavioural change' (Thelen, 2005, p. 22), emphasise the importance of understanding variables as emergent, relational and temporarily situated rather than as fixed tendencies or dispositions (Larsen-Freeman, 2016). ...
... Dynamic systems, which 'present a flexible, time-dependent, and emergent view of behavioural change' (Thelen, 2005, p. 22), emphasise the importance of understanding variables as emergent, relational and temporarily situated rather than as fixed tendencies or dispositions (Larsen-Freeman, 2016). These systems operate across interconnected temporal scales, ranging from moment-to-moment classroom interactions to the broader timescales encompassing the lifespan of teaching and learning (Cameron & Larsen-Freeman, 2007;De Bot et al., 2007;Larsen-Freeman, 2016). Additionally, contexts and environments are viewed not as external, one-way influences but as intrinsic components of a complex system (Mercer, 2012). ...
In the realm of foreign language learning, emotions play a pivotal role, yet boredom remains a largely overlooked aspect, with scant research exploring its dynamics in classroom settings. Addressing this gap, this study delves into the Turkish English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context to investigate the multifaceted nature of boredom, examining its fluctuations, antecedents, manifestations and coping strategies. Four elementary level EFL learners engaged in self‐ratings, reflective journals, and focus group interviews to provide insight. The findings highlight the dynamic nature of boredom, which fluctuates within and across classes and is influenced by factors such as long lectures, language proficiency, presentations and uninteresting topics. Ultimately, boredom manifests in various formats, including students using their phones, talking to friends, dealing with other things and daydreaming. Strategies such as giving full focus, a sense of understanding, note‐taking and avoiding distractions were utilised to cope with boredom. Through this exploration, this study contributes to the evolving discourse on boredom in language learning, offering tailored strategies to assist language educators in addressing this often‐neglected aspect of the classroom experience.
... Con el fin de trabajar adecuadamente con la interconexión de las dimensiones de la metáfora, el DDF se basa en la teoría de los sistemas dinámicos complejos (Cameron, 2010, p.78), cuyo núcleo es comprender los fenómenos lingüísticos y cognitivos como procesos, flujos o movimientos más que como objetos (Cameron, 2003(Cameron, & 2007Cameron & Deignan, 2006;Gibbs & Cameron, 2008;Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). Desde esta visión, la metáfora ya no es un mapeo fijo y estático, sino una estabilidad provisional que surge de las actividades de sistemas interconectados entre el uso del lenguaje y la actividad cognitiva en el medioambiente social (Cameron et al., 2009). ...
... Se trata de un punto de vista diferente del de DDF, que defiende que cuando las personas utilizan la lengua para expresar sus pensamientos y opiniones, la adaptan para participar en una actividad comunicativa significativa. Y el resultado de este proceso de ajuste que se observa en los datos textuales es una huella de la actividad mental que lo produjo(Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). Por tanto, ni el lenguaje ni la metáfora funcionan solo a nivel de palabras, y a menudo es un grupo de palabras el que se utiliza metafóricamente en forma de trozos o tramos de lenguaje(Cameron & Maslen, 2010, p. 105). ...
Wei Cheng (围城), one of the most important literary works of modern China, is widely known for its sarcastic style and the use of abundant metaphors. Through a study of the Chinese-Spanish translation of the metaphors for gender relations in this novel, we aim to examine the ideas, attitudes and values in this regard and their representation in the Spanish version, La fortaleza asediada.
To achieve this goal, a modified MIPVU (Metaphor Identification Procedure Vrije Universiteit) is used to identify the relevant linguistic metaphors in the form of words and phrases. Furthermore, guided by the Discourse Dynamics Framework (DDF), a multilayered analysis model is established for the qualitative analysis of these metaphors and their translations, examining their semantic, cognitive, affective and contextual (i.e., social, cultural and historical) dimensions.
The results show that, in general, the 119 metaphors for gender relations in Wei Cheng present different views between the sexes and the inversion of power. They also expose the difficulties that each gender faced in the profoundly changing Chinese society in the first half of the last century. In the Spanish version, although there is a slight mitigation of the denigrating attitude towards women due to the change of some of the metaphors in the semantic and cognitive dimension, the two pairs of intertwined conflicts in Chinese society in the 1930s have been represented: between women and men, and between modernity and tradition.
Claiming the importance of the interrelation of the different dimensions of metaphor in discourse, this study has systematically integrated the dynamic discourse approach and metaphor translation studies, thereby innovatively bringing a discursive perspective to the field and putting forward an effective and feasible method for its analysis.
... Previous research has been criticized for not considering sufficiently well the complex nature of motivational behaviors in a specific context; this includes the interactions between motivation, learners' cognitive process, social interactions, and cultural environments (Dewaele, 2013;Dörnyei, 2009;Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009;Gurzynski-Weiss, 2020). Thus, the application of a theoretical framework referred to as Complex Dynamic Systems Theory, following Larsen-Freeman (2015 and Larsen-Freeman and Cameron (2008), gives the understanding of L2 motivation from all perspectives, enriched through the presence of several key variables by CDST. First of all, it has been suggested that L2 motivation depends on the context and changes as learners explore different situations. ...
This research holds substantial scholarly importance in understanding the intricate interplay between EFL learners' motivation and emotion. Utilizing a complex dynamic systems framework, this research systematically investigates the fluctuation patterns and factors that influence variations in motivation and emotion within the tertiary educational context. By using Retrodictive Qualitative Modelling (Dörnyei, 2014), this study identified eight distinct EFL learner archetypes. The data collected through as motigraphs, semi-structured interviews, reflective journals, and follow-up interviews demonstrated a diverse range of motivational dynamics seen in EFL learners, including those who are highly motivated by specific goals (referred to as Directed Motivational Currents or DMC), persons who display features associated with DMC, and individuals with different levels of motivation devoid of a DMC. The analysis of qualitative data revealed distinct and context-specific patterns of motivation and emotion within participants' motivational systems, yet these patterns were influenced by a detectable set of parameters. The implications of this study have relevance in both theoretical and instructional settings, suggesting the need for more empirical studies in this field. This detailed comprehension adds to the greater academic discussion on motivation and emotion in EFL acquisition, providing insight into the dynamic nature of learners' motivational experiences.
... Language acquisition and use phenomena are often studied within the framework of the Dynamic Systems Theory (Herdina & Jessner, 2002;Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008;Stotz & Cardoso, 2022). The theory allows us to understand bi-/multilingual development as a process char-Native Language Attrition or Expansion? ...
A bi- or multilingual repertoire is a complex and dynamic system of languages (Herdina & Jessner, 2002; Herwig, 2001; Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008; Stotz & Cardoso, 2022) which interact with each other and with the conceptual system (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Pavlenko, 2009). Importantly, fluent and regularly used native languages are not spared from the influence of later acquired non-native ones. The paper presents the results of a case study conducted with a native speaker of Polish with three additional languages: English, German, and French. Based on the analysis of the instances of lexical reverse transfer observed in the spoken production in her L1, it is concluded that reverse transfer may lead to partial L1 attrition, at least when the monolingual perspective is taken. From the multilingualism point of view, reverse transfer should rather be treated as a phenomenon leading to partial restructuring and enhancement of mother tongue competences.
... Analysts can claim with some degree of confidence, for example, that the human mind is, unlike computers as data processors, not a machine which merely decodes data input. As an entity embedded in radically open, non-linear, and constantly shifting material and ideational social contexts, the human mind does not always deal with fixed data input (Bouchard, 2021;Hiver & Al-Hoorie, 2020;Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). Rather, humans interpret information in relation to a variety of factors including natural and social contexts, material and symbiotic phenomena, human emotions, values, beliefs, ideologies, and social relationships. ...
