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Forgive and Forget? Antecedents and Consequences of Intergroup Forgiveness in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Abstract
The present study examines the effects of contact and common-ingroup identification on intergroup forgiveness and outgroup behavioral tendencies. A sample of Bosnian Muslims (N = 180) were asked to report their readiness to forgive the misdeeds committed by Bosnian Serbs during the 1992–95 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A path analysis of the presumed antecedents and consequences of forgiveness revealed that frequent and good quality contact with members from the perpetrator group predicted forgiveness (positively) and desire for social distance (negatively). Moreover, the positive relationship between contact and forgiveness was mediated by empathy and trust towards the outgroup and by perceived outgroup heterogeneity. Common-ingroup identification was also found to be positively associated with forgiveness and negatively with social distance towards the outgroup. Finally, intergroup forgiveness also predicted social distance from the outgroup. The theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed.
... This highlights the importance and necessity for dialogue and communication. Such dialogue should be based on trust and empathy and focused on the achievement of desired common objectives (Cehajic et al., 2008). In spite of the lack of consensus on a universal definition of peace education, due to the fact that each particular conflict context requires a specific historical, socio-political, economic and cultural approach, Lopes Cardozo and Hoeks (2015) believe that there is, however, some common ground in the academic debates about peace education in various regions: the importance of critical and reflexive dialogue. ...
... Through de-categorization, group members gain an inter-personal focus instead of a salient category identity, and positive effects of contact can be generalized to new situations and to the out-group in general. What the ICCAM is proposing is actually a recategorization: This proposal of a superordinate category is derived from the Common Ingroup Identity model which posits that engineering intergroup encounters in such a way as to foster a more inclusive categorization of the situation where the ingroup and outgroup become merged into a single enlarged ingroup, then intergroup relationships would benefit and intergroup biases should lessen (Cehajic et al., 2008). In his Reformulated Contact Theory, Pettigrew (1998) regards recategorization as the optimal strategy that ensures maximum reduction of prejudice and conflict. ...
... In an application of the intergroup contact theory, Cehajic et al. (2008) examined the effects of contact and common-ingroup identification on intergroup forgiveness and outgroup behavioral tendencies on a sample of Bosnian Muslims who were asked to report their readiness to forgive the violence perpetrated by Bosnian Serbs during the 1992-95 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The common-ingroup identification consisted of changing the category of Bosniak to Bosnian. ...
This paper is a review of selected essays on reconciliation and peacebuilding in conflict-affected and post-conflict societies delineating the fundamental key factors that promote peacebuilding, and the approaches to reconciliation which have proved to be effective over the past 20 years. Acknowledgement of wrongdoing, empathy and the promotion of open dialogue stand out as the factors common to all reconciliation initiatives. The paper examines five approaches to peacebuilding, namely contact theory, restorative justice, making apologies, sharing narratives and reconciliation through education, conceptualizing each in light of its benefits, as well as its challenges, with examples from the real world illustrating its application. The paper concludes with recommendations for contextualizing peacebuilding approaches as there is no one single approach that fits all contexts, and for intersectionality and the full engagement and commitment of local actors. Keywords: reconciliation, peacebuilding, forgiveness, apologies, restorative justice, contact theory.
... Earlier studies of post-war milieus focused partly on the analysis of interactional aspects of interpersonal, interorganizational, and interstate discursive production of narratives (Applegate, 2012;Basic, 2013Basic, , 2015Cehajic et al., 2008;Hatzfeld, 2005aHatzfeld, , 2005bSampson, 2003). However, these authors did not home in on interactive production or how individuals, organizations, and states present their social reality in relation to the idea of trust and reconciliation in the context of legitimizing transitional capitalism. ...
... In contrast to Ricoeur (2004, pp. 580-593), the earlier studies of post-war society show that without institutions, it is hard to offer individual forgiveness (Applegate, 2012;Basic, 2015;Cehajic et al., 2008;Cordeiro-Rodrigues, 2018;Hatzfeld, 2005aHatzfeld, , 2005bHatzfeld, , 2008Sampson, 2003). Earlier studies of post-war communities have pointed out the structural violence and accompanying processes of reconciliation, including in South Africa (Cordeiro-Rodrigues, 2018;Sampson, 2003), Rwanda (Applegate, 2012;Hatzfeld, 2005aHatzfeld, , 2005bHatzfeld, , 2008, and Bosnia and Herzegovina (Basic, 2013;Cehajic et al., 2008). ...
... 580-593), the earlier studies of post-war society show that without institutions, it is hard to offer individual forgiveness (Applegate, 2012;Basic, 2015;Cehajic et al., 2008;Cordeiro-Rodrigues, 2018;Hatzfeld, 2005aHatzfeld, , 2005bHatzfeld, , 2008Sampson, 2003). Earlier studies of post-war communities have pointed out the structural violence and accompanying processes of reconciliation, including in South Africa (Cordeiro-Rodrigues, 2018;Sampson, 2003), Rwanda (Applegate, 2012;Hatzfeld, 2005aHatzfeld, , 2005bHatzfeld, , 2008, and Bosnia and Herzegovina (Basic, 2013;Cehajic et al., 2008). However, in reality, participants and structures overlap (Simmel, 1908(Simmel, -[1955; Basic, 2013, pp. ...
The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–1995) is the historic background of this paper, as produced in the documents presented during international and national trials concerning war crimes committed during this period. A literature review forms the analytical basis and contains various empirical and theoretical studies from the fields of philosophy, war sociology, and social epistemology. The aim of this paper is to analyse the normative orientations and social values that affect (1) the feelings of moral and social understanding (or non-understanding) after the genocide and the joint criminal enterprise in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the context of legitimizing transitional capitalism, (2) the actions of individuals, organizations, and states as well as the entire social community in the post-war society, and (3) the process of reconciliation and trust in post-war society. The analysis makes evident the usual tendency in a post-war society to deify one’s own ethnic (religious) group, while the consequence of such false self-infatuation with “our” collective is that the “other” that is not ours becomes undesirable. It must be, as evidence of patriotism and unconditional emotional loyalty to “our holy issue”, wiped out for good. Ethnic cleansings, joint criminal enterprises, and genocides thus become a normal means of ethnopolitical—i.e. biopolitical—“management of differences”. At the same time, ethnocorruption and ethnobanditry can erroneously be qualified as the least transparent and, for social and criminological research, the most difficult phenomena (or manifestations) of social pathology. The difficulty lies in the fact that ethnocorruption and ethnobanditry are in many respects related and intertwined with the simultaneous institutional and organizational processes of regulating (or not regulating) the economic and political globalization and transfer of ownership during the transition from socialist self-management to a new type of economy.
... Intergroup forgiveness is associated with trust in the "enemy" group (Cehajic, Brown, and Castano 2008;Noor, Brown, and Prentice 2008;Hanke et al. 2013), empathy (Cehajic, Brown, and Castano 2008;Noor, Brown, and Prentice 2008), lessened social distance (Cehajic, Brown, and Castano 2008), historical closure (Hanke et al. 2013), lesser guilt and anger (Hanke et al. 2013), and positive mental health (Myers, Hewstone, and Cairns 2009;Kira et al. 2009). Critically, it is seen as integral to the reconciliation process (Nadler and Saguy 2004) as it motivates reconciliation intentions ) and peace endorsement (Noor et al. 2015). ...
... Intergroup forgiveness is associated with trust in the "enemy" group (Cehajic, Brown, and Castano 2008;Noor, Brown, and Prentice 2008;Hanke et al. 2013), empathy (Cehajic, Brown, and Castano 2008;Noor, Brown, and Prentice 2008), lessened social distance (Cehajic, Brown, and Castano 2008), historical closure (Hanke et al. 2013), lesser guilt and anger (Hanke et al. 2013), and positive mental health (Myers, Hewstone, and Cairns 2009;Kira et al. 2009). Critically, it is seen as integral to the reconciliation process (Nadler and Saguy 2004) as it motivates reconciliation intentions ) and peace endorsement (Noor et al. 2015). ...
... Intergroup forgiveness is associated with trust in the "enemy" group (Cehajic, Brown, and Castano 2008;Noor, Brown, and Prentice 2008;Hanke et al. 2013), empathy (Cehajic, Brown, and Castano 2008;Noor, Brown, and Prentice 2008), lessened social distance (Cehajic, Brown, and Castano 2008), historical closure (Hanke et al. 2013), lesser guilt and anger (Hanke et al. 2013), and positive mental health (Myers, Hewstone, and Cairns 2009;Kira et al. 2009). Critically, it is seen as integral to the reconciliation process (Nadler and Saguy 2004) as it motivates reconciliation intentions ) and peace endorsement (Noor et al. 2015). ...
The article explored intergroup perspectives among Bangsamoro and Christian group members to determine their impact on forgiveness-based peace initiatives and conflict resolution. It adopts a qualitative approach by analyzing thematically four (4) focus group discussions. Bangsamoro participants’ themes on Intergroup Forgiveness as a Process of Negotiation and Pride as Key Factor in the Process of Intergroup Forgiveness stress socio-religious and political leaders’ roles including that of cultural values such as maratabat (honor) and sabar (silent forbearance). Christian participants’ Intergroup Forgiveness as an Outcome through Discussion/Communication theme emphasizes understanding and pride’s impact on the forgiveness process. These findings bring to awareness the complexity of integrating intergroup forgiveness in current peacebuilding interventions.
... People's religious identities, like Catholic and Protestant identities in Northern Ireland, are often central in ethnopolitical conflicts, and as such, these identities can drive peace-related outcomes. For instance, previous studies have shown how ingroup identification plays a key role in the conflict-and peace-related outcomes in both conflict and post-conflict contexts (Cehajic et al., 2008;Hanke et al., 2013;Hewstone et al., 2006;Leonard et al., 2015;Noor, Brown, Gonzalez, et al., 2008). Accordingly, we conceptualize religious identity in the current research context as a salient ingroup identity, and we propose that a salient ingroup identity in conflict contexts is particularly important for conflict narratives for two reasons. ...
... Previous studies have shown how ingroup identification plays a key role in conflict-and peace-related outcomes, including forgiveness. On the one hand, it has been shown in some of those studies that strong ingroup identification such as ethnic or religious identification is a barrier to forgiveness in various conflict contexts (Cehajic et al., 2008;Hanke et al., 2013;Hewstone et al., 2006;Leonard et al., 2015;Noor, Brown, Gonzalez, et al., 2008) whereas no significant relationship between ingroup identification and forgiveness was found in others (Hamer et al., 2017;Hewstone et al., 2006;Leonard et al., 2015;Philpot & Hornsey, 2011;Uluğ, Bilali, et al., 2021). Cehajic et al. (2008) argue that the reason behind the negative relationship between ingroup identification and forgiveness in conflict contexts may be that forgiveness as an act may be seen as disloyal by ingroup members. ...
... On the one hand, it has been shown in some of those studies that strong ingroup identification such as ethnic or religious identification is a barrier to forgiveness in various conflict contexts (Cehajic et al., 2008;Hanke et al., 2013;Hewstone et al., 2006;Leonard et al., 2015;Noor, Brown, Gonzalez, et al., 2008) whereas no significant relationship between ingroup identification and forgiveness was found in others (Hamer et al., 2017;Hewstone et al., 2006;Leonard et al., 2015;Philpot & Hornsey, 2011;Uluğ, Bilali, et al., 2021). Cehajic et al. (2008) argue that the reason behind the negative relationship between ingroup identification and forgiveness in conflict contexts may be that forgiveness as an act may be seen as disloyal by ingroup members. On the other hand, some other studies also show that ingroup identification, particularly with higher-order groups such as national identity (Baysu & Duman, 2016) or even more inclusive humanity identity (Greenaway et al., 2011;Noor et al., 2010;Wohl & Branscombe, 2005; but see Ünal et al., 2022), can be a facilitator of forgiveness. ...
