Article

Fragrance: Emerging health and environmental concerns

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Abstract

Products containing scent are a part of daily life. The majority of cosmetics, toiletries, household and laundry products contain fragrance. In addition, there is exposure to fragrance from products that are used to scent the air, such as air fresheners and fragranced candles. In spite of this widespread use and exposure, there is little information available on the materials used in fragrance. Fragrance formulas are considered trade secrets and components that make up the fragrance portion of the product are not revealed on labels. Fragrance is increasingly cited as a trigger in health conditions such as asthma, allergies and migraine headaches. In addition, some fragrance materials have been found to accumulate in adipose tissue and are present in breast milk. Other materials are suspected of being hormone disruptors. The implications are not fully known, as there has been little evaluation of systemic effects. There are environmental concerns as well, as fragrances are volatile compounds, which add to both indoor and outdoor air pollution. Synthetic musk compounds are persistent in the environment and contaminate waterways and aquatic wildlife. At present there is little governmental regulation of fragrance. The fragrance industry has in place a system of self-regulation. However, the present system has failed to address many of the emerging concerns. Industry needs to responsibly address concerns and ensure that scented products are safe for users, those inadvertently exposed and the environment. It is essential that an industry that is, and wishes to continue to be, self-regulated should identify and address concerns in a forthright and responsible manner. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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... Nearly 60% of fragrances through the water sewage system enters the general environment. Most wastewater treatment methods could not remove the fragrance compound; therefore, it ends up in rivers and streams (27,75). A study detected synthetic musks in mussels of Asia-Pacific coastal waters suggesting ubiquitous contamination and widespread distribution of fragrances (76). ...
... Similarly, the level of HHCB found in the sediments and surface waters of Suzhou Creek in a range of 3 to 78 ng/g and 20-93 ng/L, respectively (28, 77). Musk compounds persist in the aquatic environment due to their slow breakdown and accumulation in the fatty tissues of aquatic wildlife (75). Another study reported the air vs. lake concentration of AHTN and HHCB in Milwaukee, North America, and the levels were 2.9 vs. 0.49 ng/m3 and 4.6 vs. 1.1 ng/ m 3 , respectively. ...
... Fragrances are a mixture of VOCs that tend to break and mix with the dust or pollutants to form harmful secondary products or toxic air pollutants that are potentially more irritating or allergenic than the original substance (75). For example, terpenes from PCPs may react with indoor ozone to form secondary pollutants such as formaldehyde (170). ...
Article
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Personal care products (PCPs) are generally used for personal hygiene, cleaning, grooming, and beautification. These include hair and skin care products, baby care products, UV blocking creams, facial cleansers, insect repellents, perfumes, fragrances, soap, detergents, shampoos, conditioners, toothpaste, etc., thus exposing humans easily. Personal preferences related to PCPs usage frequency are highly variable and depend on socioeconomic status and lifestyle factors. The increasing availability and diversity of PCPs from the retailer outlets consequently result in higher loading of PCPs into wastewater systems and, therefore, the environment. These compounds persistently and continuously release biologically active and inactive ingredients in the atmosphere, biosphere, geosphere, and demonstrating adverse effects on human, wild, and marine life. Advanced techniques such as granular activated carbon filtration and algae-based system may help biotransformation and remove PCP contaminants from water with improved efficiency. Additionally, harmony among PCPs related regulations of different countries may encourage standard checks to control their manufacturing, sale, and distribution across the borders to ensure consumers’ safety. Furthermore, all intended ingredients, their concentrations, and instructions for frequency of use as per age groups may be clearly labeled on packages of PCPs. In conclusion, the emerging environmental contaminants of PCPs and their association with the growing risks of negative effects on human health and globally on the environment emphasize the chemical-free simple lifestyle. © 2021, Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. All rights reserved.
... Natural lightening constitutes useful and it has begun to be more prevalent at the present time. Cosmetic Zainy; JPRI, 32 (43): [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33]2020; Article no. 23 ublic's increasing attention in skin whitening, lightening components utilized to newly regularly integrate. ...
... Aloesin in Fig . Zainy; JPRI, 32 (43): [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33]2020; Article no. ...
... Aromas can enter the body byway the skin (adsorption), and it can be caused by more symptoms. carcinogens were found as co phethleugenol, while phthalates are suspected hormone disrupters [33]. ...
Article
For a long time, it could be found that appearance enhancement products fell into the cosmetic category. Therefore, more people want to appear beautiful, thus the desire to appear beautiful has been urgent since the early days. Skincare products, hair, perfumes, oral care, and nail products are used by women despite their containment of toxic chemicals harmful to health in a society that wants to look its best because it is a beauty freak. Different toxic components and dangerous chemicals utilized in cosmetics are integrated beyond acceptable limits. These heavy metals may reason dangerous sick influences on the skin causing carcinogenicity. Therefore, it begins to be a requirement for people to turn out having knowledge of the different dangers of heavy metals utilized in cosmetics.
... Fragranced consumer products refer to chemically formulated products with a fragrance, such as air fresheners, laundry detergents, dryer sheets, fabric softeners, dishwashing detergents, personal care products, cosmetics, after-shave, soaps and lotions, hand sanitizers, and cleaners (Bridges, 2002;Bickers et al., 2003;Steinemann, 2009;Nematollahi et al., 2019). Similar to Europe and North America, manufacturers of consumer products in Mexico, and owners of chemical formulations such as fragrances in those products, are not required to disclose all ingredients to consumers (Bridges, 2002;Steinemann, 2009). ...
... Fragranced consumer products refer to chemically formulated products with a fragrance, such as air fresheners, laundry detergents, dryer sheets, fabric softeners, dishwashing detergents, personal care products, cosmetics, after-shave, soaps and lotions, hand sanitizers, and cleaners (Bridges, 2002;Bickers et al., 2003;Steinemann, 2009;Nematollahi et al., 2019). Similar to Europe and North America, manufacturers of consumer products in Mexico, and owners of chemical formulations such as fragrances in those products, are not required to disclose all ingredients to consumers (Bridges, 2002;Steinemann, 2009). Nevertheless, the California Air Resources Board has recently adopted regulations to reduce atmospheric emissions from consumer products, including cleaning products and air fresheners (CARB, 2024). ...
... Greater use of scented products has been previously reported among Black parents and caregivers compared to other demographic groups, potentially explaining these differences [53]. Some parabens and bisphenols may be present in products containing fragrances and are used as preservatives or as part of product packaging [54]. We found that recent use of scented household products (air freshener, candles, carpet powder) was associated with increased concentrations of methyl paraben, Fig. 2 Associations between methyl paraben, propyl paraben and benzophenone-3 concentrations and select individual consumer product use/behaviors in the prior 24-h (n = 110). ...
... propyl paraben, BPA, and BPS, which have been linked with asthma morbidity and reproductive outcomes [7,55,56]. Consistent with these findings, scented product use has also been previously linked with more asthma symptoms, allergies and migraine headaches among adults [54,57]. Increased concentrations of methyl paraben and propyl paraben were also positively associated with recent use of air freshener in the past week among Latina adolescents, albeit associations were not statistically significant [58]. ...
Article
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Background Emerging studies suggest that endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in personal care and other consumer products are linked with various adverse health effects, including respiratory and reproductive effects. Despite Black persons using more personal care products than other demographic groups and having a high asthma burden, little is known regarding their consumer product use patterns and associated EDC exposures. Objective To examine the association between recent exposure to select EDCs with specific consumer products and behaviors in a cohort of 110 predominantly Black children with asthma, ages 8–17 years, living in Baltimore City, Maryland. Methods We quantified concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F, two dichlorophenols, four parabens, triclosan, benzophenone-3, and triclocarban in spot urine samples. Questionnaires were used to capture recent (last 24-h) consumer product use and behaviors. Associations between EDCs and consumer product uses/behaviors were assessed using multivariable linear regression, adjusting for age, gender, race/ethnicity, and caregiver income level. Effect estimates were expressed as geometric mean ratios of biomarker concentrations of product-users vs non-users. Results Increased concentrations to select EDCs were associated with recent use of air freshener (ratios; BPA: 1.9, 95%CI 1.4–2; BPS 1.7, 95%CI 1–2.97; propyl paraben: 3.0, 95%CI 1.6–5.6), scented candles (methyl paraben: 2.6, 95%CI 1.1–6.1), and scented carpet powder (2,5-dichlorophenol: 2.8, 95%CI 1.2–6.3). Additionally, consuming canned food was associated with some increased biomarker concentrations (ratios: BPA: 1.7, 95%CI 1.2–2.4; BPS: 2.1, 95% CI: 1.2–3.6). Significance These findings add to the body of evidence suggesting that recent use of select consumer products in Black children contributes to exposure of chemicals of concern and could potentially inform exposure mitigation interventions. Findings have broad potential health implications for pediatric populations and Black children who may face exposure and health disparities. Impact Little is known about how children’s personal care product use and consumer behaviors affect their exposures to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). This is particularly true for Black children who often experience a disparate exposure burden to many EDCs. This is a significant knowledge gap among children that are uniquely vulnerable to EDCs as they undergo critical windows of growth and development. Our findings show associations between consumer products and EDC exposures in predominantly Black children in low-income settings. Identifying EDC exposure determinants has broad health implications as many of these chemicals have been associated with adverse health risks.
... Em diversas áreas industriais o uso de fragrâncias é difundido com o intuito de fornecer um produto mais atrativo ao público, proporcionando uma maior aceitabilidade por conta do fator olfativo mais agradável, e a indústria cosmética não é isenta de utilizar tal prática [12]. ...
... Ao longo dos anos nota-se que os diferentes blends de essências podem conter ingredientes que acarretam irritações cutâneas ou alergias por contato; em primeiro instante, os indivíduos podem não experienciar tais efeitos colaterais, porém, é um fator que pode vir a ser desenvolvido de acordo com a exposição contínua [12]. De acordo com Oliveira de Melo e Maia-Campos [13], a pele possui um caráter levemente ácido por toda estrutura corporal, entre a faixa de 4,5-5,8, variando de acordo com a região, portanto a característica ácida possui uma função preventiva bactericida e fungicida. ...
Article
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Introdução: ao longo dos anos, a busca pela melhora do autocuidado estendeu-se às farmácias com manipulação, onde o cosmético pode ser manipulado de acordo com as preferências de cada indivíduo. Dessa forma, é necessário prover a estabilidade para cada produto manipulado, garantindo que um cosmético seguro e eficaz será dispensado. O ácido hialurônico é um ativo que tem se tornado popular devido à sua capacidade de realizar a manutenção da elasticidade da pele e exercer função hidratante, além de atuar na redução de linhas de expressão. Objetivo: analisar a qualidade de dermocosméticos manipulados a base de ácido hialurônico de diferentes farmácias com manipulação no município de Campo Grande-MS, através de análises laboratoriais físico-químicas e de rotulagem. Material e métodos: quatro amostras de creme-gel à base de ácido hialurônico 5% foram adquiridas em farmácias magistrais, e realizadas as seguintes análises de controle de qualidade: análise organoléptica, determinação de pH, densidade, teste de centrífuga, espalhabilidade e análise de rotulagem. Resultados: em relação às análises, os resultados obtidos foram satisfatórios. A análise organoléptica, o teste de centrifugação e de espalhabilidade se encontraram dentro dos padrões estipulados; porém, destaca-se o ensaio de densidade, em que duas amostras obtiveram valores abaixo do estipulado; e para a análise de rótulos, nenhum produto continha lista de componentes da formulação. Conclusão: ao final das análises, pode ser apontado que os produtos apresentaram desempenho satisfatório em grande parte dos testes propostos e são uma opção segura, de boa qualidade e custo acessível ao público.
... Perfumes containing fragrance can bind with distinct chemicals to produce a distinct smell. A considerable number of these aromas are derived from petroleum products that have toxicity (Bridges 2002). ...
... In the post-salt iodization phase, endemic goitre has been reported from many areas in India (Chandra & Roy 2001, 2002Chandra et al., 2006a) including West Bengal (Chandra et al., 2003(Chandra et al., , 2004a(Chandra et al., , 2005(Chandra et al., , 2006b. Iodine nutritional status of school children in a rural area of Howrah district in the Gangetic West Bengal showed that in spite of adequate iodine intake as evidenced by urinary iodine level, the total goitre prevalence was 37.6% (Chandra et al 2004). ...