ChatGPT is now widely understood in academia and the media as a ‘game changer’ in education. Detractors see it as fostering ethically problematic educational practices and a threat to the development of critical thinking skills, while fans see it as improving education by, in part, creating a more personalized educational experience. Meanwhile, analyses of the ethical ramifications of ChatGPT use in education are usually developed without discernible philosophies of education. Instead, they mostly discuss issues of privacy, plagiarism, information veracity, and trust in AI. In disagreement with this understanding of ethics and of the relationship between learners and technology, this paper asserts the importance of a humanistic approach to written composition and education at large. The paper underscores the likely possibility of ChatGPT considerably constraining the development of learners’ cognitive, intellectual, and ethical powers and potentials, thus potentially transforming learners into a-critical consumers (rather than critical producers) of knowledge.
... We interpret language as a complex adaptive system, composed of linguistic units and their interactions (Cong and Liu 2014;Larsen-Freeman and Cameron 2008). The interactions among units give rise to the emergence of properties, which in our case, by problem definition, can be interpreted as meanings. ...
This paper presents a new model for word sense disambiguation formulated in terms of evolutionary game theory, where each word to be disambiguated is represented as a node on a graph whose edges represent word relations and senses are represented as classes. The words simultaneously update their class membership preferences according to the senses that neighboring words are likely to choose. We use distributional information to weigh the influence that each word has on the decisions of the others and semantic similarity information to measure the strength of compatibility among the choices. With this information we can formulate the word sense disambiguation problem as a constraint satisfaction problem and solve it using tools derived from game theory, maintaining the textual coherence. The model is based on two ideas: similar words should be assigned to similar classes and the meaning of a word does not depend on all the words in a text but just on some of them. The paper provides an in-depth motivation of the idea of modeling the word sense disambiguation problem in terms of game theory, which is illustrated by an example. The conclusion presents an extensive analysis on the combination of similarity measures to use in the framework and a comparison with state-of-the-art systems. The results show that our model outperforms state-of-the-art algorithms and can be applied to different tasks and in different scenarios.
... These four dimensions of engagement lead us to the application of the complex dynamic systems theory (CDST; Larsen-Freeman and Cameron, 2008;Larsen-Freeman, 2017) to the current study. To illustrate, the incorporation of complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) into the concept of engagement has just gained traction in language learning research (Hiver et al., 2023). ...
The present study explores the relationship between the concepts of foreign language (L2) learners’ resilience and their behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and agentic engagement. It also aims to understand the role of L2 resilience in students’ overall engagement. The study employs a quantitative approach and utilizes online questionnaires by which it collected data from 123 English as a foreign language (EFL) university students. Data analysis procedures involved descriptive statistics, correlation analysis to identify the levels of L2 resilience and engagement among the EFL participants as well as the associations between these constructs; and a multiple regression analysis to unveil the explanatory power of learner resilience in language engagement. The findings revealed moderate levels of L2 resilience and overall engagement as well as significant correlations between learners’ resilience and their overall engagement and its four dimensions. The linear multiple regression analysis showed that EFL learners’ resilience has explained around a third (30%) of the total variance in their overall engagement. These findings provide insights into the importance of EFL learners’ resilience in accounting for their engagement. Such findings highlight the significance of promoting learners’ resilience for the purpose of enhancing their L2 engagement and thereby leading a successful language learning journey.
... Larsen-Freeman (2013), fornecem uma rota frutífera à TSDC. Esse paradigma sustenta a ideia de que os indivíduos desenvolvem as categorias fônicas engajando-se na comunicação orgânica por meio de processos interpessoais e cognitivos (SLOBIN, 1977;BYBEE, 2001 , 1989;CHEN;BAK, 1991;LEWIN, 1993;HOLLAND, 1995HOLLAND, , 2006KAUFFMAN, 1995;CILLIERS, 1998;ADAMI, 2002;LARSEN-FREEMAN;CAMERON, 2008) ...
A propensão de ver a língua como uma construção que fornece pistas sociais tem grandes implicações tanto para a estrutura da sociedade quanto para os processos psicológicos humanos, incluindo o desenvolvimento de línguas nativas (L1) e não nativas (L2), bem como fenômenos de atrito. Nesse sentido, a indexicalidade social, por exemplo, demonstra desempenhar um papel crucial no desenvolvimento da fala em L2. Embora alguns ramos da linguística acolham a indexicalidade social em sua maquinaria e em suas previsões, a adição de variáveis sociais na área de Aquisição de Segunda Língua (ASL) pode ser vista como recente e limitada. Considerando que a ASL deva passar a incluir a indexicalidade social ao abordar o desenvolvimento de línguas, este artigo de pesquisa teórica tem como objetivo explorar e chamar a atenção para a relação entre o desenvolvimento fonético-fonológico em contextos de imigração e indexicalidade social, com foco especial na filiação ao contexto dominante. Para tanto, discute-se o papel da indexicalidade social no desenvolvimento bilíngue e defende-se a Teoria dos Sistemas Dinâmicos Complexos (TSDC) como um paradigma frutífero para ancorar tal interface, uma vez que abarca em seu núcleo aspectos tanto cognitivos quanto sociais.
... In Psycholinguistics and Science of Cultural Conceptualization the linguistic and cultural method is applied, the basis of which is linguistic and cultural modeling (logical use during the study of linguistic and cultural concepts by determining different connections between a specific culture and the language itself, that lingualizes the process of studying concepts and does not interfere it, and in a great degree reproduces it) (Bates, 2003;Geeraerts & Cuyckens, 2010;Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008;Sinha, 2009;Zlatev, 2005). ...
The purpose of the research was to describe the meanings of the concept EDUCATION, actualized in the semantic field of linguistic consciousness of managers, who connect their professional activity with IT-technologies. Methods. Theoretical methods were categorical and structurally-functional analysis of lexical units, the methods of systematization, modeling, generalization; empirical ones – the analysis of lexical units, the experiment. For the purpose of studying the ways of explication of the concept EDUCATION and its subconcepts in the consciousness of Ukrainian students we used the associative experiment; the designations of the kernel and the periphery of the concept EDUCATION were included as stimulus-words. Results. The first synonym series with a dominant subconcept “The process of teaching and training people” of the concept EDUCATION is characterized by seven synonyms: teaching; learning; instruction; schooling; tuition. Learning is a dominant. The second synonym series with a dominant subconcept “Knowledge, skills or experience acquired or developed in the process of learning” includes such synonyms: knowledge, skills, erudition, inculcation, etc. The dominant is knowledge as the awareness or understanding obtained information as a result of experience or training. The third synonym series includes a subconcept “Study of teaching methods and theories”. The dominant of it is the synonym of indoctrination. The fourth synonymous row has a subconcept “Teaching a certain subject”. Its dominant is сoaching. The fifth series includes a subconcept “People who are engaged into the process of teaching”. We consider teaching as a dominant synonym of it. The sixth synonym series has a subconcept “To be obtained in the process of learning”. We believe that the dominant synonym of the sixth series is upbringing. Conclusions. All subconcepts of the concept EDUCATION are complex, paradigmatic ones, in their structure and content. This is evidenced by generalized names of the subconcepts and the constituent elements, having been included in each of them. The concept EDUCATION includes three double cores, of which the dominant, largest core is the one that includes the following subconcepts: “The process of teaching and training people”, “Knowledge, skills or experience acquired or developed in the process of learning”. Thus, the process of teaching and training people and knowledge, skills or experience acquired or developed in the process of learning for contemporary managers are the most important ones in their professional and personal life.