People's religious identity is often the central identity in many ethnopolitical conflicts. These identities in conflict contexts may be associated with how people see conflict and their willingness to forgive the outgroup members for their wrongdoings in the past. Study 1 (N = 287) tested how religious group identification in the Northern Irish context predicted forgiveness through the endorsement of dominant conflict narratives (i.e., terrorism and independence narratives) among Protestants and Catholics. We also tested how group membership may moderate these relationships. The results showed that among Protestants, higher Protestant identification predicted less forgiveness through higher endorsement of the terrorism narrative and less endorsement of the independence narrative. Among Catholics, on the other hand, higher Catholic identification predicted stronger endorsement of the independence narrative, and in turn, less forgiveness. Study 2 (N = 526) aimed to replicate the findings of Study 1 with a larger sample and extend them by testing the role of an alternative conflict narrative (i.e., the Northern Irish identity narrative). The results were largely replicated for the independence and terrorism narratives, and the Northern Irish identity narrative was associated with higher forgiveness across both groups. We discuss the results in terms of how ingroup identities and conflict narratives can become both facilitators of and barriers to peacebuilding in post-conflict societies.
... By contrast, reconciliatory HC should show a reversed, prosocial (e.g., Cehajic et al., 2008) pattern. If reconciliatory HC indeed mirrors an authentic motivation to restore positive relations with the victim group-in this case by leaving the past behind-then perpetrator group members who agree with reconciliatory HC should be generally rather positive toward the victim group, inclined to make amends, and take a more critical stance toward the perpetrator ingroup. ...
... The 15 future-oriented HC items were based on zerosum items of previous HC measures (Hagemann & Nathanson, 2015;Imhoff, 2010b;Imhoff et al., 2017), as well as adaptions of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999), and the Temporal Focus Scale (Shipp et al., 2009) to the group context (e.g., "My mind is on the here and now" by Shipp et al., 2009 was transferred to "As a society, we should leave the past behind us and focus on the here and now"). The 17 reconciliatory HC items were adapted and expanded from various measures on intergroup reconciliation (Brewer & Hayes, 2015;Cehajic et al., 2008;Hanke et al., 2013;Hewstone et al., 2004;e.g., "It is better not to open old wounds by talking about what happened in the past" by Brewer & Hayes, 2015 was transferred to "Collectively drawing a line under the period of national socialism can help to heal old wounds"). Finally, 15 items on defensive HC were taken from previous scales assessing the desire to close discussion on history (e.g., Allpress et al., 2014;Hagemann & Nathanson, 2015;Hanke et al., 2013;Imhoff et al., 2017;Sahdra & Ross, 2007;Wohl & Branscombe, 2005). ...
... Following Wohl and colleagues' (2011) Staircase Model, the perpetrator group must accept collective guilt (ground floor) and achieve consensus on historical happenings (second floor) and reparation (third floor) in discussion with the victims before offering the actual apology (fourth floor), in order for the apology to contribute to reconciliation. The present findings indicate that demand for HC, regardless of its specific rhetoric manifestation, can hinder each of these steps: It comes along with reduced acceptance of guilt and reparation intentions (ground and third floor) as well as less empathy with the victim's perspective (Cehajic et al., 2008) and defensive perceptions, such as insistence on the perpetrator ingroup's perpetual victimhood (Schori-Eyal et al., 2017), which complicate the establishment of a consensual historical narrative (second floor). ...
Historical perpetrator groups seek to shield themselves from image threat by advocating for closing the discussion of their crimes. However, from a broader theoretical perspective, such demand for historical closure (HC) may also reflect willingness to reconcile with the victim group or to focus on the future rather than the past. In nine studies across four different contexts (Germany, United States, Italy, and Australia; N = 3405), we analyzed whether these three facets of HC (defensive, reconciliatory, and future-oriented) indeed substantially differ. Contrary to expectations, nomological network analyses suggested that all three facets reflect the same defensive desire (Studies 1a-2c) and are perceived as overall similar from a third-party perspective (Study 3). Finally, all three HC facets showed a positive trend toward costly avoidance of confrontation with the ingroup's perpetrator past (Studies 4a-c). We discuss implications for (and against) a more nuanced understanding of the demand for HC.
... The competitive victimhood theory, on the other hand, posits that if the group-based victim beliefs or the perceived victimhood status of parties in a conflict are left unacknowledged and assuaged, the parties will likely become less forgiving and trusting towards the out-group (Noor et al., 2008); and less likely to own up to the in-group responsibility for causing suffering on out-group members (Cehajic et al., 2008), thus contributing to the negative spiral of inter-group conflict. Contrariwise, if group-based victim beliefs or the victim-status of conflicting parties are acknowledged and addressed, they engender positive socially affiliative emotions (intentions for affiliating with the out-group, such as the resolve to forget the past wrongdoings, forgive the out-group or engage in inter-group contact) (Cehajic et al., 2008) and predict positive inter-group attitudes. ...
... The competitive victimhood theory, on the other hand, posits that if the group-based victim beliefs or the perceived victimhood status of parties in a conflict are left unacknowledged and assuaged, the parties will likely become less forgiving and trusting towards the out-group (Noor et al., 2008); and less likely to own up to the in-group responsibility for causing suffering on out-group members (Cehajic et al., 2008), thus contributing to the negative spiral of inter-group conflict. Contrariwise, if group-based victim beliefs or the victim-status of conflicting parties are acknowledged and addressed, they engender positive socially affiliative emotions (intentions for affiliating with the out-group, such as the resolve to forget the past wrongdoings, forgive the out-group or engage in inter-group contact) (Cehajic et al., 2008) and predict positive inter-group attitudes. It is in this light that scholars like Noor et al. (2017) spoke of inclusive victimhood or common victimhood, which acknowledges the suffering of all adversaries in a conflict and which also predicts positive inter-group attitudes. ...
... As shown, farmers, herders and other community who were involved in this study were variously victimised and thus, lay claim to victimhood. Recognising and assuaging individual and group-based victim beliefs or the victim-status of conflicting parties have been known to engender positive socially affiliative emotions (intentions for affiliating with the out-group) such as the resolve to forget the past wrongdoings, forgive the out-group or engage in inter-group contact (Cehajic et al., 2008) and to predict positive inter-group attitudes both within conflict setting and towards other victim groups (Noor et al., 2017). ...
Purpose
This paper aims to examine the victimisation experiences of farmers, herders and community members within the context of the persistent conflict between farmers and herders across Nigeria, with specific focus on Anambra, Benue and Oyo states in south-east, north-central and south-west geopolitical zones of the country, respectively.
Design/methodology/approach
The study used the cross-sectional survey to elicit quantitative data from 725 respondents made up of 256 farmers, 225 herders and 244 community members aged 18 years and above, in six purposively sampled local government areas in the three states, while 16 in-depth interviews, 19 key informant interviews and 18 focus group discussions were conducted to extract qualitative data from purposively sampled farmers, herders, community leaders and members of the study communities.
Findings
The results show that farmers, herders and other community members in the study suffered losses in the form of destruction of farmlands and livelihood, internal displacement and human fatalities, for the farmers and community members; and destruction of livelihood, loss of money and human fatalities, for the herders. The paper predicts a worsening of the feud between these groups and the attendant reprisal attacks and victimisation if the current binary narrative of victimhood that privileges the needs and experiences of one group over the other persists, and urges stakeholders to put in place enduring structures that will minimise nomadic herding and ensure proactive security.
Originality/value
The focus on the issue of the “victimisation experiences” of herders and farmers and the invitation to researchers and policymakers to examine the role of the prevailing binary construction of victimhood in the conflict is a refreshing addition to other works on this subject.
... By contrast, reconciliatory HC should show a reversed, prosocial (e.g., Cehajic et al., 2008) pattern. If reconciliatory HC indeed mirrors an authentic motivation to restore positive relations with the victim group -in this case by leaving the past behind-then perpetrator group members who agree with reconciliatory HC should be generally rather positive toward the victim group, inclined to make amends, and take a more critical stance toward the perpetrator ingroup. ...
... The 15 future-oriented HC items were based on zero-sum items of previous HC measures (Hagemann & Nathanson, 2015;Imhoff 2010b;Imhoff et al., 2017), as well as adaptions of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999), and the Temporal Focus Scale (Shipp et al., 2009) to the group context (e.g., "My mind is on the here and now" by Shipp et al., 2009 was transferred to "As a society, we should leave the past behind us and focus on the here and now"). The 17 reconciliatory HC items were adapted and expanded from various measures on intergroup reconciliation (Brewer & Hayes, 2015;Cehajic et al., 2008;Hanke et al., 2013;Hewstone et al., 2004;e.g Hanke et al., 2013;Imhoff et al., 2017;Wohl & Branscombe, 2005). ...
... Model, the perpetrator group must accept collective guilt (ground floor), and achieve consensus on historical happenings (second floor) and reparation (third floor) in discussion with the victims before offering the actual apology (fourth floor), in order for the apology to contribute to reconciliation. The present findings indicate that demand for HC, regardless of its specific rhetoric manifestation, can hinder each of these steps: It comes along with reduced acceptance of guilt and reparation intentions (ground and third floor), as well as less empathy with the victim's perspective (Cehajic et al., 2008) and defensive perceptions, such as insistence on the perpetrator ingroup's victimhood (Schori-Eyal et al., 2017), which complicate the establishment of a consensual historical narrative (second floor). ...
Historical perpetrator groups seek to shield themselves from image threat by advocating for closing the discussion of their crimes. However, from a broader theoretical perspective, such demand for historical closure (HC) may also reflect willingness to reconcile with the victim group or to focus on the future rather than the past. In nine studies across four different contexts (Germany, US, Italy, Australia; N = 3405), we analyzed whether these three facets of HC (defensive, reconciliatory and future-oriented) indeed substantially differ. Contrary to expectations, nomological network analyses suggested that all three facets reflect the same defensive desire (Studies 1a–2c) and are perceived as overall similar from a third-party perspective (Study 3). Finally, all three HC facets showed a positive trend toward costly avoidance of confrontation with the ingroup’s perpetrator past (Studies 4a–c). We discuss implications for (and against) a more nuanced understanding of the demand for HC.
... However, the promising influence of intergroup contact on reconciliation in contexts of real-world conflicts and wars have rarely been examined (8,9), in part because intergroup contact is more likely to be negative in these settings (10,11). The few studies examining contact in conflict or post-conflict contexts, focused only on individuals' personal contact experiences with adversary group members, suggesting that individuals who report more positive contact experiences with out-group members have more positive attitudes and behaviors, including higher trust and forgiveness towards the adversary outgroup (12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18). Although important, these studies neglect the potential influence of the social context on individuals' attitudes and behavior towards adversary outgroups (4,(19)(20)(21)(22). ...
... Since these studies focused only on prejudice in non-conflict contexts, they provide limited insight for post-war reconciliation. In post-war contexts, intergroup relations are by definition characterized by particularly high intergroup distrust and distance due to experienced collective violence (6,15), going beyond mere negative evaluations of outgroups. Furthermore, these studies did not compare the observed contextlevel effects of contact on prejudice reduction across minority and majority group members living in the same context, despite the crucial importance of perspectives and roles of both majority and minority group members for intergroup relations (18). ...
Is post-war reconciliation determined by individuals’ personal contact experiences with former adversaries, or by the amount of intergroup contact within the region in which they live? Using multilevel analyses among representative samples of youth from ethnic majorities and minorities in five post-war countries, we demonstrate that context-level intergroup contact is a stronger determinant of reconciliation than individual-level contact. This study serves as a proof of concept that forgiveness, trust, social distance and approach behaviors in post-war societies are primarily a function of amount of contact in one’s social context rather than one’s personal inter-ethnic interactions. Evidence from this research critically informs our understanding of the influence of social context, particularly the macroscale potential of intergroup contact, on post-war reconciliation, from both majority and minority perspectives, and provides important guidelines for policies and interventions fostering reconciliation.