Article
Cosmetics are the group of products, including sun-cream, moisturizers, powders, perfumes, lipsticks, nail polishes, hair colors, shampoo, deodorants, baby products, and others. The use of cosmetic products is increasing day by day throughout the world. Both men and women are using cosmetics for their beautification and attractive looking. Cosmetic products contain a variety of chemical ingredients and some of these can create toxicity. There is a restriction to the use of toxic and non-permitted chemicals in cosmetics but, due to poor surveillance, sometime product contains unauthenticated chemicals. Thus, there is every time chance for the intoxication of cosmetics. The common effects of cosmetic toxicity are skin damage, hypersensitivity reaction and allergic dermatitis, skin rash, skin irritation, the appearance of acne, formation of dry and scaly skin, and carcinoma. The present work has focused on the main toxic chemical substances present in cosmetic products and the possible health complications related to cosmetic use. The side effects of cosmetics are now being an emerging issue of public health. Proper surveillance, authentication of the product and public awareness will be helpful to prevent cosmetic-related health problems.
... It is not degraded easily and can stand in the environment for very long periods. PEGs have shown evidences of gene toxicity and if applied over damaged skin can lead to systemic toxicity and allergies (Bridges, 2002). ...
... Fragrances scattered in the air or present in air can cause air-borne contact dermatitis. Chemicals like phethleugenol, coumarin found in fragrances are supposed carcinogens, while phthalates are assumed hormones disrupters (Anderson and Anderson, 1998;Bridges, 2002).All the studies done are mostly done on animals like mice and rabbits before getting to final conclusion that makes it have ethical issues related to animals. More detailed discussion has been given below. ...
Article
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Cosmetics has been used, since ancient times, for enhancing the beauty and self-care. But the difference lies in the chemicals that have been constantly used for the manufacturing of cosmetics in the present timeconcerning the natural cosmetics that were been in use in ancient civilization and still used by many people. Many controversies arose in past years targeting the companies the company to ban the use of such chemicals but none seem to lead to any result. Cosmetics manufactured today are added with a load of chemicals to increase their shelf life, to enhance their quality, for selective and assorted colors or any other desired property. But no one could have ever thought of how these would affect the humans and the environment too. The cosmetics lead to prolonged exposure to chemicals and indirect ingestion that give rise to health-related issues like allergy, hypersensitivity and some are even be reported to have carcinogenic effects. Many experimental pieces of evidence have supported the presence of substances like phthalates, coal tar, heavy metals, parabens etc. in the cosmetics. They have been reported to have dangerous impacts on biological things. Apart from this, the cosmetics are also tested on animals in such an inhuman way that can't be imagined of and set out for sale, keeping the fact at a corner that animal and humans have different issues and body build-ups and effects won't be the same. This also gives rise to animal related ethical issues. Safety evaluation for cosmetics 1774 http://annalsofrscb.ro needs to be updated. This review is a compilation of information from the reviewed literature related to cosmetics. More strict safety evaluation rules, banning for such harmful chemicals, giving break to excessive animal abuse in the industry and use of more and more natural products and herbal formulations should be encouraged.
... Fragrances consist of complex mixtures of VOCs, and they are formulated to have a specific odour (Bridges, 2002). Fragrances are utilised in various daily used consumer products such as cosmetics, perfumes, deodorants, and aftershaves, etc. (Abedi et al., 2018). ...
... The oxidised derivatives can cause allergenic activity, such as peroxides, as in the case of limonene and linalool (VOCs emissions) (Kaloustian et al., 2007). Moreover, fragrance chemicals are responsible for respiratory irritants, and particles which may cause inflammatory responses in the lungs (Bridges, 2002). Cleaning agents often include numerous kinds of fragrances. ...
Article
Abstract: The air quality of aircraft cabins has become a significant issue over the past few decades. In general, the existing air comfort regulations and standards for aircrafts are associated with the emissions of CO, CO2, O3 and airborne particulates. However, the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are not taken into account even though the critical influences of VOCs on people are stated by many researches about the indoor air quality of buildings, cars and rarely aircrafts. The present study is prepared with this concern. It is aimed to emphasise VOCs as an aircraft cabin air pollution, which may cause various health problems and discomfort for the passengers and crews. In this regard, VOCs are introduced by investigating their main potential sources and influence factors, the studies examining VOCs in aircraft cabins are reviewed, and finally, the discussions are made and the possible solutions and suggestions are presented.
... The ingredients may include any of approximately 4,000 plant or animal extracts or synthetic chemicals, with maybe 100 ingredients in a given fragrance. 189 Fragrances now contain more synthetic chemicals, and are stronger and more persistent. Some ingredients are respiratory irritants, asthma triggers and neurological toxins. ...
... Some are listed as potentially causing cancer and birth defects. [188][189][190][191] The ingredients are proprietary, and are not assessed for toxicity. Neither are they listed on labels, in the Workplace Health Information Management System (WHIMS), on Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) or under labelling requirements for personal care products. ...
Technical Report
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Report for the 2007 Canadian Human Rights Commission on the topic of Environmental Illness. I provided information for inclusion in Chapter VII Building code, regulations and guidelines, and Chapter VIII Accommodating and preventing environmental Illness. Dr. Margaret E. Sears initiated this study and was the editor of this report. http://www.chrc-ccdp.gc.ca/eng/content/medical-perspective-environmental-sensitivities
... Thus, the simplest solution is to remove or reduce the concentration of fragrance in cosmetic products. However, the parfum is regarded as a vital sensorial aspect for consumers [22][23][24]. Approximately 95% of the ingredients in fragrances are chemically-processed, which emphasizes the importance of urgently re-evaluate their use [22]. ...
... Synthetic fragrances can be stronger, longer lasting, more sophisticated and less expensive than natural fragrances. However, all types of fragrances (i.e., synthetic and natural) have been associated with skin irritation, allergic reactions and other health problems [24,26]. The data obtained shows that essential oils and oleoresins are preferable in comparison to synthetic fragrances. ...
Article
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Assessing sustainability is extremely necessary and appears as an industrial need and requirement in order to facilitate decision making and to evaluate the impacts of existing strategies, products and technologies. Thus, the main goal of this research was to develop a sustainability calculator based on the opinion of experts that work in the different branches of the cosmetic industry, in order to cover the entire life cycle of a cosmetic product. A detailed survey in which all the steps of a cosmetic product life cycle were addressed, was designed and applied to cosmetic professionals. The data obtained with the survey was statistically analysed for the positive and negative impacts of each parameter on sustainability. The analysed data allowed the creation of a Microsoft Excel tool that mirrors the experts’ opinion. A proof of concept was also designed in order to prove the usefulness of the tool. The results show that there are no raw materials and/or packaging materials and practices, that can be considered 100% sustainable. However, with the appropriate strategies, it is possible to drastically decrease the impacts of any type of cosmetic product on sustainability. This is a promising tool that includes the three dimensions of sustainability in a simple, fast, objective and interactive way for the user. Its application will facilitate the work of the formulators and reduce the time of analysis and decision.
... yüzyılda kimya kimya gelişmeleri, vanilin ve kumarin gibi ilk sentetik kokularının üretimine olanak sağlayan sağlamış ve bu maddeler, parfümeri ile kozmetik sektöründe devrim yaratmıştır. Sentetik kokuların üretimi, doğal ömrün sınırlı olması ve maliyetlerin korunması MUSA KARADAĞ | 66 nedeniyle büyük bir avantaj sunar(Bridges, B. 2002). Örneğin, doğal kaynakların elde edilmesi zor veya etik sorunlar içeren misk gibi şeyler, sentetik olarak esnek üretilebilir ve bu da kozmetik depolama geniş bir kullanım yelpazesine dahil edilir.Sentetik kokuların en önemli paketlerinden biri, kimyasal yapıların kontrol edilebilirliği sayesinde farklı ve karmaşık aromalar yaratma kapasitesidir. ...
Book
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MYO’Lar İçin KOZMETİK KATKI MADDELERİ
... paints, glues, aerosols, adhesives) used in a manner that deviates substantially from its intended method of application has the potential for health harms. [35][36][37][38][39] This might occur, for example if users do not follow labelling instructions for frequency/duration of use, quantity/ amount of product intended to be used, or ventilation requirements. Theoretically high concentrations of fragrancedderived VOCs could be generated indoors if numerous products (or multiples of the same product) were used off-instruction, such as in small rooms that had poor ventilation. ...
Article
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Fragrance products are commonplace in everyday life and their air quality effects extensively studied. In this study the use of multiple plug-in diffusers (liquid electricals/LEs) was assessed by quantifying air concentrations in controlled test rooms (‘toilet booth’ and ‘large booth’) with up to 5 LEs of known formulation in concurrent use. Olfactive strength tests were completed under the same conditions in blind assessments. Air samples were analysed using thermal desorption – (TD) gas chromatography (GC) coupled to flame ionisation (FID) and mass spectrometry (MS) detectors. Significant positive linearities were found for several VOCs (e.g. α-pinene toilet booth and large booth R = 1 and p = 0.0028, p-cymene toilet booth R = 0.94 and p = 0.017, large booth R = 0.89 and p = 0.033), with α-pinene presenting the highest measurable gas-phase concentration (mean 25 μg m⁻³, toilet booth with 5 LEs present). All measurable linearities for fragrance species in toilet booths were significant. However, olfactive intensity assessment showed a plateauing in fragrance perception after the addition of 2 LEs. Only very volatile fragrance ingredients such as α-pinene and benzaldehyde could be detected in the gas phase, but at ambient concentrations that were always lower than literature values for their individual odour detection thresholds. The plateauing of the perception of fragrance strength may aid in limiting potential off-instruction use, thereby limiting end-user exposure to potentially high concentrations of emitted VOCs. The drivers of human fragrance perception here appeared to be lower vapour pressure constituents of fragrance formulations like sesquiterpenes. Moderation of the concentration of monoterpenes used in room fragrance formulations may be a practical solution in limiting possible air quality impacts of product use, whilst still maintaining end-user fragrance perception.
... The persistence of PEG in the environment, even after being washed down the shower drain, is a cause for concern as it does not readily break down. 46 Additionally, there is evidence suggesting that PEGs may have genotoxic effects and can cause irritation and systemic toxicity when applied to damaged skin. In addition, 1, 4-dioxane is an ether that possesses emulsifying, cleansing, as well as solubilizing properties. ...
Article
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In recent times, the increasing prevalence of harmful pollutants in our environment, originating from chemicals of various lifestyle products, has emerged as significant challenge for mankind. The purpose of this article was to explore the past literature concerning the consequences of various emerging contaminants in the everyday lifestyle products on human health. The chemical compounds, derived from various human activities, have become an integral part of our global ecosystem and are essential for the functioning of modern society. Chemical compounds are discharged into the environment from different origins, including rural, urban, and industrial areas. These compounds can come from everyday products such as cosmetics, personal care items, household cleaners, and pharmaceuticals. Additionally, consumer products like soaps, shampoos, conditioners, lotions, and perfumes are used on a daily basis worldwide. These products contain a variety of chemicals that can contribute to environmental pollution. Various substances such as paraben, triclosan, phthalate, fragrances, antimicrobial agents, UV filters, and heavy metals are commonly found in these products. Scientists have determined that these ingredients can have detrimental effects on both humans and other organisms. The impacts of these chemical contaminants vary from changes in reproductive health and various types of cancer in humans. Additionally, aquatic organisms are also impacted by these substances. The significance of this matter is heightened by the rising global demand for beauty products, which commonly utilize a diverse array of chemical compounds in their production.
... There has long been commercial interest in the addition of fragrance to a range of Home and Personal Care (HPC) products [82][83][84][85][86][87][88]. Below, we focus on cosmetic products and take a closer look at both the tactile (somatosensory) and multisensory contributions to the feel (and appearance) of skin creams and lotions. ...