... L2 learners' situational WTC has also been approached from a Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST) perspective after the publication of Larsen-Freeman and Cameron (2008) highly influential book on CDST. MacIntyre and Legatto (2011) developed an idiodynamic method based on a CDST framework to examine the dynamic, moment-to-moment shifting state of situated WTC. ...
Despite its crucial importance and being a topical issue in the current SLA research, EFL students’ WTC has received little attention in the Ethiopian educational context. The current study therefore aimed to explore EFL students’ WTC across communicative situations in an Ethiopian higher education instructional context. Questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data from a randomly selected sample of 258 first-year EFL students taking “Communicative English skills” courses in Werabe University, one of the public universities in Ethiopia. The data were analyzed quantitatively using descriptive statistics. The findings revealed that the target students’ WTC varies across communicative situations. While Topic enticement , Off-instruction communication and Integrative orientation were found triggering students’ WTC, low perceived competence, communication anxiety, low learning responsibility, and classroom conditions (in part) were found hampering the students’ WTC in the class. The finding is believed to be useful reference especially for teachers to help achieve the desired goal of ESL/EFL instruction.
... No que diz respeito à base teórica que ancora o presente trabalho, em consonância com uma perspectiva psicoacústica de percepção e produção de sons, amparada no Speech Learning Model (Flege, 1995;Bohn, 2021), adotamos uma visão de língua a partir da Teoria dos Sistemas Dinâmicos Complexos (TSDC) Lowie;Verspoor, 2007;Hiver;Al-Hoorie, 2020, Larsen-Freeman;Cameron, 2008;Verspoor;Lowie;De Bot, 2021). Neste trabalho, tal perspectiva nos é bastante cara especialmente em função da premissa da variabilidade que caracteriza os sistemas em desenvolvimento. ...
Este estudo experimental visa a analisar os efeitos de uma prática de instrução de pronúncia a partir das produções de hispanofalantes aprendizes de Português como Língua Adicional. Em uma oficina de pronúncia, os participantes do Grupo Experimental (n = 7) foram instruídos sobre as fricativas /s/, /z/, /ʃ/ e /ʒ/ em posição inicial de sílaba, sendo que as duas primeiras constituíram o objeto de análise deste trabalho. O Grupo Controle (n = 10), por sua vez, não recebeu instrução de pronúncia durante o período de coleta. O desenvolvimento do grau de vozeamento ao longo das fricativas /s/ e /z/ foi verificado a partir de dados coletados nas etapas de pré-teste, pós-teste imediato e pós-teste postergado (realizado um mês após o pós-teste imediato). Os resultados mostraram que o Grupo Experimental apresentou aumento no vozeamento (em /s/ e em /z/) após a instrução de pronúncia, enquanto o Grupo Controle se manteve estável. Palavras-chave: Instrução explícita de pronúncia; Português como Língua Adicional; Fricativas /s/ e /z/.
... Categories of student engagement have been defined in multiple ways, such as participation/identification (Finn, 1989), authentic/ritual/passive/retreatism/rebellion (Schlechty, 2002), behavioral/emotional/cognitive (Fredricks et al., 2004), behavioral (objective)/self-reported (subjective) (Jang et al., 2010), agentic/behavioral/ emotional/cognitive (Jang et al., 2010), and behavioral/affective/cognitive (Lam et al., 2014). These classifications indicate the importance of accounting for the interdependence of different dimensions of human experiences (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). In the field of L2 WCF, some researchers have endeavored to shed light on the multifaceted and interdependent ways in which students engage with WCF. ...
Plain language summary
Understanding how classroom goals and teacher feedback affect English writing skills in EFL students
This study looked at how college students in Taiwan perceive their English writing classes and how they engage with feedback from their teachers. We wanted to see if students thought their classes focused more on learning and improving (mastery) or on getting good grades (performance). We also examined how students interacted with the written feedback their teachers provided, and how this affected their writing skills. We found that students generally felt their classes were focused more on learning and improving. When it came to engaging with teacher feedback, students were most involved in actually using the feedback to improve their writing. They also showed strong emotional engagement, meaning they cared about the feedback and valued it. This emotional engagement was important because it led to other types of engagement, such as discussing feedback with classmates and thinking deeply about the feedback. Interestingly, we found that thinking deeply about the feedback (cognitive engagement) was directly linked to better writing skills. This means that when students really understand and process the feedback, they tend to become better writers. Other forms of engagement, like caring about the feedback and using it practically, helped support this process. Our study suggests that teachers should focus on creating a learning environment that emphasizes improvement and mastery. By doing so, they can encourage students to engage more deeply with feedback, which in turn can improve their writing skills.
... By combining controlled experiments and statistical analyses as well as case studies and more punctual considerations, we can triangulate our findings, strengthening the validity and reliability of our results. The strength of this combination is especially fruitful in the field of SLA, as many previous studies have demonstrated (Larsen-Freeman and Cameron, 2008;Levis and LeVelle, 2016). Particularly, we plan to integrate qualitative data to analyze the most interesting and complex findings, allowing for a more holistic perspective on language acquisition. ...
... A second difference between Gaddis's approach and that of CDST is how the findings are treated. In earlier versions, CDST seemed to disagree with the possibility that research findings might eventually become generalizable (e.g., Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). However, there is now a trend toward generalization from exploratory to confirmatory (e.g., Hiver et al., 2022). ...
... In other words, while aptitude is considered a static or stable personal trait (Carroll, 1981;Doughty, 2019), the learning-efficiency score is a more dynamic state that can be adjusted during the ongoing learning process. The reconfiguration of learners' ability or aptitude situated within and leveraged by CALL systems may thus resonate with a more flexible and dynamic view of individual differences in L2 acquisition theories such as complex dynamic systems (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008;Lowie & Verspoor, 2019). Although no research has been conducted to compare the predictive power of aptitude and learning-efficiency scores, such investigations could be invaluable for informing optimal vocabulary practice in CALL systems, as well as the broader discourse on ATI in L2 research. ...
The aim of this study was to contribute to the field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) by investigating the individualization of intentional vocabulary learning. A total of 118 Japanese-speaking university students studied 20 low-frequency English words using flashcard software over two learning sessions. The participants practiced retrieval of vocabulary under different learning schedules, with short or long time intervals between encounters of the same word in each learning session: Short–Short, Short–Long, Long–Short, and Long–Long. Two individual difference measures – learning efficiency and language aptitude – were examined as predictors of long-term second language (L2) vocabulary retention. Learning efficiency was operationalized as the number of trials needed to reach a learning criterion in each session, whereas a component of aptitude (rote memory ability) was measured by a subtest of Language Aptitude Battery for the Japanese. Multiple regression and dominance analyses were conducted to evaluate the relative importance of learning efficiency and language aptitude in predicting delayed vocabulary posttest scores. The results revealed that learning efficiency in the second learning session was the strongest predictor of vocabulary retention. Language aptitude, however, did not significantly predict vocabulary retention. Moreover, the predictive power of learning efficiency increased when the data were analyzed within each learning schedule, underscoring the need to assess learners’ abilities under specific learning conditions for optimizing their computer-assisted learning performance. These findings not only inform the development of more effective, individualized CALL systems for L2 acquisition but also emphasize the importance of gauging individuals’ abilities such as learning efficiency in a more flexible, context-sensitive manner.
... These subsystems are constantly changing, influencing each other, and together constitute the learner's overall language ability. [1] (2) Non-linear development: Learners' language development is not simply linear progress, but shows non-linear characteristics, including stagnation, regression and rapid development. This nonlinear development means that learners may learn at different speeds and effects at different stages. ...