... Truth and Reconciliation Commissions typically prescribe official apologies, in which perpetrator groups publicly acknowledge their past wrongdoings and express remorse, as a tool for promoting reintegration attitudes. The literature has proposed a range of underlying mechanisms: apologies allegedly 'undo' collective psychological trauma, restore a sense of power and dignity of the victims, and potentially build trust between former adversaries (Blatz and Philpot, 2010;Blatz et al., 2009;Cárdenas et al., 2015;Cehajic et al., 2008;De Greiff, 2008;Lazare, 2005;Millar, 2012;Nadler et al., 2008;Nagy, 2002;Rosoux, 2007;Tavuchis, 1993;Verdeja, 2010). ...
Transitional justice practices frequently involve public apologies where former combatants confess their wrongdoings and ask for forgiveness, with the underlying assumption that such displays facilitate the reintegration of ex-combatants into society. However, little is known about the public response to ex-combatant apologies. In this article, we investigate the causal effect of an armed group apology on attitudes toward ex-combatant reintegration in Colombia. Our study builds on a novel experiment implemented in Meta, a conflict-ridden department of Colombia. The experiment entailed exposing a subset of participants to a video in which a former rebel group leader apologizes for violent acts committed by their armed group during the civil war. To examine the extent to which external actors influence the effectiveness of apologies, we incorporated third-party ‘encouragements to forgive’ (endorsements) in two additional treatment conditions. Our analysis demonstrates that, on average, participants do not exhibit higher reintegration attitudes when exposed to the apology, regardless of third-party endorsements. However, the absence of a treatment effect is not due to an indifference to the apology. In an exploratory heterogeneity analysis, we show that the apology induces negative effects on some indicators of reintegration attitudes among participants that did not support the peace agreement. This finding aligns with qualitative data gathered in a follow-up survey, which indicates that opponents of the peace agreement generally describe negative emotional responses to the FARC-EP apology. The results call for a reconsideration of unchallenged prescriptions of public apologies after conflict.
... This deterioration encompasses a variety of conflicts, including longstanding tensions and violence in the Middle East that have rapidly escalated in the past year, the ongoing war in Ukraine, enduring political strife in the western Balkan states, and increasing tensions between European Union citizens and immigrants [3][4][5] . This persistent erosion and polarization of intergroup relations has far-reaching implications: it erodes trust and cooperation at both the individual and societal levels [6][7][8] , hinders the effective functioning and flourishing of societies and poses tangible threats to the well-being of individuals living in such contexts 9 . Therefore, there is a critical need to identify effective and enduring strategies for improving intergroup relations to ultimately safeguard the cohesion, peace and well-being of human societies 10 . ...
... More specifically, the participants in this study emphasize the need to know what happened to their relatives. In another sense, reconciliation appears linked to the concept of forgiveness (Cehajic et al., 2008;Tam et al., 2008). Thus, to the extent that it is perceived to diminish emotions such as anger and resentment. ...
In Mexico, violence and insecurity have been established as two social problems that concern and affect the daily life of society. In view of this situation, the current Mexican government has proposed that the country undergo a process of pacification. The purpose of this study was to gain insight into the understanding and disposition that victims of violence have regarding forgiveness, reconciliation, and justice. A sample of 42 individuals from the states of Sinaloa and Coahuila with a mean age of 34.67 years (SD= 11.58) participated in this research. The results of this study indicated that participants presented an ambiguous discourse on forgiveness and reconciliation, which was mediated by justice. Although there may be a certain willingness to forgive and reconcile, the latter should be accompanied by a process of retributive justice in which the aggressor is punished for the offense committed. In sum, it is also important to emphasize that the participants understand forgiveness and reconciliation as two different processes. However, they also point out that it is necessary for both to be present in order to think about initiating a process of pacification and reconstruction of the social fabric.
... Scenario-specific outgroup empathy was measured by nine items, tapping the ability for cognitive, emotional, and motivational empathy, based on items devised by Cehajic et al. (2008) and Batson (1991) on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely). ...
The present study explores the impact of nonviolent communication (NVC) intervention on advantaged group members’ actual participation in collective action on behalf of disadvantaged outgroups, also known as solidarity‐based collective action (SBCA). It also examines the mediating role of hope and empathy in this process. Using an experimental longitudinal field study in the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, Jewish Israelis ( N = 220) were randomly assigned either to an NVC or to a control condition. Results indicated that, relative to the control, participants in the NVC condition showed an increased tendency to engage in activities that are considered part of SBCA 6 weeks after the intervention. Furthermore, the NVC intervention affected both hope and empathy by maintaining higher levels of hope 6 weeks after intervention and by increasing empathy immediately after intervention. Yet hope, but not empathy, mediated the effect of the NVC intervention on participation in SBCA. Theoretical and applicable implications are discussed.
... The primary purpose of the present studies is to simultaneously test the relationship between the four hypothesized factors and historical blame judgments across a range of possible contexts. Some of the proposed factors have been studied individually and applied to understand intergroup phenomena like prejudice, guilt, contact, compromise, reparations, and forgiveness in a limited number of intergroup situations Čehajić et al., 2008;Halperin et al., 2011Halperin et al., , 2012Starzyk & Ross, 2008;Warner et al., 2016;Wohl & Branscombe, 2005;Wohl et al., 2015). We extend this work by testing all of the factors, testing them simultaneously, and testing them across a wide range of intergroup situations. ...
Groups have committed historical wrongs (e.g., genocide, slavery). We investigated why people blame current groups who were not involved in the original historical wrong for the actions of their predecessors who committed these wrongs and are no longer alive. Current models of individual and group blame overlook the dimension of time and therefore have difficulty explaining this phenomenon using their existing criteria like causality, intentionality, or preventability. We hypothesized that factors that help psychologically bridge the past and present, like perceiving higher (a) connectedness between past and present perpetrator groups, (b) continued privilege of perpetrator groups, (c) continued harm of victim groups, and (d) unfulfilled forward obligations of perpetrator groups would facilitate higher blame judgments against current groups for the past. In two repeated-measures surveys using real events (N1 = 518, N2 = 495) and two conjoint experiments using hypothetical events (N3 = 598, N4 = 605), we find correlational and causal evidence for our hypotheses. These factors link present groups to their past and cause more historical blame and support for compensation policies. This work brings the dimension of time into theories of blame, uncovers overlooked criteria for blame judgments, and questions the assumptions of existing blame models. Additionally, it helps us understand the psychological processes undergirding intergroup relations and historical narratives mired in historical conflict. Our work provides psychological insight into the debates on intergenerational justice by suggesting methods people can use to ameliorate the psychological legacies of historical wrongs and atrocities.
... Forgiveness and reconciliation have been examined in various conflict and post-conflict societies (e.g., Cehajic et al., 2008;Hornsey & Wohl, 2013;Uluğ et al., 2021b). These two social-psychological processes have also been studied in the context of the Turkish-Kurdish conflict (e.g., Bochenśka, 2018;Sȩn & Cosķan, 2021). ...
Previous research has identified five qualitatively different narratives of the Turkish-Kurdish conflict. These conflict narratives can be summarized as follows: (1) a terrorism narrative that describes the problem as stemming mainly from the PKK; (2) an economic narrative that describes the problem as stemming from economic backwardness and class-related differences in the Kurdish region; (3) a democracy and Islam narrative that describes the problem as stemming from Turkey’s nation-state ideology which was based on Turkishness and excluded Kurds, and suggests an Islamic fellowship that brings Turks and Kurds together under a Muslim identity; (4) a democracy and rights narrative according to which the problem stems from a lack of implementation of democracy and denial of rights to the Kurds; and (5) an independence narrative that describes the problem as one based in need for independence for Kurds. In this chapter, I aim to discuss the (a) content of these narratives and how they were identified, (b) antecedents of these narratives, and (c) outcomes of endorsing these narratives from a social-psychological perspective. Finally, I will conclude the chapter by providing future directions for researchers who work on narratives in conflict and post-conflict societies.
... building trust (Cehajic et al., 2008;Kenworthy et al., 2016;Tam et al., 2009) may be more difficult for people with alexithymia. As individuals with alexithymia have difficulties processing emotions of the self and others, reducing prejudice toward stigmatized groups may require modified interventions. ...
Alexithymia, that is, difficulties in recognizing, communicating, and processing one's own emotions, is associated with poorer interpersonal relations. Emotional processes are key drivers and mechanisms of prejudice and its reduction, and alexithymia is thought to influence individuals' empathic responses. This research examined the relationship between alexithymia and prejudice, and the role of empathy in this relationship. Three studies were conducted in three intergroup contexts to test whether alexithymia is also associated with poorer intergroup relations with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender+ individuals (Study 1, N = 126 heterosexual late adolescents) and Asian British people (Study 3, N = 300 White adults) in the United Kingdom, and immigrants in Italy (Study 2, N = 381 Italian adults). Participants completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS‐20), measures on dispositional and intergroup empathic concern (EC) and perspective taking (PT) as well as measures of prejudice (anti‐outgroup hostility, anti‐outgroup attitudes, and anti‐outgroup behavioral intentions). Lower dispositional EC (Studies 1, marginal effect in Study 2) and intergroup EC and PT (Study 3) mediated the relationship between the Externally Oriented Thinking subscale of the TAS‐20 (i.e., avoiding emotions and affective thinking) and greater prejudice. The findings are important for understanding the challenges of late adolescents and adults with alexithymia in intergroup relations, highlighting the role of dispositional and intergroup empathy for individual differences such as alexithymia in endorsing prejudice.
... The concept of social forgiveness has already been studied in different contexts of civil war and political violence worldwide (cf. Noor et al. 2008;Allan et al. 2006;Cehajic, Brown, and Castano 2008). Similarly, the Colombian case has already motivated several scholars to focus on the level of social forgiveness among the Colombian population and communities toward ex-combatants (cf. ...
Objective/context:
This article examines the use of emotional argumentation patterns of social forgiveness and non-forgiveness regarding Gustavo Petro’s past in the M-19 movement in the context of the 2022 Colombian presidential elections.
Methodology:
An inductive media framing analysis of selected Colombian newspapers was carried out. The frames analyzed exemplify the relevance different newspapers have attributed to Petro’s past in their pre-election coverage.
Conclusions:
This analysis demonstrates that those frames that project a negative view of Petro’s past carried especially marked patterns of non-forgiveness and an accompanying delegitimization of his person and political ambitions. The negative portrayal in a particular newspaper presented clear patterns of emotional argumentation of politically ideological opposition to Petro in contrast to the media landscape in general. The other newspapers analyzed, however, revealed a predominantly neutral pattern of argumentation that paid attention to Petro’s past but did not use it judgmentally against him. In relatively few cases, the argument of social forgiveness was even used in his favor. The results show that, especially for the ideological opposition to Petro, reference to his past in the M-19 was considered a legitimate means to undermine his political ambitions. However, considering the general overall coverage of the newspapers, Petro’s past was of marginal importance.
Originality:
This analysis provides insights into how Colombian media framed the past of the current Colombian president in the M-19 during the 2022 presidential campaign, potentially influencing public opinion-making processes. The results can serve as a reference for more comprehensive analyses to better understand the role of forgiveness and non-forgiveness in the context of political discourses in post-conflict states.
... Therefore, these findings support the predictions that the sense of global social responsibility would enable individuals to act with an understanding that protects the welfare of all people. The results also revealed that outgroup-perspective taking was negatively related to negative stereotypes and intergroup anxiety toward Syrian refugees, consistent with previous studies (e.g., Andrighetto et al., 2012;Cakal et al., 2021;Cehajic et al., 2008), indicating that taking the outgroup perspective was negatively associated with negative attitudes toward outgroup members. ...