Article
The human face is one of the most salient regions of the body surface. Ratings of facial attractiveness, as well as judgements of a person's age, are influenced by the appearance of facial skin (not to mention the presence/absence of wrinkles). Unsurprisingly, many consumers spend huge amounts of money on trying to protect, maintain, and/or enhance their facial appearance. As highlighted by the evidence presented in this narrative review, both the skin and the cosmetic products that many consumers use are fundamentally multisensory in nature. The complex interaction between the particular skin site stimulated and the multisensory attributes of the product (e.g., when it is applied) can exert a number of effects on an individual's mood, their emotions, as well as on their self‐perception (and self‐confidence), over‐and‐above any functional effects that the cream or lotion may have on the skin itself. In this narrative historical review, the literature on the multisensory perception of facial skin is summarized and critically evaluated. Multisensory interactions taking place between the cosmetic product, its packaging, as well as its use/application at the sensory, cognitive, and emotional levels are all discussed.
... In both low-income countries and developed countries, wastewater discharges into the environment have resulted in chemical and pharmaceutical pollution of the soil, surface water, and groundwater with the potential of entering higher invertebrates as a result of food web transfer (Koopaei & Abdollahi 2017). Furthermore, musk compounds have been shown to persist in the environment because of the slow degradation of their particles, resulting in bioaccumulation in fatty tissues of aquatic wildlife (Bridges 2002). Similarly, oestrogen and oestrone at contaminant levels have been connected to thyroid issues, weakening of animal and bird immune systems, breast cancer in women and prostate cancer in men (Yazdan et al. 2022). ...
Article
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Wastewater treatment plants are mainly monitored for quality in terms of their biological oxygen demand and microbiological constituents as stipulated in the specific discharge permit. Wastewater influents and effluents were taken from three WWTPs in South Africa over the summer and winter seasons. Previous toxicity tests such as the Vibrio fischeri bioluminescence assay and the Selenastrum capricornutum algal growth inhibition test have shown that the effluents displayed acute toxicity. To further investigate the quality of the effluent, the genotoxic potential was determined using the SOS Chromosome and UMU Chromosome test. The SOS Chromotest demonstrated induction factor values of above 1.5 for influents during both seasons indicating that the influents were genotoxic (p < 0.05). Effluents discharged during winter and summer also had induction factors greater than 1.5 (p < 0.05). A range of induction factors was detected with the UMU-Chromotest for influents and effluents (1.98 ± 0.38 and 2.40 ± 0.51, respectively). Findings show point sources in the area can lead to influents and effluents that are potentially genotoxic. Designing a monitoring programme that encompasses testing of both the regulatory determinants with additional specialized tests can provide a more holistic view of wastewater quality and the efficiency of WWTP to reduce the discharge of hazards.
... The consequences are not completely understood since systemic impacts have not received much attention. Fragrances are volatile molecules, which contribute to both indoor and outdoor air pollution [7][8][9]. Synthetic musk components pollute streams and aquatic life and are persistent in the environment [10]. ...
Article
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Deodorants are frequently used personal care products; however, questions have been raised concerning their possible toxicity to cause air and water pollution, and their potential impact on human health. The degree to which deodorant ingredients, such as fragrance chemicals, antibacterial compounds, aluminium compounds, and preservatives, are toxic depends on their chemical composition. Many of these chemicals have been connected to adverse health effects, such as skin rashes, allergic reactions, endocrine disruption, and respiratory problems. Understanding these chemicals’ toxicity is crucial for determining any potential risks to human health. Spray formulations have the potential to release volatile organic compounds into the air, such as propellants and fragrance chemicals, which can be harmful to human respiratory health and lead to indoor and outdoor air pollution. Improper disposal and wastewater treatment can lead to the contamination of water bodies, potentially impacting aquatic ecosystems and human water supplies. This review provides an overview of the toxicity of deodorant ingredients in various formulations, including sprays, roll-ons, and sticks. The partition coefficients Log Kaw (air-water partition coefficient), Log Koa (airorganic carbon partition coefficient), and Log Kow (octanol-water partition coefficient), values of deodorant ingredients were summarized for assessing their potential for long-range transport, persistence in the environment, and bioaccumulation in organisms.
... However, despite their popularity in the fragrance industry, some "lab-designed" musk odorants have come under scrutiny due to their impact on the environment and human health, leading to a push for more sustainable and safer alternatives. [62] Recently, bio-based routes using recombinant organisms have been developed for the production of macrocycles like muscone 37 and civetone 38 (Scheme 9). [63] The patent discloses the recombinant production of these macrocyclic ketones and their precursors, starting from L-isoleucine. ...
Article
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Current environmental and safety considerations urge innovation to address the need for sustainable high‐value chemicals that are embraced by consumers. This review discusses the concept of sustainable fragrances, as high‐value, everyday and everywhere chemicals. Current and emerging technologies represent an opportunity to produce fragrances in an environmentally and socially responsible way. Biotechnology, including fermentation, biocatalysis, and genetic engineering, has the potential to reduce the environmental footprint of fragrance production while maintaining quality and consistency. Computational and in silico methods, including machine learning (ML), are also likely to augment the capabilities of sustainable fragrance production. Continued innovation and collaboration will be crucial to the future of sustainable fragrances, with a focus on developing novel sustainable ingredients, as well as ethical sourcing practices.
... Synthetic musk compounds are persistent in the environment and contaminate waterways and aquatic wildlife (Bridges, 2002). Synthetic musk fragrances are common PCP additives and wastewater contaminants that are routinely detected in the environment. ...
... the skin components and produce toxicological effects on the living body such as cancers, yellowish-brown coloration, multiple stretch marks, skin rashes, dermatitis, etc. (Takizawa et al., 2004;Zeleke and Alemu, 2014). There are various synthetic chemicals utilized in cosmetic product preparations, such as butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated hydroxytoluene, diethanolamine, parabens, siloxane, dibutyl phthalate, petrolatum, polyethylene glycol (PEG), heavy metals, coal tar dyes, and toxic perfumes (Bridges, 2002;Health Canada, 2013;Khan and Alam, 2019;Ramakant et al., 2014, pp. 3e28;Ratner et al., 2013;Schrader and Cooke, 2000;Turkoglu et al., 1999;Ulrich et al., 2004;Zhang et al., 2008). ...
... Synthetic musks, which are semi-volatile compounds used in personal care products, are known to be very persistent in environmental media [74]. Internationally, the use of nitro musks, including musk xylene (MX) and musk ketone (MK), has declined since the 1980s because of voluntary bans and/or restrictions imposed in various jurisdictions [75][76][77]. This decline is reflected in the present study (Table 4) by the significant correlations between musk concentrations and house age and associated characteristics. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study investigates associations between house characteristics and chemical contaminants in house dust, collected under the nationally representative Canadian House Dust Study (2007–2010). Vacuum samples (<80 µm fraction) were analysed for over 200 synthetic organic compounds and metal(loid)s. Spearman rank correlations between contaminant concentrations in dust and presence of children and pets, types of flooring, heating styles and other characteristics suggested a number of indoor sources, pointing to future research directions. Numerous synthetic organics were significantly associated with reported use of room deodorizers and with the presence of cats in the home. Hardwood flooring, which is a manufactured wood product, emerged as a source of metal(loid)s, phthalates, organophosphate flame retardants/plasticizers, and obsolete organochlorine pesticides such as ∑DDT (but not halogenated flame retardants). Many metal(loid)s were significantly correlated with flame-retardant compounds used in building materials and heating systems. Components of heating appliances and heat distribution systems appeared to contribute heat-resistant chemicals and alloys to settled dust. Carpets displayed a dual role as both a source and repository of dust-borne contaminants. Contaminant loadings (<80 µm fraction) were significantly elevated in heavily carpeted homes, particularly those located near industry. Depending on the chemical (and its source), the results show that increased dust mass loading may enrich or dilute chemical concentrations in dust. Research is needed to improve the characterisation of hidden indoor sources such as flame retardants used in building materials and heating systems, or undisclosed ingredients used in common household products, such as air fresheners and products used for companion animals.
... These FAs are commonly added in personal care products, which not only can cause skin irritation by direct contact, but also may lead to adverse reactions for eyes or respiratory tract [1][2][3]. Therefore, the analysis of common FAs in personal care products (especially infants' products) are urgently needed. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Fragrance allergens (FAs), which have unique fragrances, have been widely added in wet wipes, diapers, sanitary napkins and other paper personal care products. However, their negative effects on human health and environment cannot be ignored. Meantime, there are more than 1000 FAs, and various FAs may be added in the same product. This work presented a headspace solid phase microextraction combined with GC-MS for the analysis of 19 FAs in paper personal care products, in which the factors affecting the extraction efficiency were optimized by response surface methodology. Under optimal conditions, the performance of this method has been investigated, showing good linearity (R ≥ 0.995) in the range of 2.5×10 − 4 -1.28×10 − 1 µg as well as good precision (RSDs ≤ 20%). The proposed method exhibited the LODs within the range of 1.9×10 − 6 -6.0×10 − 4 µg. Twenty kinds of paper personal care products were analyzed by this method, and 12 FAs including limonene, linalool, benzyl acetate, citral, citronellol, geraniol, benzyl alcohol, phenethyl alcohol, hydroxy citronellal, cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol and isoeugenol, were detected. The detection rate of benzyl alcohol was the highest (80%) with the content from 0.009 mg/kg to 5.73 mg/kg, following by linalool (over 75%) with the content up to 12.30 mg/kg in makeup remover cleansing wipes.
... Fragrance allergens (FAs) have been widely used in skin care products, cosmetics, wipes, and other household goods. However, they have been reported to have irritative or other adverse effects on human skin, eyes, respiratory tract, etc., which can cause lung disease, dermatitis, migraine, and even endocrine diseases (1)(2)(3). Since the skin and mucous membranes of infants and women are sensitive, the concentration of FAs that causes irritation and negative reactions for these people may be very low. Therefore, the composition and concentration of common FAs in household goods, especially these directly contacting with skin and mucous membrane, have attracted public attention. ...
Article
Background Fragrance allergens (FAs) refer to these volatile or semi-volatile fragrance compounds that can induce sensitization, and they are widely used in household goods. Objective In this work, a method combining solid-liquid extraction (SLE) and dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) has been developed and applied in the analysis of 19 FAs (including hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, esters and phenols) in paper household goods. Method The samples (infant or personal paper hygiene products) were cut into small pieces, and underwent SLE with methanol as solvent. The supernatant was taken, and ultrapure water, sodium chloride and trichloromethane (extractant) were added, which was mixed with vortex. After centrifugation, the bottom chloroform layer was taken for GC-MS detection. Results Under optimized conditions, a good linearity was achieved (r ≥ 0.9985) in the range of 0.01–128.0 mg/kg with relative standard deviations lower than 15%. The method showed limits of detection (LODs) within the range of 0.96–12.0 µg/kg and recoveries from 70.6% to 128.9% except furfuryl alcohol with low recoveries (53.8–64.6%). Twenty kinds of paper household goods samples were analyzed by this method, nine FAs were detected. The linalool detected in one sample was more than 10 mg/kg, and the contents of other analytes in this sample and all analytes in other samples were less than 10 mg/kg. Conclusion The performance evaluation of the method met the requirements of the analysis of trace components. The established method was successfully applied to the detection of FAs in paper household goods samples. The proposed method could provide a basis for the establishment of relevant detection standards in the future. Highlights The LODs were found between 0.96–12.0 µg/kg. A simple, economical and sensitive method was established for the determination of 19 FAs in paper household goods.
... TCC may be able to induce the production of methemoglobin (Fe 13based protein complex, similar to hemoglobin but unable to carry oxygen) through the transformation by heat into a primary amine in the bloodstream (Johnson et al., 1963). Exposure to fragrances has been associated with a wide range of health effects, such as allergic contact dermatitis, asthma, headaches, and mucosal symptoms (Elberling et al., 2005;Bridges, 2002). Although humans metabolize phthalates, easily excreting them in 24À48 h through urine (Hauser and Calafat, 2005), the continuous exposure to it seems to be able to interact with a nuclear receptor (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors) that has an important role in adipogenesis and lipid storage, disrupting homeostasis, and increasing the risk for obesity and, thus, increasing diabetes risk (Svensson et al., 2011), as well as immune and asthma responses (Kimber and Dearman, 2010). ...