In response to the growing demand for effective second language (L2) writing strategies, this study aims to explore and optimize L2 writing strategies from a dynamic systems perspective. Utilizing computer simulation, the research investigates the interaction and adaptation of writing strategies in L2 learners. The research method involves the development of a computational model that simulates the writing process of L2 learners. This model captures various writing strategies, such as planning, drafting, revising, and self-monitoring, and analyzes how these strategies evolve over time in response to different linguistic and cognitive challenges. Data from L2 learners’ writing samples and writing process logs are used to calibrate and validate the simulation model. The results of the computer simulation demonstrate that L2 writing strategies are not static but rather adapt dynamically to the writer’s proficiency level, task demands, and cognitive resources. The simulation reveals that certain strategies, such as frequent self-monitoring and adaptive planning, are more effective in improving writing quality and efficiency. Additionally, the study identifies individual differences in strategy use, with some learners benefiting more from specific strategies than others. The findings underscore the complexity of L2 writing and suggest that personalized feedback and strategy training based on the simulation outcomes can significantly enhance L2 writing performance. The findings reveal significant insights into the dynamic nature of writing strategies, highlighting the importance of individual differences and context. The study concludes that computer simulation offers a promising approach for understanding and enhancing L2 writing strategies, potentially leading to more personalized and efficient writing instruction.
... For over a decade, influenced by the Complexity and Dynamic Systems Theory (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008), a new line of research has positioned FLCA among a myriad of individual and social factors. MacIntyre (2017) explained that owing to the internal and social dimensions of language anxiety, FLCA constantly interacted with a range of variables (e.g., learners' personality traits, interpersonal relationships with teacher and peers), and fluctuated on a timescale of seconds, minutes, days, months, and years. ...
Plain language summary
Investigating the joy and anxiety of Chinese EFL students in higher education: A study using pseudo-longitudinal methods
Many studies have looked at how different factors affect two important emotions in language learning: Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE) and Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety (FLCA). However, most of the previous studies have focused on learner emotions as fixed and unchanging, rather than looking at how they might change over time. This study used a pseudo-longitudinal method to explore how FLE and FLCA change over time in university students and how these emotions relate to factors both within the students and related to their teachers. A total of 288 students studying English, including undergraduates, master’s students, and doctoral students, took part in the study. They completed surveys about their enjoyment and anxiety in learning English, as well as a personality questionnaire. The results showed that undergraduates and doctoral students had higher levels of enjoyment in learning English, while master’s students experienced the most anxiety. Further analysis revealed that both learner-related and teacher-related factors predicted FLE, with a positive attitude towards English being the best predictor. In contrast, FLCA was mainly predicted by learner-related factors, particularly the personality trait of Neuroticism. These findings suggest that learners’ emotions and how they relate to different factors change depending on their level of education.
... W badaniach językoznawczych rozwój Teorii Systemów Dynamicznych przyspieszył na początku XXI wieku, kiedy pojawiło się wiele prac teoretycznych (De Bot, Lowie, Verspoor, 2005;Van Geert, 2007;De Bot, 2008;Larsen-Freeman, Cameron, 2008) czy empirycznych (Verspoor, Lowie, Van Dijk, 2008;Caspi, 2010;Spoelman, Verspoor, 2010;Polat, Kim, 2014). Wydana została także publikacja opisująca metody i techniki stosowane w badaniach bazujących na tej teorii (Verspoor, Bot, De Bot, Lowie, 2011), a dla wielojęzyczności opracowano Dynamiczny Model Wielojęzyczności (Herdina, Jessner, 2002). ...
The paper investigates the dynamic character of pausing behaviour in foreign language writing. In a longitudinal study on Polish learners of Swedish, pause length and frequency, as well as the interplay between pause length and the development of lexical diversity, syntactic complexity, accuracy, and fluency, were investigated. According to the assumptions of Dynamic Systems Theory, intra- and inter-subject variability were analysed. The study has shown that the mean length of pauses did not change during the three-year period of second language learning; however, the frequency of pauses significantly decreased, as demonstrated by the increasing number of words written between pauses. There was a considerable variation within subjects during the entire period, and even moderate inter-subject variability was noticed. The occurrence of longer pauses was almost always interconnected with a higher level of accuracy, syntactic complexity, and fluency. This interplay, however, could only be confirmed at the individual level, showing the necessity of following the development of a second language in individuals rather than for the entire group.
... This theory emphasizes the dynamic interaction of multiple factors in the development of the system, the non-linear fluctuating characteristics of the relevant factors at the micro level in time, and the complex interaction between individual differences and the external environment (Larsen-Freeman, 2015). It suggests that affective, cognitive, and social factors act as sub-systems that continuously interact and that a slight change in one of these variables may cause a change in the others, thus affecting the final language acquisition and language proficiency (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). Based on the principle of CDST, several studies have investigated the dynamic changes of emotion and cognition in listening and speaking tasks of foreign language learners with the idiodynamic approach (Aubrey, 2022;Boudreau et al., 2018;MacIntyre & Ducker, 2022). ...
This study pioneers the use of the idiodynamic approach to investigate the dynamic interplay between motivation and anxiety in Chinese learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) during listening tasks. Despite the acknowledged importance of understanding moment-to-moment fluctuations in language learning motivations and emotions, research has yet to explore these dynamics within listening comprehension contexts using this approach. To address this gap, the authors enlisted five Chinese EFL learners to examine how motivation and anxiety fluctuate and interact during two distinct listening activities: a multiple-choice English listening test and a listening practice task. Utilizing the Anion Variable Tester V2 software, we captured real-time changes in participants’ motivation and anxiety levels, offering a novel lens through which to view these psychological dynamics. Quantitative analysis, including Pearson correlation per task, Pearson correlation in segment, and moving correlation analysis, revealed significant variations in the relationship between motivation and anxiety across individuals and tasks and patterns of positive, negative, and non-significant correlations emerging within tasks. Qualitatively, the study identified that the factors interactively influence the fluctuations of motivation and anxiety. These findings contribute to our understanding of motivation and anxiety’s nuanced roles in language learning and underscore the value of the idiodynamic method in capturing these complex psychological processes. The implications of this research extend to developing more responsive and emotionally attuned language teaching practices.
... g., Koizumi & Katagiri, 2009;Kyle et al., 2021). The predominance of cross-sectional approaches has constrained learner corpus research and second language acquisition, despite repeated calls to examine longitudinal development within individual learners (e.g., Housen, 2002;Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). Unlike written language, spoken communication shows all the dimensions of active language use, making it essential for comprehensive exploration. ...
... • An approach that aims to understand how ACL-inspired practices could be efficiently disseminated. • A focus on applicability rather than performance • A focus on pedagogical change through the prism of ecological models (van Lier, 2004) and complexity theory (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). ...
Cognitive linguists are devoting much time and effort to the exploration of SLA, and the potential of a more figurative / embodied approach to pedagogical grammar has by now been documented (Roche & Suñer, 2016). Despite the increasing theoretical as well as empirical evidence, little is percolating to the actual classroom. We concur with Wirag et al. (2022) to point to the top-down way in which Applied Cognitive Linguistics has been approached so far. This research project hypothesizes that a more ecological approach to Cognitive Linguistics is needed to popularize the CL framework in language teaching. By ecological approach, we mean to consider the classroom as a complex system that is best approached holistically and dynamically (Hill et al., 2004; Meunier, 2022), with a special focus on teachers which remain “a blind spot in applied linguistics” (Whong, 2022). To test this hypothesis, elements of a Cognitive Grammar approach to the Count/Mass Distinction were incorporated into L2 learning materials and then presented to teachers. The idea was to see how participants assess the usability of a cognitive-pedagogical approach and how such usability correlates with their reported beliefs about pedagogical grammar. Usability refers to “the appropriateness to a purpose of any artifact” (Brooke, 1996, p. 4), which, in the case of cognitive-pedagogical teaching materials, refers to their perceived facilitative potential. The data was gathered through focus group discussions with pre-service teachers (n=11) of English and Dutch as foreign languages in lower secondary education and an online survey involving a broader array of language teachers (n=203). All the participants were from the French-speaking community of Belgium. While reinforcing the potential of Cognitive Linguistics for language teaching, our data also points to the necessity of adopting a more ecological approach to the implementation in Applied Cognitive Linguistics research. Honest engagement with contextual variables such as teacher beliefs and existing teaching practices is likely to facilitate adoption as insights from ACL can supplement, but not supplant, existing practices. Implications for future research in ACL are discussed.