Existing literature has extensively explored attitudes toward refugees; however, to the best of our knowledge, no study has specifically examined the relationship between the sense of global social responsibility and attitudes toward refugees. Therefore, this study investigated the mediating role of outgroup perspective-taking in the relationship of the sense of global social responsibility with negative stereotypes and intergroup anxiety. The data for this study were collected from a sample of 325 participants, with 53.5% males, aged between 18 and 47 years (Mage = 28.90 ± 7.08). The findings revealed that the sense of global social responsibility was positively related to outgroup perspective-taking and inversely related to negative stereotypes and intergroup anxiety. Also, perspective-taking exhibited negative relationships with negative stereotypes and intergroup anxiety. Mediation analyses showed that the sense of global social responsibility not only directly influenced the reduction of negative stereotypes and intergroup anxiety but also indirectly affected these attitudes through increased outgroup perspective-taking. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms that can effectively mitigate negative attitudes toward refugees. Findings also highlighted the potential of the sense of global social responsibility and outgroup perspective-taking in designing intervention programs aimed at reducing negative attitudes toward outgroup members, including refugees.
... Experimental research showed that victims who received an apology from the perpetrator group perceived the outgroup as more remorseful and were more satisfied with the response, compared to victims who did not receive an apology (Philpot & Hornsey, 2008). However, when it comes to forgiveness -a key pathway to reconciliation (Cehajic, Brown & Castano, 2008) -political apology does not seem to be effective. Across a large number of studies in various intergroup contexts, whether or not the perpetrator group had delivered an apology was largely unrelated to victim group members' forgiveness of the perpetrator group (see Hornsey & Wohl, 2013, for a review). ...
Transitional justice refers to a variety of measures that aim to address large-scale or systematic human rights violations in societies emerging from repression or mass violence. This chapter reviews the interdisciplinary literature on transitional justice with a particular focus on empirical studies attempting to uncover its effects on individuals affected by violence and repression, including victims, perpetrators, and communities at large. We first consider retributive and restorative justice as two distinct notions of justice that are of primary concern in the aftermath of mass atrocities, and then zoom in on the psychological implications of major transitional justice measures. These measures include criminal trials, truth commissions, material and symbolic reparations, as well as grassroot and hybrid measures. In addition, we discuss the case of impunity, or the absence of transitional justice. Our review highlights the advantages and limitations of different transitional justice measures in promoting human rights, peace, and reconciliation, and identifies directions for future research.
... They require follow-up, engaged and continuous discussions and enabling spaces (Guerlain & Campbell, 2016). Numerous studies have outlined the potential of intergroup friendships to promote perspective-taking and empathy (Cehajic et al., 2008;Noor et al., 2008;Tam et al., 2008); however, our study highlights the potential of safe spaces to produce meaningful encounters with others who are not considered a friend. Personal experiences spending time in safe spaces with antagonist groups can change attitudes towards the outgroup while also highlighting the importance of prolonged interactions and the need to move beyond traditional victim-perpetrator dyads (Bruneau & Saxe, 2012;Ugarriza & Nussio, 2017). ...
The Colombian peace accords of 2016 involved a formal commitment to peace between the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia‐People's Army (FARC‐EP in Spanish) and the national government. Despite this advance, societal reconciliation and sustainable peace remain key challenges. Through a longitudinal qualitative design, we investigate the encounter between former guerrilla members and urban university students in a community‐based educational space in rural Colombia. Drawing on a social representational approach, we focus on youth's representations of self (students), the remote other (former guerrilla members) and peace and reconciliation as they are produced before, during and after the encounter. Participants were 24 students enrolled in a service‐learning course at an urban university in Bogotá. Data collection included written narratives, audio‐visual material, focus groups and interviews. Thematic analyses show that as urban youth meet, spend time, and share space and common activities with the former combatants, both representations and identities are transformed. These transformations in self–other understandings unsettle hegemonic narratives supporting an ethos of conflict and introduce alternative representations that prefigure the consolidation of peace‐supporting counternarratives. Our results highlight both the resilience of hegemonic narratives and the long‐term effects of small‐scale educational knowledge encounters for producing agents of peace, recognising the other and prefiguring social change. Reconciliation as process must be thus understood as the uneven development of meaningful self–other interactions
that recasts the social fabric as interdependent and builds shared intentionality for achieving sustainable peace.
... Another factor relevant to outgroup humanity is outgroup trust. Indeed, outgroup trust is critical for the development of harmonious relations between groups [36,37]. Research has shown that positive imagined contact is positively associated with outgroup trust, which in turn is related to perceived human emotions and human uniqueness [17,22]. ...
Subtle and blatant dehumanization exacerbates negative
intergroup relations while intergroup contact ameliorates them.
An emerging body of research has started to examine the link
between intergroup contact and dehumanization as a potential
method for promoting harmony and social cohesion between
different social groups. In this article, we examine how direct
and indirect contact strategies can reduce both subtle and
blatant dehumanization and how humanization can increase
willingness for contact with outgroup members. This suggests a
range of ways in which exploring contact and dehumanization
might contribute to improved intergroup relations. Last, we
explore how enhanced empathy, trust, prejudice, and inclusive
norms toward outgroups, along with lower anxiety, explain the
link between contact and dehumanization
... The findings showed that when the group membership of the target was explicitly primed, both Israelis and Palestinians rated the pain experienced by their own group members as higher [106]. In addition, empathy can be harnessed for resolving conflict as it fosters reconciliation tendencies toward the outgroup [107][108][109]. For example, a study conducted in post-conflict settings in Northern Ireland [57] found that empathy is positively linked to forgiving the outgroup. ...
Conflicts between groups are difficult to resolve, partly because humans tend to be biased in judging outgroup members. The aim of the current article is to review findings on the link between creativity and conflict-related biases and to offer a model that views creative cognition as an ability that may contribute to overcoming conflict-related biases. Our proposed model conforms to the twofold model of creativity. According to this model, creativity involves a generation phase and an evaluation phase, and these phases correspond to the neural mechanisms that underlie conflict-related biases. Specifically, we contend that the generation phase of creativity affects conflict-related biases by exerting an influence on stereotypes and prejudice, outgroup-targeted emotions, and ingroup empathy biases, all of which rely on the default mode network. Conversely, the evaluation phase of creativity, which is usually associated with activation in the executive control network and action-observation system, may be related to herding behaviors. Building on the shared mechanisms of creativity and conflicts, we propose that studies examining creativity-based interventions may be effective in promoting reconciliation.
... While the Dayton Peace Agreement of 1995 brought an end to the war, the agreement was viewed by many as codifying the political structures and constitutional amendments that resulted in divisive, identity-based politics. BiH remains a country gridlocked by ethnic segregation structurally embedded in the 1995 agreement (Čehajić et al., 2008;O'Brien, 2010) and complex layers of ethnic and religious affiliation (primarily Catholic Croat at approximately 15% of the population, Orthodox Christian Serbs at 30% of the population, and Bosniak Muslims at 50% of the population). Entrenched geographic segregation and ongoing intergroup hostilities have remained formidable challenges to peacebuilding interventions (Opacin, 2020). ...
Two studies examined how intergroup contact in Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH) corresponds with shifts in intergroup attitudes and broader construals of intergroup relations in society. In Study 1, youth in Bosnia-Herzegovina from diverse ethnic backgrounds (n = 122) responded to a survey about their contact experiences, intergroup attitudes, and perceptions of relations between ethnic groups in BiH. Study 1 demonstrated that among Bosnian youth, more frequent positive intergroup contact significantly predicted more positive attitudes toward ethnic outgroup members (e.g., outgroup trust, closeness, empathy, humanization, and willingness for future contact), but did not predict holding more positive broader construals of relations between ethnic groups in BiH (e.g., as enemies or allies). Study 2 used a pre–post design to replicate and extend these findings by evaluating the effects of a week-long “Peace Camp” Intervention that brought together youth from diverse ethnic backgrounds (n = 43). This study found that youth reported significantly more positive attitudes following the Peace Camp Intervention; however, there were no significant pre–post differences in youths’ construals of relations between ethnic groups. Taken together, these findings indicate that, in contexts of ethnic conflict, intergroup contact may have greater effects on measures that tap into intergroup attitudes toward ethnic outgroups than on measures that assess their broader construals of relations between groups in society.
... Human societies must ensure peaceful relationships between groups in order to prevent conflicts. A key neural process impacted by intergroup tensions and which is linked to prosocial behaviors and to fostering forgiveness is empathy (Bruneau et al., 2017;Cehajic et al., 2008;McCullough et al., 1997;Stephan & Finlay, 1999;Worthington et al., 2000). Empathy is a psychological construct that refers to the ability to understand and imagine what others feel. ...
Studying what factors influence the ability to resonate with the pain of others in the aftermath of a genocide and how this extends to the following generation is critical to better understand the perpetuation of conflicts. In the present study conducted in Rwanda, we recruited former genocide perpetrators and survivors, and their respective children and investigated how their neural response to the pain of others is modulated when they visualized pictures of former perpetrators or survivors, or their offspring. We further evaluated how the impact of the genocide and psychological factors associated with trauma influenced the results. Results showed that the intergroup empathy bias—that is, a reduced neural response to the pain of the outgroup—is present for both individuals alive during the genocide and their offspring. We also observed that a higher number of stressors experienced during the genocide was associated with a higher reduction of the neural response to the pain of others, even toward the children of one’s own ingroup. Finally, we observed that a deliberate and free decision to reconcile is associated with a higher neural response to the pain of others. The results may be central to encouraging reconciliation in peacebuilding programs and to fostering empathic repair after trauma.
... Empathy, for instance, has been associated with numerous measures of prosociality, including volunteerism, charitable donations (Davis, 1983), self-reported prosocial tendencies (Lockwood, Seara-Cardoso, & Viding, 2014), and helping behavior (Batson, 1991). Empathy has also been shown to be negatively related to aggression and positively related to the quality of intergroup relations (Eisenberg, Eggum, & Di Giunta, 2010;Cehajic, Brown, & Castano, 2008). Beyond correlational studies, research has also shown that experimentally inducing empathy leads to increased helping behavior, suggesting a causal role of empathy in motivating prosocial action (e.g., Batson, 1991; for a review see Castano, 2012). ...
We investigated the relationship between empathy, prosocial behavior, and frequency of humane interactions with animals among 3 rd grade children (n = 158). We measured the frequency of humane interactions with animals via the Children’s Treatment of Animals Questionnaire ( Thompson & Gullone, 2003 ), empathy via the Bryant Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents ( Bryant, 1982 ), and prosocial behavior via teachers’ evaluations of children’s helpfulness towards others in the classroom. Results showed that children who had more frequent interactions with animals that involved a strong element of companionship reported greater empathy, and that this, in turn, related positively to prosocial behavior (measured by teacher’s report). A mediational model in which empathy accounts for the effect of positive interactions with animals on prosocial behavior provides consistent, if not conclusive, support for the relationship between interacting with animals and socio-emotional development.
... Meanwhile, out-group trust can be defined as a confidence in the out-groups' behaviors and attitudes towards the in-group (Lewicki et al., 1998). Outgroup trust is critical for the development of harmonious intergroup relations and acts as moderator of intergroup contact (Cehajic et al., 2008;Tam, et al., 2009). Outgroup trust is related with feelings of transparency and certainty, and it reflects positive expectations and trust in the actions and intentions of others (Kramer & Carnevale, 2001). ...
... The authors found that increased quantity and quality of direct intergroup contact was associated with prejudice reduction. Recent studies have also shown the benefits of direct intergroup contact in post-conflict contexts, such as Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland (Tam et al., 2007) or Bosniaks and Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Cehajic, Brown and Castano, 2008). ...