Book
The worldwide trend toward urbanization leads to increasing contamination of aquatic environments by thousands of synthetic and natural compounds which are known as micropollutants. Although most of these chemicals occur at low concentrations, due to persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic features, many of them show the considerable toxicological concerns and health side effects. Because of their partial removal during conventional wastewater treatment processes and lack of international safety and environmental standards, a large number of micropollutants and their metabolites still remained there and released in the nearby aquatic environments. In recent years, there has been a growing tendency to research about micropollutants’ impacts on the receiving environment and human health. These compounds are more significantly sensitive in detecting processes than classic compounds. Therefore, using micropollutants as environmental indicators for anthropogenic activities is a common method and frequently applied today. This book on micropollutants and challenges emerging in the aquatic environments and treatment processes contains comprehensive information on the fate and removal methods of the various emerging micropollutants from water and wastewater plants and their human health threats. This book addresses the needs of both researchers and graduate students in fields of environmental health engineering, environmental engineering, civil engineering, chemistry, etc.
... Phthalates present in fragrances are suspected hormone disrupters. Fragrances which are present in perfumes can cause allergic reactions, headaches and asthma [24]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Cosmetic and beauty products, though not essential for physical health, go a long way in providing mental well-being and confidence, and hence are used substantially. Increasing utilization of varying cosmetic products leads to a multitude of adverse effects. There is more awareness about cosmeceutics, cosmetic products and their adverse effects, and studies on the same are currently trending. Bibliometrics has become a prominent and growing field of research in recent years. The aim of this research was to assess bibliometric features and conduct systematic trend analysis on the literature available on cosmetics’ adverse effects. We analyzed all the published documents that included the keywords “cosmetics” and “adverse effects” between 1957 and 2021. We performed a detailed scientometric and bibliometric assessment in this field. A total of 4127 articles were retrieved from the databases provided by Scopus, which most were original articles. The United States ranked first and dominated the literature with 1292 (31.44%) documents followed by South Korea 7.47%. Harvard medical school was the most productive institution (1.16%). The study of the adverse effects of cosmetics should be supported and taken up by the researchers/authors from developing and underdeveloped countries.
... (Singer et al.2006). Bridges et.al., reported that hanky perfumes, body sprays and deodorants comprise of a spectrum of hazardous chemical that can target the human respiratory system (Bridges 2002). The VOCs used in cosmetics have been grouped into several classes based on their chemical nature ad their biological interventions in the functioning of the human body (Rahman and Kim 2014). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in cosmetics pose a series threat to the environment and their exposure causes a variety of ailments in human beings. The present work analyses systematically the presence of VOCs in samples of cosmetic products available in open market such as, aftershave lotion, face cream, hair dye, lipsticks, perfumes, shampoos and talcum powders by GC–MS. The investigation revealed the prevalence of more than 158 hazardous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) out of 243 organic compounds in 20 samples of the cosmetic products. The detected VOCs fall into six major groups viz. , alcohols, esters, ethers, carboxylic acids and amides. Among all the VOCs detected, diethyl phthalate is found to be present in majority of the samples, which could cause mild eye and skin irritations and affect the central nervous system depending on the dosage. The samples were also found to contain certain fatty acid methyl esters. The study suggests proper instructions on the labels of such products to warn the customers. Further, finding non-toxic alternatives to existing additives has also been emphasized.
... In most wastewater treatment methods cannot decompose fragrance compounds. These compounds tend to accumulate and are difficult to decompose [1]. Nowadays, consumers prefer natural and environmentally friendly perfumes made from pure, safe ingredients [2]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Essential oil is a volatile substance and has a distinctive scent that can be found on plants. Lime peel oil is one part of the plant which can be processed to make an essential oil so that it can be used as a natural fragrance in soap making. The purpose of this study is to produce essential oil from lime peel, which can be used as a substitute for synthetic fragrance ingredients in soap making. The other purpose is to obtain the optimum method, type of solvent, and the optimum extraction time to produce essential oil. The raw material used in this study is lime peel powder sized 50 mesh. The water content of raw material on lime peel powder is 76,5 %. The extraction method used in the research is maceration with stirring equal to 150 rpm and Soxhlet with extraction time for 6, 9, and 12 hours. In this study, the ratio of raw material to the solvent is 1:10, and the type of solvent used is hexane, ethanol, and distilled water. The result in this study shows that Soxhlet is the optimum method, which obtains yield equal to 6,15% for 12 using hexane as solvent.
... Yet, other adverse health effects have been correlated with exposure to certain substances present in essential oils and natural extracts such as are neurotoxicity (Pinkas et al., 2017) (convulsions, head aches), teratogenicity and abortifacient properties (Qureshi, 2006). Next to essential oils, some perfumes and fragrances, also used as flavourings in e-liquids, are recognized as respiratory irritants that can trigger asthma (Bridges, 2002). ...
Article
E-cigarettes have become very popular, a trend that has been stimulated by the wide variety of available e-liquid flavours. Considering the large number of e-liquid flavours (>7000), there is an urgent need to establish a screening strategy to prioritize the flavouring substances of highest concern for human health. In the present study, a prioritization strategy combining analytical screening, in silico tools and literature data was developed to identify potentially genotoxic e-liquid flavourings. Based on the analysis of 129 e-liquids collected on the Belgian market, 60 flavourings with positive in silico predictions for genotoxicity were identified. By using literature data, genotoxicity was excluded for 33 of them whereas for 5, i.e. estragole, safrole, 2-furylmethylketon, 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxyl-3(2H)-furanone and transhexanal, there was a clear concern for in vivo genotoxicity. A selection of 4 out of the remaining 22 flavourings was tested in two in vitro genotoxicity assays. Three out of the four tested flavourings induced gene mutations and chromosome damage in vitro, whereas equivocal results were obtained for the fourth compound. Thus, although there is a legislative framework which excludes the use of CMR compounds in e-liquids, flavourings of genotoxic concern are present and might pose a health risk for e-cigarette users.
... Phenyl groups increase the log Pow value of arsenic compounds (arsenic acid, -3.14; DPAA, 1.2; PAA, 0.06) [39,48], therefore, phenyl-groups may be involved in the BBB permeability of the phenyl arsenic compounds As many plant-derived VOCs produce a variety of subjectively pleasant odors, they are used as fragrance compounds in food, beverages, and other products used daily such as cosmetics, cleaning products, and air fresheners. Similar to man-made VOCs such as anesthetics and organic solvents, fragrance compounds are known to influence brain function [40][41][42][43]. Lavender and rose essential oils, mixtures of plant-derived VOCs obtained from the flowers, produce behavioral effects such as antianxiety-like effects in mice in the conflict tests after intraperitoneal administration [44,45]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Neurotoxic chemicals that pass through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) can influence brain function. Efficient methods to test the permeability of the BBB to specific chemicals would facilitate identification of potentially neurotoxic agents. We report here a simultaneous blood and brain microdialysis in a free-moving mouse to test BBB permeability of different chemicals. Microdialysis sampling was conducted in mice at 3 to 5 days after implantation of a brain microdialysis probe and 1 day after implantation of a blood microdialysis probe. Therefore, mice were under almost physiological conditions. Results of an intravenous injection of lucifer yellow or uranine showed that the BBB was functioning in the mice under the experimental conditions. Mice were given phenyl arsenic compounds orally, and concentration-time profiles for phenyl arsenic compounds such as diphenylarsinic acid, phenylarsonic acid, and phenylmethylarsinic acid in the blood and brain dialysate samples were obtained using simultaneous blood and brain microdialysis coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Peak area-time profiles for linalool and 2-phenethyl alcohol (fragrance compounds or plant-derived volatile organic chemicals) were obtained using simultaneous blood and brain microdialysis coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in mice given lavender or rose essential oils intraperitoneally. BBB function was confirmed using lucifer yellow in these mice, and results indicated that the phenyl arsenic compounds, linalool and 2-phenethyl alcohol, passed through the BBB. The present study demonstrates that simultaneous blood and brain microdialysis in a free-moving mouse makes it possible to test the BBB permeability of chemicals when coupled with appropriate chemical analysis methods.
... The use of conventional cosmetics gained so much popularity and prominence due to their ability to tone the skin and make an immediate impression. However, reports have shown that these chemicals are of serious negative implications to the health of users (Chinedu et al., 2013;Nigam, 2009) with quite a number of them having carcinogenic properties (Bridges, 2002) and others being reported to have allergic properties and often cause dermatitis (Johansen, Andersen, Rastogi, & Menne, 1996) among other skin-related diseases. Specifically, some of them contain varying components of harmful chemicals like amorphous carbon, zincite, cuprite goethite, elemental silicon or talc hematite, minimum, organic compounds (Adegoke, 2018;Hardy, Walton, & Vaishnav, 2004) and even heavy metals such as Lead. ...
Article
Full-text available
Use of indigenous cosmetics (IC) is fast loosing popularity in most African cities, in spite of their health, economic and social values. The study investigated acceptability and use of selected IC and determinants among patrons in Ibadan metropolis, Oyo state, Nigeria. A total 120 patrons of IC were sampled and survey questions were administered. PPMC and Tobit regression were used to isolate determinants of use of IC at 5% significance level. Result reveals a high relative health, economic and social values attached awareness and acceptability of IC among patrons. Black soap (made from wood and banana husk ash), coconut oil and shea butter were the most commonly acceptable and used. Patrons comprised individuals across different gender, religious and educational categories. Constraints to use of IC were poor packaging, inconsistency in quality and inadequate refined process. Use of IC was however significantly determined by sex-female (β =-2.274), perceived social advantage (β = 0.481) and acceptability (β=0.335). Perceived relative social advantage and acceptability were important predictors of use of indigenous cosmetics among patrons in Ibadan metropolis, Oyo state, Nigeria. Enormous prospects therefore exist for revitalization of the indigenous cosmetics industry in both rural and urban areas. Funding: This study received no specific financial support. Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Acknowledgement: The authors acknowledge the contributions of the teaching staff members of the Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development for the inputs made to enhance the smooth conduct of this research. The markets of indigenous cosmetics, especially the Iyalojas (woman market heads) in the selected markets of Oja-oba, Bere, Oje and Sango-elewure markets are also highly appreciated for providing information to link up with patrons of indigenous cosmetics.
... TCC may be able to induce the production of methemoglobin (Fe 13based protein complex, similar to hemoglobin but unable to carry oxygen) through the transformation by heat into a primary amine in the bloodstream (Johnson et al., 1963). Exposure to fragrances has been associated with a wide range of health effects, such as allergic contact dermatitis, asthma, headaches, and mucosal symptoms (Elberling et al., 2005;Bridges, 2002). Although humans metabolize phthalates, easily excreting them in 24À48 h through urine (Hauser and Calafat, 2005), the continuous exposure to it seems to be able to interact with a nuclear receptor (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors) that has an important role in adipogenesis and lipid storage, disrupting homeostasis, and increasing the risk for obesity and, thus, increasing diabetes risk (Svensson et al., 2011), as well as immune and asthma responses (Kimber and Dearman, 2010). ...
Chapter
Nowadays the presence of numerous emerging micropollutants is one of the most challenging problems in the aquatic environments. Their occurrence in water bodies is due to continuous discharge of personal care products (PCPs) into the environment and developed analytical techniques. Their entering to wastewater treatment plants (WTP or WWTP) has the negative effects on biological treatment processes; therefore conventional treatment processes are unable to completely remove PCPs from aquatic environments. This chapter reviews the acute and chronic toxicity data available for PCPs and focuses on the occurrence and fate of PCPs in water bodies and the techniques adopted for their removal from sewage treatment plant/WTP unit in different countries. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive summary of the removal and fate of PCPs in aquatic environments to adopt optimal methods for their removal in water and WWTP.
... TCC may be able to induce the production of methemoglobin (Fe 13based protein complex, similar to hemoglobin but unable to carry oxygen) through the transformation by heat into a primary amine in the bloodstream (Johnson et al., 1963). Exposure to fragrances has been associated with a wide range of health effects, such as allergic contact dermatitis, asthma, headaches, and mucosal symptoms (Elberling et al., 2005;Bridges, 2002). Although humans metabolize phthalates, easily excreting them in 24À48 h through urine (Hauser and Calafat, 2005), the continuous exposure to it seems to be able to interact with a nuclear receptor (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors) that has an important role in adipogenesis and lipid storage, disrupting homeostasis, and increasing the risk for obesity and, thus, increasing diabetes risk (Svensson et al., 2011), as well as immune and asthma responses (Kimber and Dearman, 2010). ...