... Caicó RN, v. 24, n. 01, Jan. 2024 www.periodicos.ufrn.br/saberes @saberes.deducCameron, 2008), que pode ter desencadeado ou provocado a construção de mudanças em direção à assumpção de posturas sistêmicas pelos professores participantes da pesquisa. Isso fica nítido na supracitada fala do professor Luiz, quando afirma que aprendeu a utilizar diversas plataformas digitais e aplicativos a partir dos desafios e dificuldades encontr ...
O paradigma da complexidade ou paradigma emergente, representa, contemporaneamente, uma tendência mundial, sobretudo na história das ciências, a tomar todo e qualquer conhecimento humano em seu caráter sistêmico e múltiplo, já que, a fragmentação do conhecimento nem sempre consegue contemplar aspectos importantes na análise de um fenômeno. Durante a pandemia do COVID-19, o mundo passou por um período de caos, sendo o ensino, em suas várias modalidades, um dos principais impactados por esse momento histórico. A partir da vivência docente no interior do Estado do Ceará, o presente artigo tem como objetivo investigar a presença de elementos do Paradigma Complexo no ensino de língua portuguesa, partindo do período emergencial remoto de 2020/2021, ponderando as perspectivas de professores de Português do Ensino Médio da 17ª Coordenadoria Regional de Desenvolvimento da Educação do Estado do Ceará (CREDE 17), interior Cearense, sobre sua prática docente. Para isso, dialoga-se com estudos do Paradigma da Complexidade (Morin, 2015), da Educação (Morin, 2011; 2021) e do Pensamento Sistêmico (Vasconcellos, 2002). O procedimento metodológico adotado é o estudo de caso. O corpus é formado por entrevistas com seis professores de municípios que compõem a CREDE 17. Como resultado, aponta-se, principalmente a partir do período pandêmico, que os professores colaboradores lançaram mão de diversos elementos da Complexidade em sua prática docente, a qual é encarada como um sistema de natureza múltipla, envolvendo a subjetividade dos sujeitos, além da assumpção de uma postura aberta, com ações recursivas, autônomas, estratégicas, contextualizadas, presumindo imprevisibilidades e desordens.
This article aims to analyze vocabulary knowledge, both receptive and expressive, as a predictor of early learning of reading and writing. 44 children who were students in the first year of elementary school participated in the research. Data collection was carried out in two stages. The first occurred at the beginning of the school year, when the Vocabulary Test of the ABFW test and the Vocabulary Test by Pictures were applied to evaluate our independent variables. The second stage took place during the school year with the application of the Reading and Writing Test to evaluate performance in our dependent variables. The results, analyzed in the light of the Theory of Complex Adaptive Systems, showed in general that initially the positive and strong correlation (R 0.68 - p < 0.05 - 1st edition) loses predictive strength as the literacy process occurs (R 0.64 - p < 0.05 - 2nd edition; R 0.53 - p < 0.05 – 3rd edition; R 0.41 - p < 0.05 – 4th edition). In the complex set of variables that influence literacy, vocabulary knowledge can be considered an important predictor of early learning of reading and writing.
Cet article présente une étude de cas du parcours informel d’apprentissage/appropriation de l’anglais par une étudiante de Licence 2 en secteur Lansad. Dans le cadre d’une théorie de la complexité appliquée tant à l’enseignement/apprentissage des langues qu’aux dispositifs CL/CRL, nous proposons une étude longitudinale des pratiques informelles de cette étudiante du collège à l’université. Au fil de visualisations de ce parcours autodirigé par le biais de ce que nous nommons des « infogrammes », nous abordons des problématiques propres au secteur d’enseignement des langues au niveau universitaire. Nous tentons d’y apporter un éclairage original issu du domaine de recherche émergent que constituent les apprentissages informels des langues en France. Le construit de l’autonomie, la place à donner aux savoirs expérientiels préalables à l’arrivée en CL et l’importance d’une articulation entre recherche en didactique et pratiques de terrain font notamment l’objet d’une réflexion particulière.
Cet article rend compte de premiers résultats issus d’une recherche exploratoire visant à cartographier les pratiques informelles de l’anglais par des collégiens français. Celle-ci a été menée dans le cadre d’un doctorat en sciences du langage auprès de 482 jeunes adolescents scolarisés au collège international de l’Esplanade de Strasbourg. Les résultats montrent que ces pratiques sont présentes dès la sixième et qu’elles connaissent un fort développement sur le continuum des années de collège : surtout les activités de visionnage et de lecture connaissent une augmentation constante jusqu’à la troisième. Au-delà de la distribution des pratiques informelles par classe d’âge, les résultats montrent une grande variabilité des activités selon le parcours personnel de chaque individu. La notion de plaisir éprouvé lors de ces activités, pour part liée à la forte désirabilité des contenus en langue anglaise, ainsi que le statut de lingua franca que celle-ci occupe dans les esprits, sont les raisons principales évoquées par les répondants. Ces paramètres ne peuvent cependant pas être abordés de façon déconnectée d’autres aspects, tels que le besoin de communiquer avec des amis et pour se faire des amis et la volonté d’apprendre, qui fonctionnent selon une systémique propre à chaque utilisateur-apprenant.
This book explores current research on online instructed second language acquisition (online ISLA), with a specific focus on the focal topic: learner engagement in online L2 classrooms. Specifically, it examines online learner engagement from various theoretical perspectives, discusses conceptual and methodological issues, synthesizes research on the role of learner engagement in online L2 classrooms, and critically assesses its connection to teaching practices across different L2 settings. The book is intended for a wide audience, including undergraduate and postgraduate Applied Linguistics, TESOL and Second Language Education students seeking to understand the significance of learner engagement in online L2 learning. It will also be useful for researchers interested in staying updated on recent findings regarding the benefits of learner engagement in online classrooms for L2 learning. Additionally, teachers, teacher trainers and educators in Teacher Education (TE) and/or continuous professional development (CPD) programs can benefit from the pedagogical insights offered in this book regarding online L2 instruction in various contexts.
This chapter discusses the relationship between learner autonomy and synchronous online learner engagement (SOLE) within the context of online L2 classrooms. The chapter addresses the central question of ‘the extent to which learner autonomy is connected to online learner engagement’ with the goal of providing pedagogical implications based on the relationship between learner autonomy and SOLE. Specifically, this chapter will begin by briefly surveying the definitions of the concept of learner autonomy and providing a brief historical overview of its role in L2 research. It then delves into the discussion of the link between learner autonomy and engagement in online L2 learning. The chapter concludes with pedagogical suggestions for fostering learner autonomy as an essential prerequisite for online learner engagement and provides some directions for L2 research on the relationship between learner autonomy and learner engagement.
Located at the confluence of two broad interdisciplinary fields—applied linguistics and program evaluation—theory and practice in language program evaluation draws on a range of influences. In this chapter, we situate language program evaluation to provide a sense of the history and context that continues to inform work to date. Throughout the chapter, we interweave concepts from Norris (2016) who defines language program evaluation, summarizes its history, and suggests an agenda for further development. Importantly, we then draw on the transdisciplinary nature of applied linguistics to argue for a greater integration of mainstream program evaluation to spur the development of our field.
