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Abstract
Presents cross-cultural data to examine the patterns of alterations of consciousness and their relationship to social and physiological conditions
... Meanwhile, many mediums, yogis, and other practitioners worldwide may be categorized as shamans simply because they can enter an altered state of consciousness (Walsh 2001, p. 32). Michael Winkelman also observes that many practitioners other than shamans employ "a variety of trance induction techniques" to achieve an ecstatic state (Winkelman 1986). When examining North Asian ethnographic and historical data, Caroline Humphrey argues that the Eliadian model is inadequate for explaining shamanic practices in this region. ...
... Shamanic healing has been regarded as a therapeutic or psychotherapeutic technique in cross-cultural and ethnographic studies of shamanism (Peters 1982;Walsh 1990Walsh , 1997Winkelman 1986). However, two authors in this volume view shamanic and magicoreligious healing as a traditional knowledge system that maintains cosmological relations between the human and spirit worlds. ...
In his 1993 paper published in Shaman, Shi (1993) recognized that while Chinese scholars conclude that shamanism emerged and flourished in the prehistoric period and faded in post-industrial society, they are “puzzled by its vitality today” (Shi 1993, p [...]
... In addition, Winkelman (2011a) suggested that shamanic conscious experience was a product of the brain function and neural structure. Shamans can achieve changes in consciousness during ritual practices through various hypnotic induction techniques (Winkelman, 1986). This highlights that in shamanic practice, the guidance of the ASC is closely linked to the physiological and neurological mechanisms of the brain. ...
... Shamanic ceremonies are carried out at night. It produces a trance state through social gatherings in dim light (Winkelman, 1986;Eliade, 2020). Shamanic music and dance continue through the process, acting as essential tools for guiding the participants into a state of collective unconsciousness (Winkelman, 2021). ...
The alteration of consciousness during shamanic rituals is both a physical and mystical phenomenon. It involves psychological and spiritual experiences. Through ritual practices, shamans can connect with archetype within the collective unconscious, utilizing trance-inducing techniques for “hallucinatory exploration”. This study surveyed 75 participants to investigate the impact of prototype symbols in Shamanistic rituals on participants’ consciousness states focusing on Jungian psychology’s concept of archetype. The results indicate that archetype symbols in shamanic rituals can significantly influence participants’ conscious state, leading them to experience a conscious dissolution of the self. Furthermore, archetype symbols have different effects at the stages of consciousness change. In particular, during the “Visionary Restructuralization” stage, archetype symbols, such as patterns, masks, totems and music, brought participants’ consciousness to a peak and caused significant changes to it. These findings suggest that the metaphoric function of archetype symbols plays a crucial role in rituals. Archetype symbols connect the individual to the collective unconscious through visual images and symbolic imagery. They prompt the participants to experience emotional resonances that transcend individual experiences and affect their state of consciousness.
... For Dobbin (2013, 206, emphasis added), 'collective consciousness emerges from the interaction of group members rather than from 9 Reflections on Remote woRking duRing the coVid-19 pandemic the qualities of the individual'. In turn, of course, collective effervescence itself has often been compared to the idea of an 'altered state of consciousness' (see, for example, Winkelman 1986;Goodman 1990;Buehler 2012). Finally, Dobbin notes that '[l]ike Durkheim, Marx and Weber saw the human psyche as shaped quite fundamentally by social institutions; however, the process of collective meaning-making was much more fundamental to Durkheim than it was for either Marx or Weber'. ...
... Notably this visual capacity is also elicited by a variety of non-drug activities and conditions. The Mystical Stance: Shamanic ASC and the Innate Mind ASCs are reported in ritual activity worldwide (Bourguignon, 1968;Winkelman, 1986bWinkelman, , 1992, appearing as a virtual cultural universal. Eliade's characterization of shamans as engaged in "techniques of ecstasy" reflects the central role of ASC in shamanism. ...
Shamanism is a transcultural concept for understanding roles of ritual and psychedelics in the prehistoric origins of religiosity. The origins of religiosity are revealed by parallels of shamanic and chimpanzee collective ritualizations involving group chorusing and drumming with dramatic bipedal displays. This hominid baseline was expanded with mimetic evolution of song, dance and enactment. Psychedelic substances stimulate innate cognitive dispositions manifested in shamanism such as the human-like qualities of spirits, animal identities and other spiritual and mystical experiences. These structural features of consciousness are stimulated by mimetic performances with song, dancing, and drumming; painful and exhausting austerities; and psychedelic substances. These produce altered experiences of the self which are conceptualized within indigenous psychologies as spirits and one’s soul, spiritual allies, and animal powers that can be incorporated into personal powers (i.e., animal transformation). Cross-cultural manifestation of shamanic features reveal that they are based in biology rather than merely cultural traditions.