Chapter
Although the unique global increase of pharmaceuticals is referred to one of the greatest benefits of health in society, it has also been paralleled by discharge of these compounds in natural environment and ecosystem. Knowledge concerning the fate, occurrence, and adverse effects of remained pharmaceutical in the aquatic environments is very low. Wastewater treatment plants have been identified as a major way for discharge of pharmaceuticals in aquatic bodies (ranging from ng/L to μg/L). Pharmaceuticals classes include nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, psychiatric, cardiovascular, hypocholesterolemic drugs, steroid hormones, and antibiotics. Currently due to their continuous discharge into the aquatic media and possible adverse health effects on human, flora, biota, and aquatic ecosystems, pharmaceuticals as emerging trace pollutants have obtained growing attention. First during the Catchment Quality Control in USA, it was found that pharmaceutical compounds can enter the water bodies. Although, for safety and efficacy aspects, strict regulations and controls are derived by pharmaceutical companies and institutions such as Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency (EMA), there are many environmental challenges to face now and in the future. Despite a great scientific advancement has been achieved, our knowledge is still limited on pharmaceuticals behavior as emerging micropollutants in aquatic environments. This review will be helpful to reveal the environmental exposure to these compounds in the aquatic environments.
... It is well agreed that, at present, there is little governmental regulation of fragrance exposure, and a system of self-regulation of the fragrance industry (Bridges 2002). So, ambient monitoring programs are required to analyze the presence of fragrance compounds in the environment (Ternes et al. 2007;Hoenicke et al. 2007). ...
Article
Full-text available
Synthetic fragrance compounds have become a ubiquitous part of household cleaning products and personal care agents. To improve aesthetics, fragrances are added, but the current research has unveiled detrimental effects of these odorous compounds. The exposure to the synthetic fragrances and musks, which are produced in quantities of thousands of tons per year, has been shown to elicit several pathologies. The fragrance compounds are regarded as toxins by the human immune system, and to eliminate them, cytochrome enzymes, especially aromatases, are overexpressed. These enzymes also convert androgens into estrogens, but excess estrogen production affects the endocrine system in both males and females. Although the estrogenic properties of cosmetics are increasingly being proven, the link between fragrance compounds and a wide variety of modern lifestyle diseases is not known to the majority of the public. It is increasingly being evident that all diseases have common roots, i.e., inflammation. The unprecedented prevalence of diabetes, obesity, cancer, and depression, among others pathologies, is tied to the limitless usage of fragrance compounds. Therefore, it is important to further investigate the dangers associated with fragrance compounds, to inform the regulatory bodies to allow them to better control manufacturers, and to alert consumers. This article is directed for facilitation of that objective.
Poster
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Cosmetovigilance - Ensuring Pharmacovigilance (Patient) Safety on Awareness Week (September 17-23rd)
Article
This study aimed to evaluate the repeated oral administration of α-terpineol in juvenile Wistar rats over a 70-day period. The objective was to assess the potential systemic and reproductive toxicity of α-terpineol when administered by gavage at doses of 75, 150, and 300 mg/kg/day to juvenile Wistar rats for 70 days from postnatal day 24. The control group received corn oil for 70 days. During the study, various parameters were evaluated, including clinical signs, body weight, food intake, neurobehavioral observations, haematology, serum biochemistry, organ weights, steroidogenic gene expression, and histopathological examination. No toxicity-related changes were observed in body weight, food intake, neurobehavioral observations, or steroidogenic gene expression. However, sperm evaluation revealed a complete absence of sperm and delayed sexual maturation. Total cholesterol was significantly elevated in both sexes, and serum testosterone was reduced at the 150 and 300 mg/kg doses. Microscopic examination showed severe pathological changes in the testes, epididymis, liver, and kidneys of both males and females. After the 14-day recovery period, total cholesterol levels returned to the normal range, but no recovery was observed in the other organs. The no-observed-adverse-effect level was 75 mg/kg/day for male rats based on the histopathological findings in the testes, liver, and kidneys, and for female rats based on the kidney and liver histopathology. Keywords: Juvenile Toxicity; α- Terpineol; Gene Expression; Sperm Parameters; Testosterone
Article
Full-text available
Cosmetic products are chemical substances or mixtures used on the skin, hair, nails, teeth, and the mucous membranes of the oral cavity, whose use is intended to clean, protect, correct body odor, perfume, keep in good condition, or change appearance. The analysis of cosmetic ingredients is often challenging because of their huge complexity and their adulteration. Among various analytical tools, mass spectrometry (MS) has been largely used for compound detection, ingredient screening, quality control, detection of product authenticity, and health risk evaluation. This work is focused on the MS applications in detecting and quantification of some common cosmetic ingredients, i.e., preservatives, dyes, heavy metals, allergens, and bioconjugates in various matrices (leave-on or rinse-off cosmetic products). As a global view, MS-based analysis of bioconjugates is a narrow field, and LC- and GC/GC×GC-MS are widely used for the investigation of preservatives, dyes, and fragrances, while inductively coupled plasma (ICP)-MS is ideal for comprehensive analysis of heavy metals. Ambient ionization approaches and advanced separation methods (i.e., convergence chromatography (UPC2)) coupled to MS have been proven to be an excellent choice for the analysis of scented allergens. At the same time, the current paper explores the challenges of MS-based analysis for cosmetic safety studies.
Research
Full-text available
Personal hygiene products like deodorants are widely used, but concerns have been raised about their potential toxicity and potential to pollute air and water, as well as their possible effects on human health. The chemical makeup of deodorant components, including preservatives, aluminium compounds, fragrance chemicals, and antibacterial compounds, determines how hazardous they are. Adverse health effects, including skin rashes, allergic reactions, endocrine disruption, and respiratory issues, have been linked to numerous chemicals. Finding out whether there are any possible hazards to human health from these chemicals requires an understanding of their toxicity. Propellers and fragrance chemicals, which can be detrimental to human respiratory health and cause indoor and outdoor air pollution, are examples of volatile organic compounds that spray formulations have the potential to release into the air. Wastewater treatment and disposal errors can contaminate water bodies, which may affect human water supplies and aquatic ecosystems. The toxicity of the ingredients in deodorant in different formulations-such as sprays, roll-ons, and sticks-is summarized in this review.
Article
Full-text available
The aim of our study is to assess the knowledge of vendors at the BAYAKA market in the commune of Ngiri-Ngiri Ville, Kinshasa, on the prevention of pathologies caused by volatile organic compounds. Methods : Data were collected using a survey questionnaire on a sample of 115 respondents, sellers of all kinds of chemical products with over three years' experience on the BAYAKA market. An interview grid (focus group) was used to complete the information contained in the questionnaire. The data collected covered the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents and their opinions on the characteristics of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), as well as cases of intoxication caused by Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). Results : The results showed that the main health problems linked to the use of volatile organic compounds cited by sellers were digestive problems (2.1%), eye irritation (17.0%), vomiting (12.8%), coughing (23.4%), respiratory problems (4.3%), skin irritation (8.4%), dizziness (12.8%), hunger (6.4%), heat in the hand (4.3%), etc. When it comes to waste management, most vendors dispose of their waste by incineration (48.5%), landfill (16.9%), reuse (11.5%) and garbage can (23.1%). Conclusion : In view of the results obtained, studies on samples of persistent organic products, hydrocarbons, sodium hypochlorites (bleach), etc. are essential for a sustainable orientation of market gardening in Kinshasa.
Chapter
Xenobiotics in urban water are an indicator substance of anthropogenic impact on urban water systems. The most common xenobiotics reported in urban water system are xenobiotics in personal care products, industrial products, pesticide formulations, heavy metals, petroleum products, perfluorinated compounds, etc. These xenobiotics are highly toxic in nature and bioaccumulate in the human body and other biotic forms. The highest media transfer of xenobiotics to urban water is from household waste/wastewater, which is followed by wastes from construction and agricultural activities, vehicular emissions, and industrial discharges. Xenobiotics in urban water are one of the major contributors for xenobiotic contamination of surface water, groundwater, and even soil. Hence, there is a need for assessing the different sources, types, concentration, and destiny of xenobiotics in urban water cycle for suggesting a proper mitigation measures. This chapter explores the various sources of xenobiotics in water cycle and its types, concentration, and destiny in the urban water cycle. This chapter discusses the source and translocation of xenobiotics in urban water cycle under the different categories of xenobiotics like pharmaceutical and personal care products, pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, and other xenobiotics, such as perfluorinated compounds, brominated flame retardants (BFRs), phthalates, perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), benzophenones, and some phenols (such as bisphenol A and parabens). This chapter also explores the toxicological effect of xenobiotics and finally the future research prospective.
Chapter
Polyzyklische Moschusverbindungen (PMV; engl.: polycyclic musks, PCM) sind substituierte Indane oder Tetraline. Von den sechs verwendeten PMV erwiesen sich HHCB (1,3,4,6,7,8‐Hexahydro‐4,6,6,7,8,8‐hexamethyl‐cyclopenta‐[g]‐2‐benzopyran, CAS‐Nr. 1222‐05‐5) und AHTN (6‐Acetyl‐1,1,2,4,4,7‐hexamethyl‐tetralin, CAS‐Nr. 1506‐02‐1) als die wirklich relevanten Verbindungen, auf die hier insbesondere eingegangen werden soll. HHCB und AHTN werden als Riechstoffe zum Ersatz von natürlichem Moschus verwendet in der Kosmetik eingesetzt. Ihre Verwendung ist jedoch rückläufig und die Belastung auf die Umwelt gering.
Chapter
Olfactory stimuli are processed in the human brain in a complex integrative system with other senses, and intimately wired to cortical areas related to the formation of memories, emotions, survival instincts, and language. These findings support the notion that the sense of smell imprints emotional value to objects and events, triggers memories and feelings which affect our moods and judgement, with repercussions on our behaviour and interpersonal relationships. This might explain our fascination with fragrances and pleasant scented materials, a trait that we seem to share with our ancestors and whose social and cultural significance changed over the centuries. Currently, it represents a multi-billion-dollar industry with application in numerous consumer products. With such production rates worldwide, fragrances naturally become a concern for their potential hazardous effects on humans and the environment. First only from natural origin and now predominantly synthetic materials, this wide array of chemicals has several uses according to their physicochemical properties but can impact all environmental compartments and life forms. This chapter gives a comprehensive overview about the types, classification, properties, production rates and main uses of fragrance compounds, as well as the main emission sources to the environment, potential toxicity, and regulatory actions currently in place to prevent hazardous incidences.KeywordsEmissionsEnvironmental pollutionFragrancesManufacturingToxicity
Article
Fragrance allergens (FAs) have been widely used in wet wipes, diapers, sanitary napkins, and other paper personal care products. There are more than 1000 fragrance allergens that may be present in these products. However, their negative effects on human health and environment cannot be ignored. This work presented a headspace (HS) solid-phase microextraction (SPME) combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for the determination of fragrance allergens in paper personal care products. The factors affecting the extraction efficiency were optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). Under optimal conditions, the method provided good linearity (R ≥ 0.995) from 2.5 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.28 × 10−1 µg with low limits of detection (LODs) between 1.9 × 10⁻² and 6.0 µg/kg. Twenty paper personal care products were analyzed and 12 fragrance allergens were detected. The detection rate of benzyl alcohol was the highest (80%) with contents from 0.009 to 5.73 mg/kg, followed by linalool (over 75%) with a content of 12.30 mg/kg in makeup removing wipes. Additionally, a comparison for the determination of fragrance allergens by solid–liquid extraction-dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (SLE-DLLME) and HS-SPME was reported. HS-SPME has been demonstrated to be a sensitive screening method for fragrance allergens in paper personal care products.