In this chapter, we move on to discuss design approaches that can be clustered under the pragmatic paradigm and use branch (Mertens & Wilson, 2019), with a particular focus on developmental evaluation (Patton 2011, 2015a). Developmental evaluation falls within the wider domain of utilization-focused evaluation (UFE), also developed by Patton (2008). UFE, as an approach, is underpinned by a principle of usefulness to intended users; evaluation processes and outcomes should provide intended users—those with the authority and responsibility to act to ensure and promote program quality—with information to facilitate effective, evidence-based decision-making and action. This approach to evaluation is well suited to addressing concerns and needs arising from a recent and rapid growth of English Medium Instruction (EMI) in universities throughout Asia, as we illustrate through the example of an EMI program in an Indonesian university.
Throughout the book, we explored a range of designs that can be used in the evaluation of language programs. Our work has attempted to bring together concepts from the two interdisciplinary fields of applied linguists and program evaluation. In this chapter, we seek to advance language program evaluation in three key areas. First, we suggest that courses in language program evaluation be integrated into graduate applied linguistics and TESOL programs. Second, we promote capacity building for current professionals who are supported by a community of practice. Our third suggestion revolves around research potential in areas of social justice, for example, as well as new methodologies, technology integration challenges, and greater alignment with the well-established discipline of program evaluation.
Since 1965, graduate Programs in Brazil, with the objective to verify the capacity to read, interpret and understand texts in foreign languages, have applied proficiency exams, in which the only research source allowed is the printed dictionary. Guided by the theory of Complex Dynamic Systems, this article proposes a reflection on the relevance of this examination model, in the context of social practices mediated by digital technologies that, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, had to adapt. The analysis was based on 93 public notices published by the Programs before the pandemic (2017-2019) and during the pandemic (2020-2021). The results show that only CEFET-MG, during the Covid-19 pandemic, proposed an exam in which all sources (analogic and digital) were allowed to candidates.
Keywords:
CAPES, proficiency exam; Graduate, Program; Pandemic, Adaptation
Subtitling approaches are constantly changing based on the factors surrounding their implementation. This qualitative secondary study seeks to explore the factors that influence subtitlers’ decision in translating English to Arabic sensitive audiovisual material. This study adopts complexity theory to unveil the intricate interplay of factors that influence these decisions. We move beyond a linear cause-and-effect model, exploring how social media, Turkish movies, globalization and the Arab Spring influence subtitlers’ decision in translation. The results of this qualitative secondary investigation indicate that many factors such as audience age and westernization among others influence subtitlers’ approaches in translation. Hence, it is essential for subtitlers to be dynamic and consistently review their subtitling approaches to ensure that they meet the needs of their target audiences, considering the presence of new and old target audiences of English to Arabic audiovisual translations.
What is it about social interaction at the workplace that spurs interactional competence development? This book explores the answers to this question by analyzing the development of interactional competence by two Vietnamese hotel staff members, one novice and one experienced, as they interact with international guests in English in Vietnam.
Using ethnomethodological conversation analysis (EMCA) in a longitudinal design, Nguyen and Malabarba trace the learners’ observable changes in interactional practices in guest-escorting walks over time. In doing so, they uncover the interaction-endogenous impetuses that may have led to these changes and address three fundamental questions in second language acquisition research: what is learned, how it is learned, and why it is learned. In seven chapters, the book offers an illuminating discussion of how competence has been conceptualized in EMCA and a rich analysis of how individuals’ changes in interactional conduct take place locally and longitudinally.
With an in-depth discussion of theoretical issues as well as a fine-grained empirical analysis, this book appeals to researchers, students, and practitioners interested in social perspectives on second language learning, longitudinal EMCA, the development of interactional competence at the workplace, and guest-host interaction in hospitality.
Analogies of the biotic modality within the technical sphere center on notions of vitality, differentiation of function, organization, adaptation and development. On the norm side, these organic analogies allow us to envision technical norms for the development of applied linguistic artefacts, which underlie the coming to fruition and maturation of the designs of language curricula, assessments and policies. The principle of technical vitality and adaptation is key. On the factual side, we encounter the concepts of functional technical differentiation of such designs, the organization of their parts to function as contributors to the whole, and how to plot their evolution.
Beliefs and assumptions appear in many guises in applied linguistic designs. They illustrate the connections among technical life and the certitudinal sphere. On the norm side, these certitudinal anticipations appeal to designs that are trustworthy. Technical subjects are inspired by steadfastness and commitment to designing credible language interventions that serve others, and that are faithful to reputable design principles. The technical beliefs to which designers subscribe therefore matter. Technical objects, viewed from this vantage point, are vehicles of technical fidelity and security. Language intervention designs should be a celebration of humanity, soundly crafted to inspire and satisfy.
The concepts of technical feeling, perception, awareness, experience, consciousness and memory play a prominent role in those analogical moments within the technical aspect deriving from the sensitive dimension of our experience. These notions involve subjective technical sensitivities and feelings, belonging to the factual side of the technical modality. Technical perceptiveness, cognition, awareness and affect deserve analytical scrutiny. On the norm side, we encounter the requirement that a designed language intervention must have intuitive appeal, engendering in the experience of using it a technical consciousness of wholesomeness and satisfaction. Handling emotions productively in our subjective interaction with designs is therefore crucial.
The initial high expectations of applied linguistic work did not endure. Applied linguistics is divided between adopting either a modernist or a postmodernist approach. Despite their relevant critique of modernism, the relativism promoted by postmodernist perspectives is an inadequate response to the challenges of the field. A non-reductionist methodology, however, allows us to generate a theory of applied linguistics to give each tradition of developing designs to solve language problems its rightful due. Defining applied linguistics as a discipline of design connects the technical watermark of such designs with other dimensions of our experience, yielding a number of useful design principles.
This article is a sequel to the conversation on learning initiated by the editors of Educational Researcher in volume 25, number 4. The author’s first aim is to elicit the metaphors for learning that guide our work as learners, teachers, and researchers. Two such metaphors are identified: the acquisition metaphor and the participation metaphor. Subsequently, their entailments are discussed and evaluated. Although some of the implications are deemed desirable and others are regarded as harmful, the article neither speaks against a particular metaphor nor tries to make a case for the other. Rather, these interpretations and applications of the metaphors undergo critical evaluation. In the end, the question of theoretical unification of the research on learning is addressed, wherein the purpose is to show how too great a devotion to one particular metaphor can lead to theoretical distortions and to undesirable practices.
Like any other scientific enterprise, the study of language acquisition (LA) evolves: the issues which dominate its agenda, the consensus on what constitute its `data’, the hypotheses that motivate its research programmes—all wax and wane in the cycles we know and expect in human affairs. At the end of the 20th century thinking in language acquisition research was showing signs, we believe, of a new kind of convergence. This volume aims to explore how a number of contemporary approaches and insights in LA research might be coherently interrelated through a perspective that can be called ecological. While much research on LA continues to consider the individual acquirer largely in closed-system terms, there is growing attention to the acquirer’s extensive interaction with their environment spatial, social, cultural and so on. Recent studies in such diverse fields as discourse analysis, linguistic anthropology, robotics, and cognitive semantics underline the heuristic value of the perspective promised in our title: ecology of language acquisition. In this introductory chapter we first offer an ecological critique of some dominant paradigms of LA research. We then go on to suggest how an ecological perspective motivates new approaches to acquisition issues, and how it informs each of the contributed chapters which follow. Our hope is that readers of all theoretical persuasions will find in this volume ideas, arguments and insights which, even if not woven into a fully-fledged theoretical fabric, at least point a way to fruitful theoretical reassessment.