Reducing social distance between communities with a previous history of violence is one of the crucial challenges in post-conflict societies. Social distance refers to the degree of understanding and intimacy between members of different groups. In this respect, this study examined the influence of direct intergroup contact, extended intergroup contact (i.e., knowing that a member of the ingroup has a positive relationship with a member of the outgroup), education and ethnicity on social distance in Kosovo. The sample of this study consisted of Kosovo Albanian (N = 125) and Serbian participants (N = 103) from ethnically mixed and non-mixed areas in Kosovo. Using hierarchical multiple regression analysis, the results show that direct intergroup contact, extended intergroup contact, ethnicity and education are significant predictors of social distance in Kosovo. Among the variables studied, ethnicity was found as the best predictor of social distance in Kosovo. Consistent with the previous findings, the study results show that increased frequency of direct intergroup contact and extended intergroup contact reduced social distance in Kosovo. Similarly, the results show that an increased level of education reduced social distance only among Albanian participants.
... Las memorias colectivas en general han sido abordadas en su vinculación con las relaciones intergrupales y sus actitudes frente al pasado, las identidades, las emociones, la transmisión intergeneracional y la influencia que el contexto actual presenta en el modo en que se valoran los acontecimientos pasados (Arnoso et al., 2015;Cehajic et al., 2008;Figueiredo et al., 2015;Marques et al., 1997). ...
La presente investigación pretendió determinar las variables que influyen en los tipos de memorias colectivas, tipificadas como memoria recuerdo, memoria manipulada y olvido, evocados por 3 lugares vinculados con la dictadura (1973-1990) en Concepción, Chile. Se utilizó un diseño de investigación cuantitativo, descriptivo, con un muestreo no probabilístico por accidente para acceder a 287 participantes de acuerdo a categorías sociodemográficas, orientación política y justificación o no del golpe de Estado en Chile. El instrumento se aplicó en la calle en 3 lugares, 2 considerados de memoria, Memorial de la Universidad de Concepción y el frontis de la Catedral, y un lugar de olvido, el ex cuartel Bahamondes. Se realizaron análisis de Chi cuadrado, Kruskal Wallis, post hoc de Mann Whitney con la corrección de Bonferroni y regresiones logísticas. Predominaron los tipos de memoria recuerdo (47%), en segundo lugar, el olvido (37%) y, finalmente, la memoria manipulada (16%). Las memorias tipo recuerdo se asociaron con ser joven, de orientación política de izquierda ( = 0,29) o no justificar el golpe de Estado (V de Cramer = 0,18). Los lugares de memoria se asociaron más con el tipo de memoria recuerdo, en comparación con el lugar de olvido ( = 0,19). Las memorias recuerdo fueron más frecuentes en la Universidad de Concepción y menos en el ex cuartel Bahamondes. Las conclusiones consideran la relevancia de promover procesos de memoria centrados en el recuerdo ante la amenaza del olvido.
... Usually, the first educational environment Arabs and Jewish students would meet at would be university, with many Jewish students meeting Arabs prior to that in their capacity as soldiers. Contact theory would suggest that this lack of contact in individuals' formative years can have adverse consequences for intergroup relations (Cehajic et al. 2008). ...
There are two main paradigms regarding political socialization. The early-years-of-life hypothesis emphasizes the importance of political socialization in the early years, while the life-long hypothesis argues that political socialization is shaped continuously throughout life. The literature on the topic concentrates on seminal events and their impact on political socialization. In this study, we examined these hypotheses in the unique context of Arab teachers in Jewish schools in Israel. The teachers spoke about the culture of silence about politics that characterized their childhood and their inhibitions regarding engaging in politics. Entering work in a predominantly Jewish environment highlighted the social mechanisms and minority–majority power relations that preserve Arab citizens’ political oppression. The teachers all indicated a process by which they become more politically aware, while their willingness to be politically active varies. The political dialogue between the Jewish and Arab teachers begins hesitantly but increases with time. The findings demonstrate political socialization as a life-long process that is shaped by everyday contact with the majority group and not only by historical/seminal events. It is demonstrated that schools cannot be sterilized from political influences, and the potential of Arab teachers in Jewish schools in defusing the polarization in Israeli society is emphasized.
The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide a unified framework to address interconnected global issues, emphasizing the need for collective action across all sectors of society to achieve a sustainable future for all. In this paper, we empirically investigate how knowledge (awareness of global issues), cognitive skills (critical inquiry), and socio-emotional skills (cognitive empathy) relate to engagement towards global issues, and whether global citizenship identification mediates these relationships. Mediation analysis of data from 249 participants revealed that both awareness of global issues and cognitive empathy directly predict higher engagement levels. In contrast, no direct effect of critical inquiry was observed. Global citizenship identification significantly mediated the relationships between all three predictors and engagement: accounting for 70.7% of the effect of critical inquiry, 39.9% of the effect of awareness, and 33.6% of the effect of cognitive empathy. Our findings highlight that global citizenship identification plays a crucial role in translating knowledge and skills into active engagement. The results highlight the potential effectiveness of identity-based interventions in fostering more engaged communities and advancing efforts toward achieving the SDGs.
Existing research examining the creation of positive and prosocial interpersonal relations has established moral elevation as an approach-oriented emotion to be associated with a range of positive and prosocial outcomes. In this article and with the goal to identify emotional mechanism for improving intergroup relations in contexts of conflict, we examined the effects of moral elevation on enhancing intergroup relations. Across four experimental studies (Ns = 1,131), conducted in four understudied countries directly affected or threatened by intergroup conflict, we demonstrated that induced moral elevation elicits important cognitive and emotional shifts toward adversarial groups, resulting in improved intergroup relations. Specifically, we show that inducing moral elevation through stories of outgroup moral exemplars (individuals who have risked their life to save the life of an outgroup member) enhanced perceptions of intergroup moral similarity and positive emotions toward the outgroup, consequently fostering greater approach and prosocial intergroup behaviors. This pattern proved consistent across four distinct contexts: nonconflict (Sweden), ongoing conflict (Pakistan), protracted conflict (Serbia), and postconflict (Bosnia and Herzegovina). This article advances existing theory on positive emotions by identifying a novel emotional mechanism conducive to improving intergroup relations in contexts of conflict and extends the impact of learning about exemplary moral behaviors performed by relevant others. Ultimately, this article underscores the relevance of moral elevation in mitigating intergroup conflicts using intergroup interventions.
In November 2021, Turkey’s Republican People’s Party (CHP) leader, Kılıçdaroğlu,1 shared a video via Twitter in which he made a call for helalleşme2 to Turkish society. While the repercussions of the call have been reflected differently within the political spectrum in Turkish society, this study investigates how social cohesion and reconciliation are envisaged and addressed by the main opposition party. It does this through a discursive analysis of Kılıçdaroğlu’s speeches released since his helalleşme call that builds upon theoretical discussions about reconciliation and intergroup forgiveness. Research on reconciliation and intergroup forgiveness literature associated with the Turkish case mainly revolves around the Turkish government’s or Turkish nationalists’ approach to ethnic minorities, such as the Kurdish question. However, studies investigating the stance of the main opposition party concerning the debate about fragmentation within Turkish society are very limited. Therefore, this study will aim to fill this gap. To thematically analyze the underlying messages of and motivation for the discourses, it will employ the discourse historical approach (DHA). In this way, the current study will contribute empirically to the relevant literature.
This Special Issue editorial explores perspectives on intergroup reconciliation and its underlying processes in post‐conflict societies, emphasizing the importance of four key themes: 1) victimhood, 2) acknowledgment, 3) forgiveness, and 4) intergroup contact. After presenting the state of the art in reconciliation research, we present the individual contributions in this Special Issue, and we link them to the four key themes. We end this editorial by setting out an agenda for future research, underscoring the timeliness and relevance of reconciliation efforts in today's world. By offering insights into evidence‐based interventions and practical strategies for promoting positive intergroup relations, this Special Issue hopes to contribute to the broader discourse on peacebuilding and social cohesion in post‐conflict societies.
Prior research recognizes intergroup emotions as crucial for intergroup attitudes and interactions, but the psychological mechanisms linking prior intergroup interactions to contact intentions remain incompletely understood. This study investigated the joint effects and interplay of Chinese students' positive and negative contact on behavioural intentions to interact with international students in the future. Six affective variables (fear, anger, anxiety, empathy, happiness, and trust) were tested as mediators. Results revealed that positive contact directly predicted stronger contact willingness and indirectly affected this variable through lower levels of fear, anger, and anxiety and higher levels of empathy, happiness, and trust. Negative contact, however, was negatively associated with positive emotions and contact willingness and predicted more negative emotions. All intergroup emotions played significant mediating roles in the relationship between intergroup contact and willingness for future contact, and anxiety, fear, and trust emerged as robust mediators. Notably, positive contact had larger effects as compared to negative contact. Moreover, no association was observed between negative contact and intergroup emotions when positive contact was frequent. However, when both positive and negative contact were at higher levels, positive contact emerged as a more influential predictor of all intergroup emotions. This research emphasizes examining both positive and negative contact and affective variables as contact mediators, shedding light on enhancing contact intentions.
Societies with history of past conflict are frequently segregated, thus lacking opportunities for direct contact with former adversaries that could improve the troubled intergroup relations. In such contexts, reconciliation and behavior toward former adversaries can be rather guided by social norms, both descriptive (i.e., awareness about interactions between the ingroup and former adversaries) and injunctive (i.e., perceived liking of the former adversary). Focusing on the conflict in Kosovo, we considered the perspective of both Albanians (N = 220;) and Serbs (N = 129;) to test the links between social norms (both descriptive and injunctive, as well as their interaction) and outcomes related to reconciliation and behavioral intentions toward former adversaries (i.e., trust, forgiveness, support for reparations, social distance, willingness to engage in contact with, and to help former adversaries). In both samples, positive and negative descriptive norms were related to all outcomes (except for trust in Albanians) in the expected direction. Ingroup injunctive norms (i.e., perceived liking of the outgroup by the ingroup) were associated with greater support for reconciliation (except for trust) and more positive behavioral intentions in Albanians. Outgroup injunctive norms (i.e., perceived liking of the ingroup by the outgroup) were positively associated with all outcomes in Serbs and with social distance and willingness to engage in contact in Albanians. While descriptive norms were linked to reconciliatory outcomes in both samples, ingroup injunctive norms guided reconciliation and behavior in Albanians and outgroup injunctive norms in Serbs. Our results underscore the importance of considering the perspective of distinct sides of past conflicts for more generalizable results regarding reconciliation.
In March 2021, Serbia made the unprecedented announcement to offer free Covid-19 vaccination to citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and notably to Bosniaks, against whom three decades earlier Serbia had waged a bloody war. How was this policy appraised and, most importantly, did the policy appraisal impact reconciliation? We report here the results of a longitudinal investigation amid a representative sample of Bosniak youth (N = 450). Results suggest that a positive appraisal of this actual, state-level policy, predicted improvement on a series of intergroup reconciliation indicators (e.g., trust in the out-group, forgiveness for past violence, hope for future relationship), particularly so amid those who are strongly attached to their Bosniak in-group.
Across two studies, this research examined belief that reconciliation is necessary, belief that reconciliation is possible and belief in the value of social integration and willingness to integrate socially among Kosovar Albanians and Kosovar Serbs. Study 1 assessed these beliefs through a general population survey distributed via social media, whereas Study 2 assessed them before and after Kosovar youth participated in a program encouraging cross‐ethnic contact. Results show that these beliefs are modestly correlated and they show significant differences across ethnic groups. As the ethnic minority in Kosovo, Serbs are less likely to believe that reconciliation is possible and less willing to integrate socially than Kosovar Albanians. Moreover, across both studies, contact experience is a significant predictor of reconciliation beliefs regardless of ethnicity. Study 2 revealed that Kosovar youth can become more likely to believe that reconciliation is possible and social integration is valuable through participating in a cross‐ethnic contact program.
The Cambridge Handbook of the Psychology of Prejudice aims to answer the questions: why is prejudice so persistent? How does it affect people exposed to it? And what can we do about it? Providing a comprehensive examination of prejudice from its evolutionary beginnings and environmental influences through to its manifestations and consequences, this handbook is an essential resource for scholars and students who are passionate about understanding prejudice, social change, collective action, and prejudice reduction. Featuring cutting-edge research from top scholars in the field, the chapters provide an overview of psychological models of prejudice; investigate prejudice in specific domains such as race, religion, gender, and appearance; and develop explicit, evidence-based strategies for disrupting the processes that produce and maintain prejudice. This handbook challenges researchers and readers to move beyond their comfort zone, and sets the agenda for future avenues of research, policy, and intervention.