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A cosmetic is a formulation containing substances of natural or artificial origin intended to boost the appearance of any part of the body for which it is designed to gain the esthetic appeal to the members of the audience. Such products are meant for use on the face to supplement one’s appearance and are often designated as makeup. Several undesirable effects are concomitant to synthetically based cosmetics owing to their content of harmful synthetic ingredients. Attention has then been shifted toward herbal bioactive-based cosmetics containing phytoconstituents possessing antioxidant and free-radical scavenging actions exploited to control skin disorders like dry skin, eczema, ageing, inflammations, etc., and in aromatherapy. Cosmetics appear as solids, semisolids, or liquids and in a broad sense, could be formulated as solutions, creams/emulsions, lotions, suspensions, ointments, pastes, powders, gels, sticks, pencils, tablets, capsules, or aerosols. They can be itemized according to the part of the body they are meant to be used at, such as products for the skin, hair, nails, teeth, and eye or on the basis of their function as emollients, cleansing, decorative, deodorant/antiperspirants, and protective preparations. Herbal bioactive ingredients suitable for preparing cosmetics could be extracted from various parts of organic materials, especially plants that are in abundance. With innovations in research and development and technology, these phytoconstituents are standardized and their novel products are patentable. The future and market for herbal bioactive-based cosmetics are high.
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People are exposed to various chemicals contained in consumer products for which the risks are poorly characterized. There is growing evidence that exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) through product use potentially affects development, behavior, and reproduction. However, limited information is available about common combinations of chemicals based on their appearance and potential health effects. The present study listed the ingredients contained in 11064 household chemical products from a publicly available database, and identified EDCs related to estrogenicity, androgenicity, thyroid hormone disruption, and changes in steroidogenesis. Association rule mining was applied to the dataset to identify frequent combinations of chemicals or commonly occurring EDCs contained in a single product. Among the target products, ingredient names were matched with 1241 chemical identifiers. A total of 293 chemicals were related to endocrine disruption, and nearly two-thirds of the products contained more than one of these chemicals. Cleaning products, synthetic detergents, fabric softeners, air fresheners, and deodorants have several hotspots for fragrances, isothiazolinones, glycol ethers, and parabens. The three most prevalent EDCs in household chemical products were added to act as fragrances and preservatives. The present study demonstrated that commonly occurring chemical combinations can be derived using an association rule mining algorithm. The results of this study will be useful in prioritizing chemical combinations and developing management plans for EDC mixture in consumer products.
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Fragrance allergens (FAs) refer to these volatile or semi-volatile fragrance compounds that can cause irritation and negative reactions. A large number of emerging FAs are widely used in household goods, and cause contact allergy or allergic contact dermatitis in eczema population and the general population. It shows an increasing prevalence and is regarded as a concern to public health. Recently, more and more studies have focused on the analytical methods of FAs in a variety of samples with different matrices. Therefore, a systematic and comprehensive overview of recent progress of analysis of FAs in various samples is needed. In this review, the physical and chemical properties, applications, hazards, and the recent advances of sample preparation and determination methods of common FAs in personal care products, toys, and water samples are systematically and comprehensively summarized. Meanwhile, this review also discusses the advantages and limitations of different sample pretreatment and detection methods, thus offering a deep-going discussion of the development and future trends in this area.
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Exposure to environmental chemicals during early childhood is a potential health concern. At a tender age, children are exposed to fragrance chemicals used in toys and child care products. Although there are few initiatives in Europe and United States towards monitoring and regulation of fragrance chemicals in children's products, such efforts are still lacking elsewhere. Besides there has been no systematic effort to create a database compiling the surrounding knowledge on fragrance chemicals used in children's products from published literature. Here, we built a database of Fragrance Chemicals in Children's Products (FCCP) that compiles information on 153 fragrance chemicals from published literature. The fragrance chemicals in FCCP have been classified based on their chemical structure, children's product source, chemical origin and odor profile. Moreover, we have also compiled the physicochemical properties, predicted Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion and Toxicity (ADMET) properties, molecular descriptors and human target genes for the fragrance chemicals in FCCP. After building FCCP, we performed multiple analyses of the associated fragrance chemical space. Firstly, we assessed the regulatory status of the fragrance chemicals in FCCP through a comparative analysis with 21 chemical lists reflecting current guidelines or regulations. We find that several fragrance chemicals in children's products are potential carcinogens, endocrine disruptors, neurotoxicants, phytotoxins and skin sensitizers. Secondly, we performed a similarity network based analysis of the fragrance chemicals in children's products to reveal the high structural diversity of the associated chemical space. Lastly, we identified skin sensitizing fragrance chemicals in children's products using ToxCast assays. In a nutshell, we present a comprehensive resource and detailed analysis of fragrance chemicals in children's products highlighting the need for their better risk assessment and regulation to deliver safer products for children. FCCP is accessible at: https://cb.imsc.res.in/fccp.
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Amongst the countless marine organisms, seaweeds are considered as one of the richest sources of biologically active ingredients having powerful biological activities. Seaweeds or marine macroalgae are macroscopic multicellular eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms and have the potential to produce a large number of valuable compounds, such as proteins, carbohydrates, fatty acids, amino acids, phenolic compounds, pigments, etc. Since it is a prominent source of bioactive constituents, it finds diversified industrial applications viz food and dairy, pharmaceuticals, medicinal, cosmeceutical, nutraceutical, etc. Moreover, seaweed-based cosmetic products are risen up in their demands by the consumers, as they see them as a promising alternative to synthetic cosmetics. Normally it contains purified biologically active compounds or extracts with several compounds. Several seaweed ingredients that are useful in cosmeceuticals are known to be effective alternatives with significant benefits. Many seaweeds’ species demonstrated skin beneficial activities, such as antioxidant, anti-melanogenesis, antiaging, photoprotection, anti-wrinkle, moisturizer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antioxidant properties, as well as certain antimicrobial activities, such as antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activities. This review presents applications of bioactive molecules derived from marine algae as a potential substitute for its current applications in the cosmetic industry. The biological activities of carbohydrates, proteins, phenolic compounds and pigments are discussed as safe sources of ingredients for the consumer and cosmetic industry.
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Purpose: Menstrual symptoms are psychological and physical symptoms caused by hormonal changes according to the menstrual cycle, and many women complain of discomfort. This study was conducted to determine the factors that influence menstrual symptoms in female university students.Methods: Data collection was performed among 247 female students through convenient sampling at 2 universities in Korea, and the final analysis was conducted in 240 female students. Life style, women’s health characteristics, endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), and menstrual symptoms were assessed. Data were analyzed using an independent t-test, analysis of variance, and hierarchical regression analysis.Results: The results of hierarchical regression analysis of the variables that showed significant results among variables related to menstrual symptoms were as follows: amount of menstruation (β=0.20, p=0.001), use of scented candles (β=0.19, p=0.002), women's health-related disease (β=0.15, p=0.015), irregular exercise (β=0.14, p=0.021), the use of a styrofoam container for food packaging (β=0.14, p=0.035), and change in menstrual bleeding amount (β=0.13, p=0.037) had a significant positive effect on menstrual symptoms.Conclusion: In order to reduce the discomfort caused by menstrual symptoms, it is necessary to maintain a life style or women's health, and avoid the use of EDCs that have an impact on female reproductive hormones.
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Feminine hygiene products (FHPs) are used on highly permeable and sensitive vaginal and vulvar tissues by many women. These products contain a variety of chemicals, and few regulations require disclosure of their ingredients. The objectives of this study are to identify volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that may be present in these products and to evaluate the potential for exposure and health risk associated with product use. We collected 79 commercially available FHPs, including washes, tampons, menstrual pads, wipes, sprays, powders and moisturizers, and analyzed their composition using purge and trap sampling, thermal desorption, gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy. Exposures and risks were modeled using reasonable upper bound exposure scenarios. The highest VOC concentrations (as total target VOCs) were found in washes, sprays and powders, with median concentrations from 25,000 to 34,000 ng/g. Benzene (maximum: 3,604 ng/g) was detected in 83% of the collected products, and 1,4-dioxane (maximum: 24,354 ng/g) in 50% of the products. VOC composition depended on the FHP type, manufacturer and brand. Products labeled as “organic,” “natural,” or “for sensitive skin” did not necessarily have lower VOC concentrations. For most FHPs, calculated risks were low; however, menstrual pads had hazard ratios of up to 11, sprays and powders had hazard ratios of up to 2.2 and excess cancer risks of up to 2.1 × 10⁻⁶, and washes had excess cancer risks of up to 3.3 × 10⁻⁶. Our data suggest that all tested FHPs contained some toxic VOCs, and that risks of using some products should be addressed. We recommend the elimination of toxic ingredients and the disclosure of all chemicals that are used in these products.
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Perfumes are now added to articles in everyday use to an increasing extent. One example of this is addition of perfume to gravel in cat toilets. It is recognized that perfumes may cause toxic and allergic skin reactions while perfume as the cause of asthma is not so well recognized. In the case described here, exposure to industrial perfume resulted in asthma on account of irritation.
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We investigate the familial and environmental risk factors associated with asthma among United Arab Emirates schoolchildren aged 6-14 years. A cross-sectional study of 850 schoolchildren living in both urban and rural areas (average age 9.36 +/- 2.11 years; 46.8% boys, 53.2% girls) was conducted using self-administered questionnaires between October 1992 and May 1993. The population sample had a high prevalence rate of diagnosed asthma (13.6%) and allergic rhinitis (22.9%). The frequency of asthma, allergic rhinitis, and eczema among parents and siblings reflected the same pattern as that seen in the children. Environmental risk factors associated with asthma were pets, medicine, plants, dust storm, physical exercise, humidity, and perfume. All other factors, such as foods, climate, and parental smoking, showed no apparent relation to the development of asthma. The logistic regression analysis showed that parental asthma, plants, perfume, dust storm, humidity, and pets were the only significant predictors after adjusting for sex and other confounding covariates in the model. In conclusion, risk factors for asthma identified by our study are similar to those found in other community-based studies. Consistencies and discrepancies between our findings and those from other studies with respect to asthma risk factors support the hypothesis that asthma is a multifactorial disease related to both familial and environmental influences.
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Fragrances are one of the major causes of allergic contact dermatitis from use of cosmetics. The aim of the current study was to assess the possible exposure of infants and children to fragrance allergens from cosmetic products and "toy-cosmetics". 25 children's cosmetics or toy-cosmetic products were analysed by gas chromatography - mass spectrometry. Target substances were the fragrance allergens from the fragrance mix and 14 other fragrance substances, most of which have been described as contact allergens. The fragrance mix ingredients were either not present in children's shampoos/shower gels and cream/lotions, or they were present in fairly low concentrations. In hydro-alcoholic products, such as eau de parfum, eau de toilette, several ingredients of the fragrance mix were found: geraniol was present in 7/7 products, hydroxycitronellal in 6/7 and isoeugenol in 2/7 products. Isoeugenol was present in a maximum concentration of 0.07%. In one cosmetic-toy, cinnamic alcohol was present at 3.7% which exceeds the current industry guideline for safe products by a factor of 5. In all types of products other fragrance allergens were frequently found. In conclusion, children are already exposed at an early age to well-known allergens, sometimes at concentrations which are considered to be unsafe. As contact allergy usually persists for life, manufacturers of children's cosmetics should be aware of their special responsibility and apply the highest possible safety standards.
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During the last three decades, the impact of chemical pollution has focused almost exclusively on the conventional "priority" pollutants, especially those acutely toxic/carcinogenic pesticides and industrial intermediates displaying persistence in the environment. This spectrum of chemicals, however, is only one piece of the larger puzzle in "holistic" risk assessment. Another diverse group of bioactive chemicals receiving comparatively little attention as potential environmental pollutants includes the pharmaceuticals and active ingredients in personal care products (in this review collectively termed PPCPs), both human and veterinary, including not just prescription drugs and biologics, but also diagnostic agents, "nutraceuticals," fragrances, sun-screen agents, and numerous others. These compounds and their bioactive metabolites can be continually introduced to the aquatic environment as complex mixtures via a number of routes but primarily by both untreated and treated sewage. Aquatic pollution is particularly troublesome because aquatic organisms are captive to continual life-cycle, multigenerational exposure. The possibility for continual but undetectable or unnoticed effects on aquatic organisms is particularly worrisome because effects could accumulate so slowly that major change goes undetected until the cumulative level of these effects finally cascades to irreversible change--change that would otherwise be attributed to natural adaptation or ecologic succession. As opposed to the conventional, persistent priority pollutants, PPCPs need not be persistent if they are continually introduced to surface waters, even at low parts-per-trillion/parts-per-billion concentrations (ng-microg/L). Even though some PPCPs are extremely persistent and introduced to the environment in very high quantities and perhaps have already gained ubiquity worldwide, others could act as if they were persistent, simply because their continual infusion into the aquatic environment serves to sustain perpetual life-cycle exposures for aquatic organisms. This review attempts to synthesize the literature on environmental origin, distribution/occurrence, and effects and to catalyze a more focused discussion in the environmental science community.