Anthropologists have studied the use of psychedelic drugs across cultures for over a century; however, this literature has yet to be compiled. In providing a brief survey of ethnographic research produced in the Global North on the ‘classic psychedelics’, this article suggests that there not only exists a robust subfield that can be called the anthropology of psychedelics, but that the field also lacks diversity given that it predominately focuses on the Indigenous use of psychedelics or research at the intersection of Indigenous and Global North encounters. Accordingly, there exists a lacuna in the anthropology of psychedelics related to the widespread and variegated use of psychedelics in urban contexts across the Global North. As scientific research on the therapeutic aspects of psychedelics continues to gain momentum, the need for more cultural analyses on the extra‐pharmacological dimensions surrounding psychedelic drug experiences and their effects is in greater demand than ever.
Ancient civilisations exercise an intense fascination for people the world over. This Handbook provides a vivid, scholarly, and eminently readable account of ancient cultures around the world, from China to India, the Middle East, Egypt, Europe, and the Americas. It examines the development of religious belief from the time of the Palaeolithic cave paintings to the Aztecs and Incas. Covering the whole of society not just the elite, the Handbook outlines the history of the different societies so that their religion and culture can be understood in context. Each chapter includes discussion of the broad field of relevant studies alerting the reader to wider debates on each subject. An international team of scholars convey their own deep enthusiasm for their subject and provide a unique study of both popular and 'official' religion in the ancient world.
Ancient civilisations exercise an intense fascination for people the world over. This Handbook provides a vivid, scholarly, and eminently readable account of ancient cultures around the world, from China to India, the Middle East, Egypt, Europe, and the Americas. It examines the development of religious belief from the time of the Palaeolithic cave paintings to the Aztecs and Incas. Covering the whole of society not just the elite, the Handbook outlines the history of the different societies so that their religion and culture can be understood in context. Each chapter includes discussion of the broad field of relevant studies alerting the reader to wider debates on each subject. An international team of scholars convey their own deep enthusiasm for their subject and provide a unique study of both popular and 'official' religion in the ancient world.
The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness is the first of its kind in the field, and its appearance marks a unique time in the history of intellectual inquiry on the topic. After decades during which consciousness was considered beyond the scope of legitimate scientific investigation, consciousness re-emerged as a popular focus of research towards the end of the last century, and it has remained so for nearly 20 years. There are now so many different lines of investigation on consciousness that the time has come when the field may finally benefit from a book that pulls them together and, by juxtaposing them, provides a comprehensive survey of this exciting field. An authoritative desk reference, which will also be suitable as an advanced textbook.
The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness is the first of its kind in the field, and its appearance marks a unique time in the history of intellectual inquiry on the topic. After decades during which consciousness was considered beyond the scope of legitimate scientific investigation, consciousness re-emerged as a popular focus of research towards the end of the last century, and it has remained so for nearly 20 years. There are now so many different lines of investigation on consciousness that the time has come when the field may finally benefit from a book that pulls them together and, by juxtaposing them, provides a comprehensive survey of this exciting field. An authoritative desk reference, which will also be suitable as an advanced textbook.
The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness is the first of its kind in the field, and its appearance marks a unique time in the history of intellectual inquiry on the topic. After decades during which consciousness was considered beyond the scope of legitimate scientific investigation, consciousness re-emerged as a popular focus of research towards the end of the last century, and it has remained so for nearly 20 years. There are now so many different lines of investigation on consciousness that the time has come when the field may finally benefit from a book that pulls them together and, by juxtaposing them, provides a comprehensive survey of this exciting field. An authoritative desk reference, which will also be suitable as an advanced textbook.
The description of the pharmacology of psychotomimetics, cannabis, and alcohol in this third volume concludes the discussion on psychotropic agents. As psychomotor stimulants these groups of psychotropic agents are of little or no therapeutic relevance, but since they are used in a nonmedical manner, or are even considered by some groups of the population as social commodities, their behavioral effects and psychopharmacological properties are not the concern of the pharmacol ogist alone. The same is true of psychotomimetics, as well as cannabis and its components. Psychotomimetics have a social history going back many hundreds of years and are among the most potent psychotropic agents known to man. The closing description of psychopharmacology also deals with the psychotropic effects of a number of drugs not primarily considered to be psychotropic. Their psychotropic effects are either an inherent constituent of their therapeutic profile, as is the case with opiates, hypnotics, and caffeine, or they may occur indirectly as side effects or accompanying effects during therapy. This applies to p-adrenoreceptor antagonists and anticholinergics. The editors are also aware that a description of psychotropic agents would not have been complete without discussing the medical, ethical, and legal aspects of the development, clinical testing, and use of such drugs.
Hallucinations, a natural phenomenon as old as mankind, have a surprisingly wide range. They appear under the most diversified conditions, in the "normal" psyche as well as in severe chronic mental derangement. As a symptom, hallucinations are a potential part of a variety of pathological conditions in almost all kinds of psychotic behavior. In addition, lately, various psychological and sociological circumstances seem to favor widespread use and abuse of hallucinogens, substances able to produce hallucinations in the normal brain. They not rarely lead to serious psychopatho logy such as toxic, and mobilized or aggravated endogenous psycho ses. While such development adds to our scientific knowledge, it also contributes to our current social troubles. Neurologists and neuro-surgeons, psychiatrists, psychologists and other specialized researchers constantly have been dealing with the phenomenon, its roots and branches, and yet, its primary mechanisms are largely un known. However, investigators of hallucinations now seem to enter common ground on which meaningful discussions and joint approaches become feasible and more promising. We have come a long way from the Latin term "hallucinari", meaning to talk nonsense, to be absent-minded, to the modern con cept of "hallucinations". While the Latin word was descriptive of what may be due to hallucinations, the modern concept defines hal lucinations as subjective experiences that are consequences of men tal processes, sometimes fulfilling a purpose in the individual's mental life.
CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE BRAIN SELF-REGULATION PARADOX The relationship of consciousness to biology has intrigued mankind thoroughout recorded history. However, little progress has been made not only in understanding these issues but also in raising fundamental questions central to the problem. As Davidson and Davidson note in their introduction, William James suggested, almost a century ago in his Principles of Psychology, that the brain was the organ of mind and be havior. James went so far as to suggest that the remainder of the Principles was but a "footnote" to this central thesis. This volume brings together diverse biobehavioral scientists who are addressing the various aspects of the mindlbrainlbodylbehavior issue. Although some of the authors have previously published together in other volumes, by and large the particular combination of authors and topics selected by the editors makes this volume unique and timely. Unlike the Consciousness and Self-Regulation series (Schwartz & Shapiro, 1976, 1978), also published by Plenum, this volume is devoted entirely to a psychobiological approach to consciousness. Although readers will differ in their interest in specific chapters, the well-rounded investigator who is concerned with the psychobiology of consciousness will want to become intimately acquainted with all the views presented in this volume. As noted by the individual contributors, the topic of this volume stimulates fundamental questions which, on the surface, may appear trivial, yet, on further reflection, turn out to have deep significance.
Ethyl alcohol (Alcohol aethylicus, C2H5OH) has been used since the dawn of history in various beverages and, much later in the history of mankind, as a pure fluid substance, for nonmedical, pseudomedical, and medical purposes. At one time it was considered an important remedy for all diseases: the word “whisky” is believed to have its roots in the Gaelic usquebough, meaning “water of life” (Ritchie, 1977). It is now recognized that the therapeutic value of alcohol is limited to its local external use; however, the social use of alcoholic beverages leading eventually to alcohol dependence and concurrent chronic intoxication, as well as frequently occurring cases of acute intoxication, calls for detailed knowledge of its pharmacology and toxicology.
In recent years, physiologic studies on psychotomimetic drugs (e.g., psychedelics, stimulants, and deliriants) have focused increasingly upon actions at the single neuron level. This trend has been fostered by the mapping of a number of neuronal systems in the central nervous system according to neurotransmitter content. Of prime importance to investigations on psychedelic and stimulant drugs has been the mapping of monoaminergic neurons in the brain by the formaldehyde-condensation histochemical method of Falck and Hillarp (Dahlström and Fuxe, 1965). By means of this and related methods it has been possible to identify the location of the cell bodies, axons, and terminal fields of the major monoaminergic pathways (i.e., noradrenergic, dopaminergic, and serotonergic). Similarly, the mapping of central cholinergic pathways has been crucial to investigating the actions of the antimuscarinic drugs, which produce a state of delirium.
Twenty six cases of a type of reflex epilepsy brought about by hot water head baths have been reported. This forms 2.5% of the epilepsies seen by the author. This type of reflex epilepsy which seems to be due to the high temperature of hot water, is peculiar to South India. This epilepsy was initially prevented by a warm/cold bath in a sitting posture, but subsequently a majority of participants developed epilepsy with or without the bath and hence needed anticonvulsants. The interest in reporting such cases is to emphasize the common pattern of aetiology, symptoms and response to treatment. Although these are not rare forms of epilepsy, they are rare in the sense that there are very few references to them in world literature. (Journal received 28 June 1974)
Since the time of atomists like Democritus, forerunner of Plato and Aristotle, two modes of scientific explanation have been used to fill the conceptual space between mind and brain, a dualism more grudgingly resistant to resolution than that of energy and matter. One method assumes a world of hidden realities, impenetrable, to be understood by conjecture and test, observations evaluated for their consistency with hypothetical constructs. The other requires an intuitive grasp of the essence, insightful awareness of the thing itself. The first approach defines a unification of mind and brain out of the possible; the second assumes it. Feelings about these orientations still run strong. In a recent book, the philosopher of science Sir Karl Popper expressed irritation with Plato for intermixing these two thought styles without acknowledging the intermixture, concluding that only the conjectural-test approach is valid; the other kind of knowing Popper dismissed as a “will-o-the-wisp” (Popper & Eccles, 1977).
A peculiar type of reflex epilepsy caused by pouring hot water on the head is described in a series of 60 cases, seen during a 20 month period. Commonly encountered in children and adolescents, it may exist alone or be followed by non reflex epilepsy. The attacks could be induced in the laboratory in about half the group of 42 patients who submitted themselves for this test. Nearly 80% of the patients had clinical temporal lobe attacks remaining focal or becoming generalized. Unequivocal 'seizure discharges' were noted in the inter ictal electroencephalograms in under a third of the entire group, while in an additional one third these were equivocal. A good ictal recording during the specific provocative stimulus has not been possible so far due to numerous movement artifacts, but attempts are being made to overcome this difficulty.