In the past decade, scholars have begun to look at the role of intergroup forgiveness in reducing conflict and improving prospects for maintaining and strengthening peace between groups of peoples. The construct of forgiveness, until recently, was mainly characterized as an individual phenomenon. It is important to study the process of forgiveness between groups or peoples affected by past conflicts, both on a symbolic and physical level. Post-conflict intergroup forgiveness depends on the processes of social identity, collective guilt and shame, intergroup contact, group emotions and is supported by the development of positive attitudes. The interpretation of events affects the process of forgiveness. It is important to explore the historical context and consequences of various historical events. Our article deals with a specific example, which means forgiveness of one group of another group. The social context includes the historical conflict over the discrimination of European Jews in Germany on ethnic grounds. Based on the analysis of the social context, it is possible to try to make a forecast regarding the prospects for intergroup forgiveness between representatives of the two peoples, which today is still relevant due to the growth of nationalist sentiments in the world. Thus, paying attention to the social context will allow us to analyze both the role of interpersonal forgiveness in the historical context and its contribution to explaining and exploring differences in intergroup forgiveness.
Stories about moral exemplars can provide crucial information about the moral heterogeneity of social groups involved in the conflict. This article addresses the role of moral exemplars narratives in changing perceptions of violent historic intergroup conflicts. We propose that two central outcomes of such interventions make them potentially an effective approach for improving intergroup relations in situations of violent intergroup conflict: (1) facilitation of intergroup contact and (2) increasing reconciliatory attitudes. Although most of the existing research on moral exemplars is focused on their positive outcomes, we suggest that moral exemplars might also have destructive consequences: they could be misused to gain an advantage in an intergroup conflict and might stress the immorality of the non‐helping majority. By integrating these two possibilities, we propose a curvilinear model of the effects of moral exemplars narratives in post‐conflict reconciliation and resolution of violent conflicts.
Research on common-ingroup identity has mainly focused on consequences and potential benefits of inclusive social cate-gorizations. However, very little is yet known about processes and conditions that could facilitate such inclusive social cate-gorizations. In this paper, with four studies (N = 582) set in a post-conflict context of Bosnia and Herzegovina and with members of two ethnic groups (Bosniaks and Serbs), we have demonstrated how perceptions of intergroup moral similarity can act as an important precursor of common-ingroup identity at the national level. We report both cross-sectional as well as experimental evidence demonstrating how perceptions of intergroup moral similarity boost common-ingroup identifications in socially relevant context using members of real adversary social groups. Moreover, we show that learning about outgroups' morally admirable behaviours can facilitate inclusive social categorizations. K E Y W O R D S common-ingroup identity, groups' morality, intergroup conflict, intergroup perceptions, moral exemplars
Bake-prozesuak garatzeko justizia trantsizionalak proposatzen dituen hainbat neurri erabil ditzakegu. Ikerketa honek Latinoamerikan azken hamarkada hauetan gertatutakoaz hausnartzea du helburu, haien esperientziatikikasgaiak ateratzeko asmotan. 4.899 inkestaren bitartez, 5 herrialdetako biztanleen iritziak jaso dira. Emaitzak aztertuta, honako neurri hauek adiskidetzeko bidean paper garrantzitsua jokatzen dutela ondoriozta dezakegu: iragana eta indarkeriaren garaia jorratzea funtsezkoa da eta, nahiz eta emozio negatiboak azaleratu, indarkeriaren biktimengan batik bat, hedatutako neurrien eraginkortasunean eragin handia du. Gainera, neurriok eraginkorrak direla sumatzen denean, giro soziala hobetzen dute, elkartasuna eta erakundeenganako konfiantza berrituz.
Purpose
Despite the end of conflict in 1995, Bosnia–Herzegovina still suffers from unresolved ethnic and social tensions, where fostering social cohesion, active citizenship and mitigating ethnonationalist tensions and politically motivated violence remains among the main goals to achieve transformative peace. This paper, based on quantitative analyses of 3,637 adult respondents, shows that the tendency of Bosnians to be active or violent citizens sometimes overlaps and are not very distinct patterns of behaviour. The purpose of this paper is to identify factors that differentiate pathways and help explain (un)civil civic behaviours and inform the work of peace and development actors.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper is based on a quantitative household survey conducted with a representative sample of 3,637 adults in Bosnia and by using a wide range of statistical tools from scaling to correlation analysis. This data set measures factors and conceptual notions associated with passive, constructive and aggressive civic tendencies and social cohesion in a nuanced way by using different metrics and scales. The survey was designed and conducted by The Centre for Sustainable Peace and Democratic Development (SeeD) and the Bosnia–Herzegovina Resilience Initiative in 2020, in partnership with The United States Agency for International Development (USAID)/The Office of Transition Initiatives (OTI) and The International Organization for Migration (IOM) for the SCORE Bosnia–Herzegovina study (SeeD, 2020).
Findings
Overall, the factors that were discovered to be linked to the manifestation of constructive and aggressive civic tendencies are multidimensional, and range from intergroup relations (e.g. tension, tolerance) to political and civic attitudes (e.g. ethnonationalism, civic responsibility, gender equality), from individual traits (e.g. education, economic stress) to the media landscape (e.g. information consumption). While the empirical evidence shows that some of these factors can push citizens towards both active and violent civic behaviours simultaneously, this study identifies and distinguishes those that can reduce aggressive civic tendencies while increasing constructive civic tendencies.
Practical implications
This paper proposes a replicable approach and evidence-based conclusions which can help validate the theories of change for the peace and development actors to ensure that scarce peacebuilding resources are invested where the impact is greatest, and the actors can protect the sanctity of their responsibility to do no harm.
Social implications
This paper seeks to provide a robust empirical understanding for more effective policy-making and programming that can support Bosnia–Herzegovina’s endogenous resilience against socio-political shocks and transformative peace trajectory. This paper seeks to demonstrate how peace and development actors can build and use an evidence-base for understanding civic behaviours and as a result formulate tailored efforts with greater likelihood of impact. This would help fulfil commitments towards sustainable development goals and the 2030 global agenda (UN General Assembly, 2015).
Originality/value
This study contributes insights to the emerging literature at the nexus of peacebuilding, individual skills/attitudes and civic behaviour. While the conclusions are highly contextual, the methodology is informed by multidisciplinary literature and is replicable in other post-conflict and non-conflict contexts, and thus can be used for cross-country comparisons and theory building around civic activism and constructive citizenship. The approach distinguishes between passive citizens, constructive activists, aggressive activists and purely violent citizens. This study discovers that the bifurcation is between passive citizens and active citizens, and although constructive and aggressive civic tendencies might be theorised to be contradictory, they overlap and tend to co-occur.
Four correlational studies (N Albanians = 232, N Serbs = 129, N Bosniaks = 147, N Croats = 367) and one experimental study (N Bosniaks = 682), investigated the link between mass-mediated contact (i.e., information about former adversaries from the mass media) and forgiveness towards former adversaries in post-conflict societies. Specifically, we tested the association between positive and negative mass-mediated contact with one former adversary and forgiveness towards this former adversary (i.e., a primary transfer effect, Studies 1-4) and another former adversary (i.e., a secondary transfer effect, Studies 2-4). Positive mass-mediated contact with one former adversary was linked to greater forgiveness towards that former adversary and another former adversary. Intergroup trust mediated the primary transfer effect of positive mass-mediated contact, whereas generalization of trust and forgiveness from one former adversary to another mediated the secondary transfer effect. Our results underline the important role of positive but not negative mass-mediated contact with former adversaries in reconciliation.
Using 3 experiments, the authors explored the role of perspective-taking in debiasing social thought. In the 1st 2 experiments, perspective-taking was contrasted with stereotype suppression as a possible strategy for achieving stereotype control. In Experiment 1, perspective-taking decreased stereotypic biases on both a conscious and a nonconscious task. In Experiment 2, perspective-taking led to both decreased stereotyping and increased overlap between representations of the self and representations of the elderly, suggesting activation and application of the self-concept in judgments of the elderly. In Experiment 3, perspective-taking reduced evidence of in-group bias in the minimal group paradigm by increasing evaluations of the out-group. The role of self–other overlap in producing prosocial outcomes and the separation of the conscious, explicit effects from the nonconscious, implicit effects of perspective-taking are discussed.
Two experiments examined the possibility that perspective taking leads observers to create cognitive representations of others that substantially overlap with the observers' own self-representations. In Experiment 1 observers receiving role-taking instructions were more likely to ascribe traits to a novel target that they (observers) had earlier indicated were self-descriptive. This pattern was most pronounced, however, for positively valenced traits. In Experiment 2 some participants received role-taking instructions but were also given a distracting memory task. In the absence of this task, role taking again produced greater overlap—primarily for positive traits—between self- and target representations. In the presence of the memory task, the degree of self-target overlap was significantly reduced for all traits, regardless of valence. Possible explanations for these findings are discussed.
Recategorization at a higher level reduces tensions between groups. However, recategorization may cause conflicts between the common in-group and a new out-group. Additionally, determinants of conflict between subgroups may enhance conflict at the higher categorization level. In the context of German unification, the authors explored these suggestions with an East German 3-wave longitudinal study and a West German control group. Results show that a salient East German versus West German categorization enhances conflict between subgroups, whereas categorization as German enhances conflict at the common in-group level. Determinants of subgroup conflict also influence conflict at the inclusive level (Germans and foreigners). Thus, recategorization is a 2-edged instrument: Although it reduces conflict at the subgroup level, it may initiate conflict at the common in-group level.
In the present chapter, we move away from the traditional focus on the outgroup encountered in the literature on intergroup relations and argue that the ingroup is psychologically primary. We build upon the notion of entitativity first proposed by Campbell (1958) and suggest that entitative ingroups meet basic needs related to group membership better than less coherent ingroups. We provide initial support for the privileged status of entitative ingroups by reviewing contemporary research on group homogeneity. Next, we report on a research program showing that social identification and ingroup entitativity go hand in hand. First, we address the influence of ingroup identification on group entitativity in such phenomena as the “black sheep” effect and ingroup overexclusion. Second, we examine the impact of ingroup entitativity on social identification. We conclude by proposing that ingroup entitativity may also be related to a feeling of efficacy which need not produce conflict and discrimination toward outgroups. Globally, the accumulated evidence strongly suggests that the perception of ingroup entitativity plays a key role in intra- and intergroup relations.One's own family is an ingroup; and by definition all other families on the street are outgroups; but seldom d o they clash… One knows that one's lodge has distinctive characteristics that mark it off from all others, but one does not necessarily despise the others. The situation it seems can best be stated as follows: although we could not perceive our own ingroups excepting as they contrast to outgroups, still the ingroups are psychologically primary. We live in them, by them, and sometimes, for them. Hostility toward outgroups helps strengthen our sense of belonging, but it is not required (Allport, 1954, pp. 40–41).