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Using a novel and highly selective technique, we measured monoester metabolites of seven commonly used phthalates in urine samples from a reference population of 289 adult humans. This analytical approach allowed us to directly measure the individual phthalate metabolites responsible for the animal reproductive and developmental toxicity while avoiding contamination from the ubiquitous parent compounds. The monoesters with the highest urinary levels found were monoethyl phthalate (95th percentile, 3,750 ppb, 2,610 microg/g creatinine), monobutyl phthalate (95th percentile, 294 ppb, 162 microg/g creatinine), and monobenzyl phthalate (95th percentile, 137 ppb, 92 microg/g creatinine), reflecting exposure to diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, and benzyl butyl phthalate. Women of reproductive age (20-40 years) were found to have significantly higher levels of monobutyl phthalate, a reproductive and developmental toxicant in rodents, than other age/gender groups (p < 0.005). Current scientific and regulatory attention on phthalates has focused almost exclusively on health risks from exposure to only two phthalates, di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and di-isononyl phthalate. Our findings strongly suggest that health-risk assessments for phthalate exposure in humans should include diethyl, dibutyl, and benzyl butyl phthalates.
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Little information currently exists regarding the occurrence of secondary organic aerosol formation in indoor air. Smog chamber studies have demonstrated that high aerosol yields result from the reaction of ozone with terpenes, both of which commonly occur in indoor air. However, smog chambers are typically static systems, whereas indoor environments are dynamic. We conducted a series of experiments to investigate the potential for secondary aerosol in indoor air as a result of the reaction of ozone with d-limonene, a compound commonly used in air fresheners. A dynamic chamber design was used in which a smaller chamber was nested inside a larger one, with air exchange occurring between the two. The inner chamber was used to represent a model indoor environment and was operated at an air exchange rate below 1 exchange/hr, while the outer chamber was operated at a high air exchange rate of approximately 45 exchanges/hr. Limonene was introduced into the inner chamber either by the evaporation of reagent-grade d-limonene or by inserting a lemon-scented, solid air freshener. A series of ozone injections were made into the inner chamber during the course of each experiment, and an optical particle counter was used to measure the particle concentration. Measurable particle formation and growth occurred almost exclusively in the 0.1-0.2 microm and 0.2-0.3 microm size fractions in all of the experiments. Particle formation in the 0.1-0.2 microm size range occurred as soon as ozone was introduced, but the formation of particles in the 0.2-0.3 microm size range did not occur until at least the second ozone injection occurred. The results of this study show a clear potential for significant particle concentrations to be produced in indoor environments as a result of secondary particle formation via the ozone-limonene reaction. Because people spend the majority of their time indoors, secondary particles formed in indoor environments may make a significant contribution to overall particle exposure. This study provides data for assessing the impact of outdoor ozone on indoor particles. This is important to determine the efficacy of the mass-based particulate matter standards in protecting public health because the indoor secondary particles can vary coincidently with the variations of outdoor fine particles in summer.
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The effects of chiral fragrances (enantiomers of limonene and carvone) on the human autonomic nervous system (ANS) and on self-evaluation were studied in 20 healthy volunteers. Each fragrance was administered to each subject by inhalation using an A–A–B design. Individuals were tested in four separate sessions; in one session one fragrance was administered. ANS parameters recorded were skin temperature, skin conductance, breathing rate, pulse rate, blood oxygen saturation and systolic as well as diastolic blood pressure. Subjective experience was assessed in terms of mood, calmness and alertness on visual analog scales. In addition, fragrances were rated in terms of pleasantness, intensity and stimulating property. Inhalation of (+)-limonene led to increased systolic blood pressure, subjective alertness and restlessness. Inhalation of (–)-limonene caused an increase in systolic blood pressure but had no effects on psychological parameters. Inhalation of (–)-carvone caused increases in pulse rate, diastolic blood pressure and subjective restlessness. After inhalation of (+)-carvone increased levels of systolic as well as diastolic blood pressure were observed. Correlational analyses revealed that changes in both ANS parameters and self-evaluation were in part related to subjective evaluation of the odor and suggest that both pharmacological and psychological mechanisms are involved in the observed effects. In conclusion, the present study indicates that: (i) prolonged inhalation of fragrances influences ANS parameters as well as mental and emotional conditions; (ii) effects of fragrances are in part based on subjective evaluation of odor; (iii) chirality of odor molecules seems to be a central factor with respect to the biological activity of fragrances.
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The Research Institute for Fragrance Materials (RIFM) was established thirty years ago, chartered as a nonprofit international organization to: Gather and analyze available scientific data and other information on fragrance ingredients and to engage in a testing and evaluation program related to such materials. Distribute descriptions and other information relating to the uniform standards of testing and evaluation and the results thereof. Cooperate with governmental agencies in connection with any testing or evaluation program related to the use of fragrance ingredients or end products containing such ingredients. Encourage members of RIFM and others to adopt and adhere to uniform standards in the testing and evaluation of fragrance ingredients.
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This article reviews side-effects of fragrance materials present in cosmetics with emphasis on clinical aspects: epidemiology, types of adverse reactions, clinical picture, diagnostic procedures, and the sensitizers. Considering the ubiquitous occurrence of fragrance materials, the risk of side-effects is small. In absolute numbers, however, fragrance allergy is common, affecting approximately 1% of the general population. Although a detailed profile of patients sensitized to fragrances needs to be elucidated, common features of contact allergy are: axillary dermatitis, dermatitis of the face (including the eyelids) and neck, well-circumscribed patches in areas of ''dabbing-on'' perfumes (wrists, behind the ears) and (aggravation of) hand eczema. Depending on the degree of sensitivity, the severity of dermatitis may range from mild to severe with dissemination and even erythroderma. Airborne or ''connubial'' contact dermatitis should always be suspected. Other less frequent adverse reactions to fragrances are photocontact dermatitis, immediate contact reactions and pigmentary changes. The fragrance mix, although very useful for the detection of sensitive patients, both causes false positive and false-negative reactions, and detects only 70% of perfume-allergic patients. Therefore, future research should be directed at increasing the sensitivity and the specificity of the mix. Relevance is said to be established in 50-65% of positive reactions, but accurate criteria are needed. Suggestions are made for large-scale investigation of several fragrances on the basis of literature data and frequency of use in cosmetics. The literature on adverse reactions to balsam of Peru (an indicator for fragrance sensitivity), essential oils (which currently appear to be used more in aromatherapy than in perfumery) and on fragrances used as flavours and spices in foods and beverages is not discussed in detail, but pertinent side-effects data are tabulated and relevant literature is provided.
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A new method is described for the simultaneous analysis of nitro and polycyclic musks in air samples. Additional considerations are given to the aspects of sample preparation and blank problems. For the first time concentration levels of synthetic musks in selected Norwegian air samples were determined. In a preliminary investigation using ambient air samples prepared for the determination of persistent organic pollutants, musk xylene concentrations were between 8 and 19 pg/m3. A new sample preparation for the simultaneous analysis of polycyclic and nitro musks is presented. Both GC-electron impact (EI) MS and GC-negative ion chemical ionisation (NICI) MS were compared as detection methods. GC–EI-MS is to be preferred for the determination of synthetic musks since GC–NICI-MS is not sensitive enough for the determination for polycyclic musks. Blank problems occurred which have to be carefully considered during the whole work-up procedure. One indoor air sample was taken in the laboratory where the clean-up of the samples took place to evaluate laboratory air contamination. A concentration for 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethyl-cyclo[g]-2-benzopyrane of 2470 pg/m3 was found using gas chromatographic separation coupled with mass spectrometric detection in the electron impact mode (GC–low-resolution EI-MS). A set of four ambient air samples taken nearby the institute facilities was analysed for both nitro and polycyclic musks. For polycyclic musks, concentrations up to 130 pg/m3 (GC–EI-MS) were determined and for musk xylene a concentration maximum in ambient air samples 54 pg/m3 (low resolution EI-MS) was found. Critical considerations about laboratory contamination, clean-up and analysis of ambient air samples are given.
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Short-term 20-second exposure to hair sprays A and B failed to show significant decreases in maximum expiratory flow rates at low pulmonary volumes in normal subjects; however, significant decreases were observed with hair spray B in eight subjects with hyperractive airways (abnormal response to inhalation of methacholine). On the partial flow-volume curves, flows at 40 percent and 25 percent of forced vital capacity decreased 8.9 to 10.3 percent and 14 to 18.7 percent, respectively. The hair sprays differed in their content of perfume and plasticizer, and since the latter is generally considered nontoxic at room temperature, the perfume may be the responsible agent. It would appear from this study that normal healthy individuals are at little risk, at least from brief exposure to hair spray; however, in the presence of hyperreactive airways, as seen in asthmatic subjects and in some people with allergic rhinitis and viral respiratory infections, an immediate response of the airways may result from exposure to some hair sprays.
Article
Toxicity and carcinogenicity studies of musk xylol were examined in B6C3F1 mice. The LD50 of the chemical was considered to be more than 4000 mg/kg. In the acute toxicity and 14-day repeated-dose oral toxicity studies, tremor was observed in some animals given high doses of the chemical. In the 17-week repeated-dose oral toxicity study, musk xylol was given at dietary dose levels of 0.0375, 0.6%. During the experimental period, almost all mice given 0.3% or more died. There was no difference in the body-weight gain between the treated groups given 0.15% or less and the control group. Histologically, enlargement and irregularity of hepatocyte were found in both sexes given 0.15% or more. Based on the results, the chemical was given at dietary levels of 0 (control), 0.075 or 0.15% for 80 weeks in the carcinogenicity study. Overall tumor incidences in all treated groups of both sexes were significantly higher than those in the respective controls. Combined malignant and benign liver cell tumors increased clearly in both sexes and a significant positive trend for the occurrence of hepatocellular carcinomas was noted in males. Incidences of lung and Harderian gland tumors and lymphomas in treated groups were also slightly higher than those in controls. In addition, incidences and total numbers of malignant tumors increased significantly in treated groups of both sexes, although no dose-relation was evident. The results demonstrated that musk xylol is carcinogenic in B6C3F1 mice of both sexes when given at dose-levels of 0.075 or 0.15% in the diet for 80 weeks.
Article
A rat model for benign prostatic hyperplasia in man (BPH) was investigated. Citral treatment of male Copenhagen rats for 4 months via the transdermal route resulted in a marked hyperplasia of glandular epithelium and interglandular stroma in the ventral prostate. Despite the cellular hyperplasia there was not a significant increase in prostate weight. Investigations of the mechanism of action of citral showed that application of citral directly to the vagina in female, ovariectomized rats resulted in an increased proliferation of vaginal epithelium and a significant increase in the BrdUrd incorporation in vaginal epithelial cells, in short a similar effect to that of estrogen application. In an in vitro assay citral proved to inhibit estrogen binding to estrogen receptors, while no such inhibition was observed with testosterone for androgen receptors. These observations together with the estrogen implication in the BPH and the reported incidence of gynecomastia following exposure to geraniol, a precursor of citral, strongly suggest that the prostatic hyperplasia-inducing capacity of citral may be due to its estrogenic action.