In this presentation, we outline a perspective on language acquisition based on evolutionary biology and neurobiology. We argue that language is a cultural artifact that emerges as a complex adaptive system from the verbal interaction among humans. We see the ubiquity of language acquisition among children generation after generation as the product of an interactional instinct that, as Tomasello indicates, is based on an innate drive communicate with and become like conspecifics.
In this article it is argued that language can be seen as a dynamic system, i.e. a set of variables that interact over time, and that language development can be seen as a dynamic process. Language development shows some of the core characteristics of dynamic systems: sensitive dependence on initial conditions, complete interconnectedness of subsystems, the emergence of attractor states in development over time and variation both in and among individuals. The application of tools and instruments developed for the study of dynamic systems in other disciplines calls for different approaches to research, which allow for the inclusion of both the social and the cognitive, and the interaction between systems. There is also a need for dense data bases on first and second language development to enhance our understanding of the fine-grained patterns of change over time. Dynamic Systems Theory is proposed as a candidate for an overall theory of language development.
This article is a sequel to the conversation on learning initiated by the editors of Educational Researcher in volume 25, number 4. The author’s first aim is to elicit the metaphors for learning that guide our work as learners, teachers, and researchers. Two such metaphors are identified: the acquisition metaphor and the participation metaphor. Subsequently, their entailments are discussed and evaluated. Although some of the implications are deemed desirable and others are regarded as harmful, the article neither speaks against a particular metaphor nor tries to make a case for the other. Rather, these interpretations and applications of the metaphors undergo critical evaluation. In the end, the question of theoretical unification of the research on learning is addressed, wherein the purpose is to show how too great a devotion to one particular metaphor can lead to theoretical distortions and to undesirable practices.
We studied metaphorical language in spoken discourse from a number of settings to explore the words and expressions that regularly appear in the cotext of both conventional and innovative metaphors. We found that expressions that we call "tuning devices" are frequent in all the data consulted. Tuning devices have a number of different functions, clustered around the central notion of suggesting to the hearer how to interpret a metaphor. Our data was drawn from 2 computerized corpora, 1 small enough to be handsearched as well as concordanced, the other very large. Both small and large corpora present research problems, and we argue that combining the 2, by using a small corpus as a starting point for searches in a large corpus, may reduce the disadvantages of each.
There are many striking similarities between the new science of chaos/complexity and second language acquisition (SLA) Chaos/complexity scientists study complex nonlinear systems They are interested in how disorder gives way to order, of how complexity arises in nature ‘To some physicists chaos is a science of process rather than state, of becoming rather than being’ (Gleick 1987 5) It will be argued that the study of dynamic, complex nonlinear systems is meaningful in SLA as well Although the new science of chaos/complexity has been hailed as a major breakthrough in the physical sciences, some believe its impact on the more human disciplines will be as immense ( Waldrop 1992) This belief will be affirmed by demonstrating how the study of complex nonlinear systems casts several enduring SLA conundrums in a new light
A Dynamic Systems Approach to Development explores the value of dynamical systems principles for solving the enduring puzzles of development, including the ultimate source of change, the problems of continuity and discontinuities, and nonlinear outcomes and individual differences.
What do laser lights, crystals, walking, reaching, and concepts have in common? All are complex dynamic systems. Over the last decade, the burgeoning fields of synergetics and nonlinear dynamics have shown in mathematically precise ways how such complex systems can produce emergent order from the cooperation of many simpler elements. A Dynamic Systems Approach to Development explores the value of dynamical systems principles for solving the enduring puzzles of development, including the ultimate source of change, the problems of continuity and discontinuities, and nonlinear outcomes and individual differences.
This companion volume to the forthcoming A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action shows how the ideas of dynamic systems may form the basis for a new theory of human development. The problems considered include areas of motor development, perceptual and cognitive development, and social development. The use of dynamic systems ranges from the metaphorical to the rigorously mathematical, but in all cases the contributions present a step forward in developmental theory.
Bradford Books imprint
While most research on language acquisition continues to consider the individual primarily in closed-system terms, Ecology of Language Acquisition emphasizes the emergence of linguistic development through children's and learners' interactions with their environment - spatial, social, cultural, educational, and so on - bringing to light commonalities between primary language development, child and adult second-language learning, and language acquisition by robots. Such a situated, context-responsive perspective on acquisition is able to interrelate insights from a variety of paradigms and disciplines while avoiding unjustifiable appeals to normativity. The theoretical and empirical studies presented here challenge a number of dominant ideas in language acquisition theory and mark an important new research orientation. This work should be of interest to language acquisition researchers and professionals in a wide range of specialisms.
The Handbook of Discourse Analysis makes significant contributions to current research and serves as a comprehensive and authoritative guide to the central issues in contemporary discourse analysis. Features comprehensive coverage of contemporary discourse analysis. Offers an overview of how different disciplines approach the analysis of discourse. Provides analysis of a wide range of data, including political speeches, everyday conversation, and literary texts. Includes a varied range of theoretical models, such as relevance theory and systemic-functional linguistics; and methodology, including interpretive, statistical, and formal methodsFeatures comprehensive coverage of contemporary discourse analysis. © 2004 by Futura, an imprint of Blackwell Publishing. All rights reserved.
Metaphor and Knowledge offers a sweeping history of rhetoric and metaphor in science, delving into questions about how language constitutes knowledge. Weaving together insights from a group of scientists at the Santa Fe Institute as they shape the new interdisciplinary field of complexity science, Ken Baake shows the difficulty of writing science when word meanings are unsettled, and he analyzes the power of metaphor in science.
Usage-based models of language focus on the specific communicative events in which people learn and use language. In these models, the psycholinguistic units with which individuals operate are determined not by theoretical fiat but by observation of actual language use in actual communicative events. This data-based approach make these models especially congenial for the analysis of children's language, since children do not learn and use the same units as adults. In this paper I employ a usage-based model of language to argue for five fundamental facts about child language acquisition: (1) the primary psycholinguistic unit of child language acquisition is the utterance, which has as its foundation the expression and understanding of communicative intentions; (2) early in their language development children are attempting to reproduce not adult words but whole adult utterances; (3) children's earliest utterances are almost totally concrete in the sense that they are instantiations of item-based schemas or constructions; (4) abstractions result from children generalizing across the type variation they observe at particular “slots” in otherwise recurrent tokens of the same utterance; and (5) children create novel utterances for themselves via usage-based syntactic operations in which they begin with an utterance-level schema and then modify that schema for the exigencies of the particular communicative situation (usage event) at hand. © 2001, 2000 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG. All rights reserved.
Seeing language as a complex, dynamic system and language use/acquisition as dynamic adaptedness ('a make-do' solution) to a specific context proves a useful way of understanding change in progress, such as that which occurs with a developing L2 system. This emergentist shift of perspective provides another way of understanding previously observed characteristics of learner language, that is that its development is not discrete and stage-like but more like the waxing and waning of patterns; that, from a target-language perspective, certain aspects of the behavior are progressive, others, regressive; that change can be gradual and it can be sudden; and that the latter notably heralds the emergence of a new order qualitatively different and novel from earlier organizations. In addition, when group data are disaggregated, it is clear that there are many paths to development. By closely examining the oral and written production of five Chinese learners of English, the emergence of complexity, fluency, and accuracy can be seen, not as the unfolding of some prearranged plan, but rather as the system adapting to a changing context, in which the language resources of each individual are uniquely transformed through use.