Three studies explored intergroup attributional bias. In Exp 1, Muslims (majority) and Hindus (minority) in Bangladesh rated their explanations of in-group and out-group members' positive and negative acts on 4 causal dimensions: locus, stability, controllability by others, and globality. Both groups showed in-group-favoring attributions, but only Muslims were out-group derogating. Causal dimensions predicted affects primarily in in-group-outcome conditions. Exp 2 showed that this bias for Muslims varied across crossed-categorization conditions. Causal dimensions predicted affect and self-esteem in certain conditions. Exp 3 showed that this bias for Hindus was accentuated when social categorizations were made salient. These studies increase understanding of the determinants and consequences of the bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Hypothesized that an observer's tendency to generalize from the behavior of a specific group member to the group as a whole is proportional to the observer's perception of the group's homogeneity, at least when the observer lacks a clear preconception on the behavioral dimension witnessed. 95 undergraduates from 2 rival universities viewed target persons alleged to be students either at their own university or its rival. Each of 3 such target persons made a simple decision within a different decision scenario. After observing the decision made, each S made estimates of the percentage of people likely to make the same decision in the parent group. The results confirm the main predictions: (a) Percentage estimates tended to be consistent with the target person's decision; (b) the degree of consistency was greater for out-group than for in-group target persons; and (c) both of these effects were clearest for the decision scenario where Ss' preconceptions about the most likely decision were weakest. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews literature relevant to the out-group homogeneity effect. The review assesses whether the effect emerges in both natural- and minimal-group contexts. Data relevant to the out-group homogeneity effects are examined for 3 types of dependent measures. Whereas strong support for the effect is obtained across all measures in natural-group settings, no consistent effect is observed in minimal-group settings. Some theories (need-based motives, salience of self, and generalized homogeneity beliefs) predict the occurrence of the effect in both natural and minimal groups, whereas others (group-specific homogeneity beliefs and information encoding and retrieval) predict the occurrence of the effect only for natural groups. The question of whether conditions exist under which the out-group homogeneity can be produced in the minimal-group setting is addressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The impact of the history of one's own group's treatment of another group on feelings of collective guilt and behavioral reactions to this guilt were examined in 2 studies. In a laboratory experiment it was shown that it is possible to elicit feelings of group-based guilt and that those are distinct from feelings of personal guilt. In a 2nd study, a field experiment, low-identified group members acknowledged the negative aspects of their own nation's history and felt more guilt compared with high identifiers when both negative and positive aspects of their nation's history were made salient. Perceptions of intragroup variability and out-group compensation closely paralleled the interactive pattern on guilt. Links between social identity theory and the experience of specific emotions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies are reported which examined potential mediators of the effects of collective guilt and shame on reparation attitudes. Samples of young Bosnian Serbs (Ns = 173, 247) were asked to report their feelings of guilt and shame for what their group had done during the 1992–1995 war in Bosnia Herzegovina. They also reported their attitudes towards making reparation to Bosnian Muslims. Both collective guilt and shame positively predicted reparation attitudes, but these associations were differently mediated. The effects of guilt were mediated by empathy for the outgroup, while the effects of shame were mediated by self-pity and empathy. The theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
We examined the influence of perceived group variability on the use of stereotypes to gather information about individual group members. Participants provided judgments indicating how variable and how negatively they perceived Blacks in the United States. Then, more than 2 months later in an ostensibly unrelated study, the same participants generated questions concerning ambiguously aggressive behaviors performed by Black and White schoolchildren. Overall, participants who perceived Blacks to be more dispersed asked about a wider range of attributes and expressed greater uncertainty about the responses they expected to receive to the questions they generated. These effects were independent of the effects of prejudice, which was associated with increased certainty.
Using questionnaire data concerning perceptions of the European Community (EC) in Scotland and Andalucia we explored how the EC is perceived, and a European identification adopted as a function of the salience of these ‘regional’ identities. Drawing on the work concerning the concept of ‘comparative identity’ (Ros, Cano & Huici, 1987) it is argued that disidentification with the ‘nation-state’ (i.e. Britain and Spain respectively) is a useful way of measuring the salience of such regional identities in the self/concept. We predicted that such identities would be more salient in Scotland than in Andalucia and that in Scotland the salience of subjects' regional identities would be associated with beliefs concerning the need for strategies of regional empowerment in its relation to the nation (Britain). We further predicted that the EC would be judged as a function of this comparative identity so that in Scotland (but not in Andalucia), a European identification would be associated with what may be called ‘social change’ beliefs (e.g. beliefs concerning the need for changing aspects of the region's relationship with the nation). Supportive evidence is found for all these predictions. However, no support was found for our prediction of a correlation between the Scots' regional identification and their European identification. The paper concludes with a discussion of the utility of the concept of comparative identity. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This study examined the impact of the acculturation strategy preferences of both immigrants and host society on intergroup relations. It was expected that integration would lead to the best outcome for both groups. Moreover, it was tested whether the relative ‘fit’ between host society and immigrant strategy preference would predict intergroup relations. The predictive power of two different operationalisations of fit was compared. School students (193 German host society members and 128 immigrants to Germany) participated in a questionnaire study. Findings revealed that both acculturation strategies of one group and relative ‘fit’ between immigrant and host society strategy preference were predictive of intergroup relations. In general, a strategy of integration was associated with more favourable intergroup relations in both groups, and a mismatch between host and immigrant preferred strategies yielded the most negative outcomes. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Participants were instructed to organize information about group members either by distinguishing stereotype-consistent from stereotype-inconsistent individuals (subtyping instructions), by dividing the individuals into multiple groups on the basis of similarities and differences (subgrouping instructions), or with no explicit organizing instructions. Participants given the subtyping instructions showed greater perceived stereotypicality and homogeneity and perceived a greater difference in how typical the confirming versus disconfirming group members were, relative to subgroup participants. Study 2 demonstrated natural variation among participants in the perceived atypicality of the disconfirming relative to confirming individuals when learning about a gay activist group. Atypicality predicted perceptions of this group, even when prejudice and strength of stereotyping toward gays as a whole were statistically controlled.
Two studies explored 6 models of crossed categorization. In Experiment 1, Muslims (majority) and Hindus (minority) in Bangladesh evaluated 1 of 4 target groups created by crossing religion (Hindu or Muslim) and nationality (Bangladeshi or Indian) and then rated the target group's perceived variability. Experiment 2 was an extension of the research, including new measures. Both studies showed additive effects of religion and nationality, as predicted by 3 models, a strong effect of category dominance for religion, and out-group homogeneity only when the religious in-group was the dominant and majority group in its country. Experiment 2 also showed a significant relationship between discrimination based on religion and self-esteem and marginal support for the hierarchical ordering model. When and how specific models of crossed categorization might operate in different intergroup contexts are discussed.
Results of 3 experiments suggest that feeling empathy for a member of a stigmatized group can improve attitudes toward the group as a whole. In Experiments 1 and 2, inducing empathy for a young woman with AIDS (Experiment 1) or a homeless man (Experiment 2) led to more positive attitudes toward people with AIDS or toward the homeless, respectively. Experiment 3 tested possible limits of the empathy-attitude effect by inducing empathy toward a member of a highly stigmatized group, convicted murderers, and measuring attitudes toward this group immediately and then 1-2 weeks later. Results provided only weak evidence of improved attitudes toward murderers immediately but strong evidence of improved attitudes 1-2 weeks later.
Forgiving is a motivational transformation that inclines people to inhibit relationship-destructive responses and to behave constructively toward someone who has behaved destructively toward them. The authors describe a model of forgiveness based on the hypothesis that people forgive others to the extent that they experience empathy for them. Two studies investigated the empathy model of forgiveness. In Study 1, the authors developed measures of empathy and forgiveness. The authors found evidence consistent with the hypotheses that (a) the relationship between receiving an apology from and forgiving one's offender is a function of increased empathy for the offender and (b) that forgiving is uniquely related to conciliatory behavior and avoidance behavior toward the offending partner. In Study 2, the authors conducted an intervention in which empathy was manipulated to examine the empathy-forgiving relationship more closely. Results generally supported the conceptualization of forgiving as a motivational phenomenon and the empathy-forgiving link.
Using 3 experiments, the authors explored the role of perspective-taking in debiasing social thought. In the 1st 2 experiments, perspective-taking was contrasted with stereotype suppression as a possible strategy for achieving stereotype control. In Experiment 1, perspective-taking decreased stereotypic biases on both a conscious and a nonconscious task. In Experiment 2, perspective-taking led to both decreased stereotyping and increased overlap between representations of the self and representations of the elderly, suggesting activation and application of the self-concept in judgments of the elderly. In Experiment 3, perspective-taking reduced evidence of in-group bias in the minimal group paradigm by increasing evaluations of the out-group. The role of self-other overlap in producing prosocial outcomes and the separation of the conscious, explicit effects from the nonconscious, implicit effects of perspective-taking are discussed.
Two contact studies integrated the personalization (M. B. Brewer & N. Miller, 1984) and category-based models (M. Hewstone & R. J. Brown. 1986), proposing that greater reduction of intergroup bias can be achieved by the interactive effects of disclosure and typicality (Study 1) or disclosure and salience (Study 2). In Study 1 the impact of self-disclosure and typicality combined interactively to augment intergroup acceptance. Study 2 extended these findings by examining the combined effects of disclosure and category salience. It also explored the mediational roles of group-relevant and person-relevant information on the effects of typicality and disclosure, respectively. Results showed that during cooperative dyadic out-group contact, self-disclosure, typicality, and salience were key factors for reducing bias toward new members of that out-group category.
Recent evidence suggests that both direct and indirect friendship with outgroup members (knowledge of ingroup members' friendship with outgroup members) can reduce prejudice toward the outgroup. Two surveys of cross-community relationships in Northern Ireland, using a student sample (N = 341) and a representative sample of the general population (N = 735), tested whether (a) direct and indirect friendships had generalized effects on both prejudice and perceived outgroup variability and (b) reduced anxiety about future encounters with outgroup members mediated such relationships. Structural equation modeling confirmed that, in both samples, direct and indirect cross-group friendships between Catholics and Protestants were associated with reduced prejudice toward the religious outgroup and increased perceived outgroup variability, via an anxiety-reduction mechanism. It is argued that emerging generalization hypotheses help to integrate both cognition and affect and interpersonal and intergroup approaches to contact.
Two studies tested the intergroup contact hypothesis in the context of the grandparent-grandchild relationship. The hypothesis suggests that contact with an out-group member has more influence on attitudes toward the out-group when group memberships are salient. In Study 1, the predicted link was found but only for grandparents with whom the grandchild had more frequent contact. The second study examined only the most frequent grandparent relationship and replicated the effect. This study also investigated the role of various mediators of the link between quality of contact and attitudes, as well as quality of contact and perceived out-group variability. Perspective taking, anxiety, and accommodation mediated the effects of contact on attitudes, whereas individuation and self-disclosure mediated the effects of contact on perceived out-group variability. Moderated mediational analysis indicated that the moderating effect of group salience occurs between quality of contact and the mediator, not between the mediator and attitudes.
The authors examined how categorization influences victimized group members' responses to contemporary members of a historical perpetrator group. Specifically, the authors tested whether increasing category inclusiveness--from the intergroup level to the maximally inclusive human level--leads to greater forgiveness of a historical perpetrator group and decreased collective guilt assignment for its harmdoing. Among Jewish North Americans (Experiments 1, 2, and 4) and Native Canadians (Experiment 3) human-level categorization resulted in more positive responses toward Germans and White Canadians, respectively, by decreasing the uniqueness of their past harmful actions toward the in-group. Increasing the inclusiveness of categorization led to greater forgiveness and lessened expectations that former out-group members should experience collective guilt compared with when categorization was at the intergroup level. Discussion focuses on obstacles that are likely to be encountered on the road to reconciliation between groups that have a history of conflictual relations.
Past research has revealed that forgiveness promotes prosocial cognition, feeling, and behavior toward the offender. The present research extends this research by examining whether forgiveness may spill over beyond the relationship with the offender, promoting generalized prosocial orientation. Consistent with hypotheses, three studies revealed that forgiveness compared to unforgiveness is generally associated with higher levels of a generalized prosocial orientation, as indicated by higher levels of a we frame of mind (as indicated by a greater use of first-person plural pronouns, e.g., we, us, in a language task) and greater feelings of relatedness toward others in general. Moreover, forgiveness (vs. unforgiveness) was even associated with greater probability of donating to charity and greater willingness to engage in volunteering. Finally, the authors found that unforgiveness reduces tendencies toward generalized prosocial orientation, whereas forgiveness restores generalized prosocial orientation to baseline levels within the relationship.