This paper explores some properties of very simple network structures. It argues that the behaviour of these structures might be able to throw some light on how real lexicons behave. The paper argues that working with very explicit and over simplified models of lexicons might sometimes have advantages over working with more realistic but vague models, whose detailed workings are under-specified. The simple models make it easier to determine what features of bilingual lexicons are merely general properties of networks, and which features arise because of the specific properties a real lexicon might have.
A usage-based view takes grammar to be the cognitive organization of one's experience with language. Aspects of that experience, for instance, the frequency of use of certain constructions or particular instances of constructions, have an impact on representation that is evidenced in speaker knowledge of conventionalized phrases and in language variation and change. It is shown that particular instances of constructions can acquire their own pragmatic, semantic, and phonological characteristics. In addition, it is argued that high-frequency instances of constructions undergo grammaticization processes (which produce further change), function as the central members of categories formed by constructions, and retain their old forms longer than lower-frequency instances under the pressure of newer formations. An exemplar model that accommodates both phonological and semantic representation is elaborated to describe the data considered.
This chapter shows just how deeply affected English has already been through its unprecedented spread, and the unique function it has as the world language. It argues, however, that it would be premature to launch into a discussion of the teaching of this lingua franca before certain prerequisites have been met. The most important of these are a conceptualization of speakers of lingua franca English as language users in their own right, and the acknowledgment of the legitimacy of, and indeed the need for, a description of salient features of English as a lingua franca (ELF), alongside English as a native language (ENL). The presentation summarizes the empirical research into the lingua franca use of English, which has recently gathered considerable momentum. It sets this research in relation to other relevant work in descriptive linguistics, sociolinguistics, and applied linguistics for language pedagogy. Finally, it discusses the implications of this historically unique situation for potential developments in the pedagogy of English teaching and outlines some research questions that must be addressed if advances in the teaching of English as a lingua franca are to have a secure theoretical and descriptive base.
This book, first published in 1996, argues that language use is more than the sum of a speaker speaking and a listener listening. It is the joint action that emerges when speakers and listeners - writers and readers - perform their individual actions in coordination, as ensembles. The author argues strongly that language use embodies both individual and social processes.
We share an interest in language. We want to understand it, its origins, structure, functions, use, acquisition, instruction, and change. We seek causes for observed effects. Scientific studies of language representation and competence and of language acquisition and use are complementary. Yet these two theoretical enterprises have traditionally been kept distinct, with models of representation (property theories) focusing on static competence, and models of acquisition (transition theories) and use focusing on dynamic process and performance. This Special Issue is motivated by the belief that our interests in language can better be furthered when it is conceived of as the emergent properties of a multi-agent, complex, dynamic, adaptive system, a conception that usefully conflates a property theory with a transition theory.
We show how emergence offers new explanations for the behaviour of metaphorically-used expressions. Analysis of metaphors in two types of natural language data are combined: detailed analysis of continuous discourse, which offers wealth of context and the possibility of monitoring emergent forms as the discourse unfolds, and computer-assisted corpus analysis, which enables the examination of large numbers of examples of specific words and phrases across a range of contexts. We find that non-literal expressions with a relatively fixed form and highly specific semantics and pragmatics are very frequent in our data but are not well accounted for by current cognitive metaphor theory. We term these non-literal expressions ‘metaphoremes’, and argue that they represent the coalescence of linguistic, semantic, affective, and pragmatic forces into attractor states in the discourse system, appearing in discourse as relatively stable bundles of patterns of use. We show a metaphoreme emerging in the course of a discourse event and another which appears to have emerged recently as a result of a changing social environment. We then combine analyses and data types to track the use of as a metaphoreme, showing its patterns of formal, semantic, affective, and pragmatic characteristics.
‘Metaphor in Educational Discourse is a superb piece of applied linguistics research that integrates Vygotsky’s theory of concepts with current work on metaphor into a coherent framework for investigating how teachers and learners negotiate figurative language in order to promote development in the classroom setting. In what is likely to become the standard for future studies in this area, Lynne Cameron meticulously demonstrates the central role of linguistic metaphors in classroom learning - designed to lead learners to a deeper understanding of complex mathematical and scientific concepts.’ James P. Lantolf, Professor of Applied Linguistics, The Pennsylvania State University. This book reports research into metaphor in use with school students. The setting for the research is a UK school and the participants are around ten years old, with their first language well established but still developing concepts and understandings. Close examination of a corpus of classroom spoken discourse reveals how metaphor is employed by their teachers, not just in explaining ideas, but, in managing and mediating the activity of the classroom and the learning of the students. Particular issues discussed include: the problems of identifying metaphors in spoken discourse, the conventionalism of metaphors in the discourse of socio-cultural groups, and how a socio-cultural approach can account for systematicity in metaphor use.
Usage-based models of language focus on the specific communicative events in which people learn and use language. In these models, the psycholinguistic units with which individuals operate are determined not by theoretical fiat but by observation of actual language use in actual communicative events. This data-based approach make these models especially congenial for the analysis of children's language, since children do not learn and use the same units as adults. In this paper I employ a usage-based model of language to argue for five fundamental facts about child language acquisition: (1) the primary psycholinguistic unit of child language acquisition is the utterance, which has as its foundation the expression and understanding of communicative intentions; (2) early in their language development children are attempting to reproduce not adult words but whole adult utterances; (3) children's earliest utterances are almost totally concrete in the sense that they are instantiations of item-based schemas or constructions; (4) abstractions result from children generalizing across the type variation they observe at particular ''slots'' in otherwise recurrent tokens of the same utterance; and (5) children create novel utterances for themselves via usage-based syntactic operations in which they begin with an utterance-level schema and then modify that schema for the exigencies of the particular communicative situation (usage event) at hand.
This paper argues for a cognitive psychological approach to second language phenomena that emphasizes the importance of the
development of automaticity and the process of restructuring. It is argued that practice can leadimprovement in performance
as sub-skills become automated, but it is also possible for increased practice to create conditions for restructuring, with
attendant decrements in performance as learners reorganize their internal representational framework. In the second case,
performance may follow a U-shaped curve, declining as more complex internal representations replace less complex ones, and
increasing again as skill becomes expertise. Examples are drawn from first and second language research, and from research
on expert systems. The cognitive approach is not seen as competitive to, but as complementary with, linguistic approaches
to second language development.
When people in conversation refer repeatedly to the same object, they come to use the same terms. This phenomenon, called lexical entrainment, has several possible explanations. Ahistorical accounts appeal only to the informativeness and availability of terms and to the current salience of the object's features. Historical accounts appeal in addition to the recency and frequency of past references and to partner-specific conceptualizations of the object that people achieve interactively. Evidence from 3 experiments favors a historical account and suggests that when speakers refer to an object, they are proposing a conceptualization of it, a proposal their addresses may or may not agree to. Once they do establish a shared conceptualization, a conceptual pact, they appeal to it in later references even when they could use simpler references. Over time, speakers simplify conceptual pacts and, when necessary, abandon them for new conceptualizations.
Learning lessons: social organization in the classroom © The Authors Journal compilation Emergence of complexity in phonological development
- H Mehan
Mehan, H. (1979) Learning lessons: social organization in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. © The Authors Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Mohanan, K.P. (1992) Emergence of complexity in phonological development. In C. Ferguson, L. Menn and C. Stoel-Gammon (eds.), Phonological development. Timonium, MD: York Press. 635–62.
At home in the universe . London: Penguin. Larsen-Freeman, D. (1997) Chaos/complexity science and second language acquisi-tion
- S Kauffman
Kauffman, S. (1995) At home in the universe. London: Penguin. Larsen-Freeman, D. (1997) Chaos/complexity science and second language acquisi-tion. Applied Linguistics 18.1: 141– 65.
Handbook of developmental psychology
- K. Fischer
- Z. Yan
- J. Stewart