Emotion can result from interpreting group actions as reflecting on the self due to an association between the two. This volume considers the nature of collective guilt, the antecedent conditions necessary for it to be experienced, how it can be measured, as well as how collective guilt differs from other group based emotions. Research from Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, and the USA addresses critical questions concerning the who, when, and why of the experience of collective guilt. The political implications of collective guilt and forgiveness for the past are considered, and how those might depend on the national context. How collective guilt can be harnessed and used to create a more peaceful future for groups with a history of violence between then is emphasized.
The investigators proposed that transgression-related interpersonal motivations result from 3 psychological parameters: forbearance (abstinence from avoidance and revenge motivations, and maintenance of benevolence), trend forgiveness (reductions in avoidance and revenge, and increases in benevolence), and temporary forgiveness (transient reductions in avoidance and revenge, and transient increases in benevolence). In 2 studies, the investigators examined this 3-parameter model. Initial ratings of transgression severity and empathy were directly related to forbearance but not trend forgiveness. Initial responsibility attributions were inversely related to forbearance but directly related to trend forgiveness. When people experienced high empathy and low responsibility attributions, they also tended to experience temporary forgiveness. The distinctiveness of each of these 3 parameters underscores the importance of studying forgiveness temporally.
Emotion can result from interpreting group actions as reflecting on the self due to an association between the two. This volume considers the nature of collective guilt, the antecedent conditions necessary for it to be experienced, how it can be measured, as well as how collective guilt differs from other group based emotions. Research from Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, and the USA addresses critical questions concerning the who, when, and why of the experience of collective guilt. The political implications of collective guilt and forgiveness for the past are considered, and how those might depend on the national context. How collective guilt can be harnessed and used to create a more peaceful future for groups with a history of violence between then is emphasized.
This paper focuses on a questionnaire study of national and European identities in the UK and Italy, as manifested by university students. British respondents often perceive European integration as a threat to British identity. Evidence for a sense of European identity amongst British respondents is minimal: this is reflected in significantly higher levels of national than European identity amongst British respondents, and use of discursive strategies emphasizing the perceived threat to national identity posed by European integration. British and European identity measures are negatively correlated. In contrast, for the Italian respondents, overall European identity is significantly stronger than Italian national identity on quantitative measures. Italian Euro-identity is significantly stronger than British Euro-identity on quantitative measures, and is positively correlated with measures of Italian identity. These observations are interpreted within the broad framework provided by Moscovici's theory of social representations (Moscovici, 1984) and Tajfel's social identity theory (Tajfel, 1974).
Two experiments yielded further evidence for the ingroup homogeneity effect (Kelly, C., 1989. Political identity and perceived intragroup homogeneity. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 28, 239–250; Simon, B., 1992. The perception of ingroup and outgroup homogeneity: reintroducing the intergroup context. In: Stroebe, W., Hewstone, M. (Eds.), Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. Vol. 3. Wiley, Chichester; Simon, B., Brown, R., 1987. Perceived intragroup homogeneity in minority-majority contexts. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 12, 463–468.). In the first experiment, with the aim of investigating the effect of the context of judgment, we asked psychology students to judge the variability of psychologists or of social workers (one-group conditions) or to judge both groups (two-group condition) on dimensions typical of psychologists and on dimensions typical of social workers. As predicted, whereas an ingroup homogeneity effect was found for the dimensions typical of the ingroup in the two-group condition, no asymmetry in perception of group variability emerged in the one-group conditions. In the second experiment, we examined the effect of ingroup identification in an explicit intergroup situation. In line with predictions, high identifiers perceived greater homogeneity in the ingroup than in the outgroup. In contrast, low identifiers displayed the opposite tendency. The impact of context and social identification on group entitativity is considered in its cognitive and motivational aspects.
This study tested an integrative model of how dimensions of contact (quantitative, qualitative, and intergroup) are related to intergroup anxiety, perceived out-group variability, and out group attitude. Data were collected in a field study of minority (Hindu) and majority (Muslim) religious groups in Bangladesh. Path analysis revealed that dimensions of contact were significant predictors of all three criterion variables, although different dimensions emerged as predictors in each case, and there were some interactions with subjects' religious group. AU three dimensions of contact were associated with intergroup anxiety, but whereas quantitative contact had a significant impact on perceived out-group variability, qualitative contact was associated with out-group attitude. The model highlights the central role of intergroup anxiety as associated with dimensions of contact and as a predictor of perceived out-group variability and out-group attitude.
Two studies investigated intergroup contact with immigrants in Italy. In Study 1 (N = 310 students) contact had direct positive effects on perceived out-group variability and out-group attitude, and a direct negative effect on subtle prejudice; the last two effects were mediated by intergroup anxiety. Contact also had a greater effect on reduced anxiety and improved out-group perception and evaluation when group salience was high. In Study 2 (N = 94 hospital workers) contact at work had direct effects on out-group attitudes and rights for immigrants, and an effect on attitudes toward ethnic coworkers that was mediated by intergroup anxiety at work. The effects of contact were again moderated by group salience. These findings show that the combination of positive contact with individuals from the out-group and group salience is effective in improving intergroup relations, and often does so via reduced anxiety.
This chapter begins with a re-presentation of Allport's classic hypothesis and shows—with reference to recent cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys— laboratory experiments, and meta-analysis, that many of his original propositions have capably withstood the test of time. It examines Brewer and Miller's, and Gaertner and Dovidio's attempts to extend the contact hypothesis, in both of which categorization processes play a key role. This approach sets the stage for the model, first published in 1986 by Hewstone and Brown. In that model, emphasis was given on identifying the conditions that would allow the generalization of attitudes and behavior change beyond the specific context in which the contact occurs. The chapter discusses the developments of contact theory that occurred in the 1980s and reviews the empirical research instigated by the Hewstone–Brown model. It also reviews the progress to date and attempts a theoretical integration of these models in the light of the large volume of research that they have stimulated.
Prosocial motivation is egoistic when the ultimate goal is to increase one's own welfare; it is altruistic when the ultimate goal is to increase another's welfare. The view that all prosocial behavior, regardless how noble in appearance, is motivated by some form of self-benefits may seem cynical. But it is the dominant view in contemporary psychology. Most contemporary psychologists who use the term have no intention of challenging the dominant view that all human behavior, including all prosocial behavior, is motivated by self-serving, egoistic desires. Contemporary pseudoaltruistic views can be classified into three types: altruism as prosocial behavior, not motivation, altruism as prosocial behavior seeking internal rewards, and altruism as prosocial behavior to reduce aversive arousal. If altruistic motivation exists, then one has to make some fundamental changes in the conception of human motivation and indeed of human nature. As yet, the evidence is not sufficiently clear to justify such changes. If the conceptual analysis and research outlined in the chapter have merit, then the threshold of an empirical answer to the question why one care for other will be reached.
A major work from a seminal figure in the field of conflict resolution, "Building Peace" is John Paul Lederach's definitive statement on peacebuilding. Marrying wisdom, insight, and passion, Lederach explains why we need to move beyond "traditional" diplomacy, which often emphasizes top-level leaders and short-term objectives, toward a holistic approach that stresses the multiplicity of peacemakers, long-term perspectives, and the need to create an infrastructure that empowers resources within a society and maximizes contributions from outside.Sophisticated yet pragmatic, the volume explores the dynamics of contemporary conflict and presents an integrated framework for peacebuilding in which structure, process, resources, training, and evaluation are coordinated in an attempt to transform the conflict and effect reconciliation."Building Peace" is a substantive reworking and expansion of a work developed for the United Nations University in 1994. In addition, this volume includes a chapter by practitioner John Prendergast that applies Lederach's conceptual framework to ongoing conflicts in the Horn of Africa.
The diversity of American society raises concern. about whether authorities can maintain social cohesion amid competing interests and values. The group-value model of jus- rice suggests that authorities function more effectively when they are perceived as fair (e.g.. benevolent, neutral, and re spectful). However, such relational evaluations may be effec- tive only if authorities represent a group with which peoplt identify. In a diverse society, subgroup memberships may as. sume special importance. People who identify predominant11 vith a subgroup may focus on instrumental issues when eval- uating a superordinate-group authority, and conflicts with thar authority may escalate if those people do not receive favorable outcomes. Results indicate that subgroup identification creates problems for authorities only. when people have strong sub- group identification and weak superordinate-group identifica- ion. As long as people identify strongly with the superordinate group, even if they also identify strongly with their subgroup, elational issues will dominate reactions to authorities. in it The United States is fast on its 'way to becoming a truly multicultural society. If the trend continues, what was once the lelting-pot society will be better described as a cultural mosaic which each ethnic group will be motivated to retain aspects of s culture rather than fully assimilating into "mainstream " so- ciety (Rose, 1993; Taylor & Moghaddam, 1994). Diversity can be beneficial in utilizing the unique contributions of people from different backgrounds, but it may also create new forms o f con- flicts caused by differences in interests and values . Conse- quently, some people may be hesitant about relinquishing the melting-pot ideal, fearing that loyalty to ethnic groups prevents loyalty to the larger society.
This article presents a critical review of Social Identity Theory. Its major contributions to the study of intergroup relations are discussed, focusing on its powerful explanations of such phenomena as ingroup bias, responses of subordinate groups to their unequal status position, and intragroup homogeneity and stereotyping. In addition, its stimulative role for theoretical elaborations of the Contact Hypothesis as a strategy for improving intergroup attitudes is noted. Then five issues which have proved problematic for Social Identity Theory are identified: the relationship between group identification and ingroup bias; the self-esteem hypothesis; positive – negative asymmetry in intergroup discrimination; the effects of intergroup similarity; and the choice of identity strategies by low-status groups. In a third section a future research agenda for the theory is sketched out, with five lines of enquiry noted as being particularly promising: expanding the concept of social identity; predicting comparison choice in intergroup settings; incorporating affect into the theory; managing social identities in multicultural settings; and integrating implicit and explicit processes. The article concludes with some remarks on the potential applications of social identity principles. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
We report a study of intergroup relations in a paper factory in which we examine the utility of three social-psychological approaches: realistic conflict theory, the contact hypothesis and social identity theory. A sample of 177 shop floor workers from five different departments was interviewed. From them, measures of intergroup differentiation, perceived intergroup conflict, amount of intergroup contact, and strength of workgroup identification were obtained. The latter was assessed using a new scale of group identification developed for this study. Reliability and validity data for this scale are reported. Using multiple regression analyses we attempt to explain variance in respondents' intergroup differentiation using the other measures as predictor variables. The most powerful and reliable predictor was perceived conflict which, as expected, was positively correlated with differentiation. Less consistent was amount of contact which was negatively but only weakly associated with differentiation. Strength of group identification, while generally showing a positive correlation with differentiation as predicted, was also only a weak and inconsistent predictor variable. Noting that these results confirm findings from other studies we discuss their theoretical implications.
[describes] forgiveness as a specific application of mercy / focus is on the one who forgives, not on the one seeking forgiveness
the concept of forgiveness is traced from its theological origins to modern-day philosophies / two psychological models of forgiveness are then described: a social cognitive developmental and a social processing model (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Four models of forgiveness are identified; the health model, the philosophical model, the Christian model and the prosocial model. All define the term ‘forgiveness’ in a way which is consistent with their particular perspective. The authors offer a definition of forgiveness and propose an integrated model of forgiveness which seeks to incorporate contributions from all four areas, but is not biased towards any one model. Four levels of transgression are identified and categorized according to the degree of perceived damage. Apology-automatic (Level 1) and apology-dependent (Level 2) responses are distinguished from a forgiveness response which is restricted to Levels 3 and 4. The advantages of adopting a forgiveness strategy for both the forgiver and forgiven as opposed to other responses, i.e., revenge, denial, and condoning are discussed. The authors provide a definition and model which integrates the important contributions from each of the areas discussed.