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Reports in the literature suggest that the primary sensory neurons of the olfactory system may provide a direct route of entry for agents into the central nervous system (CNS). To investigate whether cadmium, a heavy metal which is normally excluded from the CNS by the blood-brain barrier, can enter the CNS via the olfactory system, rats were exposed either intranasally (unilaterally) or ip to 109Cd (1 mumol Cd labeled with 1 microCi 109Cd). Rats were allowed to survive 7 days, at which point they were euthanized and the kidneys, livers, right and left forebrains, right and left olfactory bulbs, and right and left olfactory epithelia were removed. Tissues were placed in scintillation vials and radioactivity counted. In rats exposed by intranasal instillation, Cd levels were significantly elevated in the kidney, liver and ipsilateral olfactory bulb and epithelium, but not in the contralateral bulb and epithelium or forebrain areas. With the ip exposure, Cd levels were only elevated in the kidney and liver. In a second study the protocol was repeated (without ip exposure), but the olfactory bulbs and epithelium were washed in EDTA before counting. Cd was still present in the bulbs after washing, suggesting that the metal was internal and not bound to the external membrane. In the final experiment, both time course and dose effect of this phenomenon were explored. Rats were exposed either intransally to 1 mumol Cd labeled with 109Cd (1 microCi) and then sacrificed after 1, 3, 7, or 14 days or were exposed to 0.01, 0.1, or 1.0 mumol Cd labeled with 1 microCi 109Cd and sacrificed after 7 days.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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The fragrance compounds linalool (1) and linalyl acetate (2) could be detected, identified and quantified (1: 7-9 ng ml-1; and 2: 1-2 ng ml-1 and 4-5 ng ml-1 as free linalool) in blood samples after inhalation in animal experiments (mice) by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) with chemical ionization (CI) (ammonia); selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode (1: m/z 81, 137 and 154; 2: 47, 57 and 137) and GC/flame ionization detection (FID). The inhalation of these monoterpenes in concentrations of 5 mg l-1 air leads to a significant reduction of the motility of the test animals down to 30-40% with respect to the control group.
Article
Musk ketone, musk xylene, musk tibetene and moskene, synthetic musks used in fragrances, were applied dermally to rats in daily doses of 240 (musk ketone and musk xylene only), 75, 24 or 7.5 mg/kg body weight for 90 days. The chemically related musk ambrette, a known neurotoxin in rats, was used as a positive control. While musk ambrette was clearly neurotoxic and caused testicular atrophy, as had been previously reported, the other compounds tested caused neither effect. The only effects of application of these materials were some organ weight changes at the higher doses, but these were not associated with histopathological changes in any of the tissues. The no-effect levels were: musk ketone, 75 mg/kg for males and females; musk xylene, 75 mg/kg for males and 24 mg/kg for females; moskene, 24 mg/kg for males and 75 mg/kg (highest dose administered) for females; and musk tibetene, 75 mg/kg (highest dose) for males and females.
Article
Formation of a cinnamaldehyde-protein conjugate in the skin by reaction of cinnamaldehyde with nucleophilic groups in proteins is considered to be responsible for the observed immunogenicity. The kinetics of the reaction of bovine serum albumin with cinnamaldehyde in aqueous solution at 30 degrees C have been investigated, and the rate of formation of conjugate over the pH range 6.4-10.5 showed a first-order dependence on cinnamaldehyde concentration. The cinnamaldehyde binding sites on the protein appeared mostly or exclusively to be the thiol groups of cysteine residues.
Article
Many patients complain that some odors worsen their asthma. Perfume and cologne are two of the most frequently mentioned offenders. Four patients with a history of worsening of asthma on exposure to cologne underwent challenge with a cologne, and their pulmonary function was tested before, during, and after the exposure. Forced expiratory volume in one second declined 18 to 58 percent below the baseline period during the 10-minute exposure and gradually increased in the next 20 minutes. Saline placebo pretreatment did not affect the response to subsequent challenge. Single-blind pretreatment with metaproterenol and atropine prevented decline in one-second forced expiratory volume in three of four patients and blunted the response in the other. Cromolyn sodium prevented decline in one of four, and occlusion of nostrils prevented decline in one of three. A survey of 60 asthmatic patients revealed a history of respiratory symptoms in 57 on exposure to one or more common odors. Odors are an important cause of worsening of asthma.
Article
Musk ambrette (2,6-dinitro-3-methoxy-4-tert-butyltoluene), a nitro-musk compound widely used as a fixative in fragrance formulations and found to a lesser degree in flavor compositions, produces hindlimb weakness when administered in the diet or applied to skin of rats for periods up to 12 weeks. Underlying neuropathologic changes consist of primary demyelination and distal axonal degeneration in selected regions of the central and peripheral nervous system. Murine neurological disease induced by musk ambrette occurs at doses well above estimated maximum daily human exposure. Lifetime experimental neurotoxicology studies using lower concentrations of musk ambrette for prolonged periods would be needed for the estimation of human risk.
Article
Perfume- and cologne-scented advertisement strips are widely used. There are, however, very few data on the adverse effects of perfume inhalation in asthmatic subjects. This study was undertaken to determine whether perfume inhalation from magazine scent strips could exacerbate asthma. Twenty-nine asthmatic adults and 13 normal subjects were included in the study. Histories were obtained and physical examinations performed. Asthma severity was determined by clinical criteria of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI). Skin prick tests with common inhalant allergens and with the perfume under investigation were also performed. Four bronchial inhalation challenges were performed on each subject using commercial perfume scented strips, filter paper impregnated with perfume identical to that of the commercial strips, 70% isopropyl alcohol, and normal saline, respectively. Symptoms and signs were recorded before and after challenges. Pulmonary function studies were performed before and at 10, 20, and 30 minutes after challenges. Inhalational challenges using perfume produced significant declines in FEV1 in asthmatic patients when compared with control subjects. No significant change in FEV1 was noted after saline (placebo) challenge in asthmatic patients. The percent decline in FEV1 was significantly greater after challenge in severely asthmatic patients as compared with those with mild asthma. Chest tightness and wheezing occurred in 20.7% of asthmatic patients after perfume challenges. Asthmatic exacerbations after perfume challenge occurred in 36%, 17%, and 8% of patients with severe, moderate, and mild asthma, respectively. Patients with atopic asthma had greater decreases in FEV1 after perfume challenge when compared with patients with nonallergic asthma. Perfume-scented strips in magazines can cause exacerbations of symptoms and airway obstruction in asthmatic patients. Severe and atopic asthma increases risk of adverse respiratory reactions to perfumes.
Article
Chest and occupational physicians participating in SWORD are estimated to have seen some 3300 cases of work-related respiratory disease in 1994, similar to the totals for 1992–1993. Occupational asthma was the single most frequent diagnosis (941 cases), but asbestos exposure was considered the cause in 1529 cases of diseases of long latency. Large-scale follow-up studies showed (i) that most patients with occupational asthma failed to recover and that half had left their employer, and (ii) that many patients had long-term respiratory illness including asthma following inhalation accidents. Over the six years of the scheme there have been slight changes in attributed agents for occupational asthma and in the frequency of various diagnoses; for example, there has been a gradual reduction in reports of pneumoconiosis. A decline with birth cohort in the proportion of mesotheliomas in men employed in shipyards is shown, with some evidence of a compensatory trend in construction trades.
Article
The article presents results of descriptive epidemiologic study of bronchial asthma among children in Moscow where the incidence is steadily growing. Since 1947 average prevalence of bronchial asthma in Moscow has increased over 7 times, being considerably uneven over the territory. The average prevalence equals 6.9/1,000, but on 56% of the territory it is double higher. Sites of the higher occurrence are localized in the living area situated near the Zoo, horse races, perfume factory and other enterprises, near major automobile roads. Statistic analysis of the prevalence if correlated with concentrations of pollutants in the air proved that nitrogen oxides induce 60% of the cases. No differences in some risk factors (heredity, living conditions, etc.) were revealed by the poll among families of the ailing children residing in the districts with variable air pollution. The results helped to restructure pediatric allergologic service in the city.
Article
Musk xylene, ketone, ambrette, tibetene and moskene are synthetic nitroaromatic compounds. Because of their scent, they are used as substitutes for natural musk. In particular musk xylene and musk ketone are added to cosmetics, washing agents and other products. Acute toxicity of nitro musks has been estimated to be low. Knowledge on the toxicokinetics, chronic toxicity, as well as mutagenic and carcinogenic potential is based so far on only few studies. First evidence for the persistence of these lipophilic compounds in the environment and their potential to accumulate in organisms came from their identification in the aquatic ecosystem. Nitro musks have now been identified in mother's milk. The analysis of 391 samples from Southern Bavaria, Germany, in 1991 and 1992 revealed concentrations of musk xylene ranging from 0.01-1.22 mg/kg fat with a mean content of 0.10 mg/kg fat. This was 2-3 times higher than the mean contents of musk ketone or musk ambrette. Average levels of the nitro musks were in the range of those usually found for various chlorinated compounds like hexachlorocyclohexanes and cis-heptachloroepoxide. Because of their presence in cosmetic products and washing agents dermal absorption could be an important route of uptake of nitro musks in man. Toxicologic relevance of the present findings for humans is still unclear. In order to assess consequences for health, further investigation of effects caused by a continual uptake of small amounts of these substances is necessary.
Article
Certain chemicals are known to cause occupational respiratory allergy associated with symptoms of pulmonary distress, including asthma and rhinitis. While there is no doubt that inhalation represents an important route of exposure for the development of sensitization to the inducing allergen, there is evidence that effective sensitization of the respiratory tract may result also from dermal contact with the chemical. The mechanisms relevant to the stimulation of respiratory sensitization following cutaneous exposure to chemical allergens and implications for the prevention of occupational asthma are considered here.
Article
A group of nine patients with respiratory symptoms after nonspecific irritating stimuli, but without any IgE-mediated allergy or demonstrable bronchial obstruction, were referred to the asthma/allergy outpatient department for evaluation of suspected asthma. In order to find a provocation model and objectively assess these patients' symptoms in controlled studies, provocation with perfume or placebo was performed. The same patients were also subjected to perfume provocation with or without a carbon filter mask to ascertain whether breathing through a filter with active carbon could prevent the symptoms. The patients breathed through the mouth during the provocations, as they used a nasal clamp to prevent any smell of perfume. We found that the patients' earlier symptoms could be verified by perfume provocation. Breathing through the carbon filter had no protective effect. The conclusion is that symptoms suggesting hyperreactivity of the respiratory tract and asthma can be provoked by perfume without the presence of bronchial obstruction, and that using a carbon filter mask has no preventive effect. The symptoms are not transmitted via the olfactory nerve, since the patients could not smell the perfume, but they may have been induced by a trigeminal reflex via the respiratory tract or by the eyes.
Article
This article reviews side-effects of fragrance materials present in cosmetics with emphasis on clinical aspects: epidemiology, types of adverse reactions, clinical picture, diagnostic procedures, and the sensitizers. Considering the ubiquitous occurrence of fragrance materials, the risk of side-effects is small. In absolute numbers, however, fragrance allergy is common, affecting approximately 1% of the general population. Although a detailed profile of patients sensitized to fragrances needs to be elucidated, common features of contact allergy are: axillary dermatitis, dermatitis of the face (including the eyelids) and neck, well-circumscribed patches in areas of "dabbing-on" perfumes (wrists, behind the ears) and (aggravation of) hand eczema. Depending on the degree of sensitivity, the severity of dermatitis may range from mild to severe with dissemination and even erythroderma. Airborne or "connubial" contact dermatitis should always be suspected. Other less frequent adverse reactions to fragrances are photocontact dermatitis, immediate contact reactions and pigmentary changes. The fragrance mix, although very useful for the detection of sensitive patients, both causes false-positive and false-negative reactions, and detects only 70% of perfume-allergic patients. Therefore, future research should be directed at increasing the sensitivity and the specificity of the mix. Relevance is said to be established in 50-65% of positive reactions, but accurate criteria are needed. Suggestions are made for large-scale investigation of several fragrances on the basis of literature data and frequency of use in cosmetics. The literature on adverse reactions to balsam of Peru (an indicator for fragrance sensitivity), essential oils (which currently appear to be used more in aromatherapy than in perfumery) and on fragrances used as flavours and spices in foods and beverages is not discussed in detail, but pertinent side-effects data are tabulated and relevant literature is provided.
Article
To evaluate whether emissions of a commercial air freshener produced acute toxic effects in a mammalian species, the authors allowed male Swiss-Webster mice to breathe the emissions of one commercial-brand solid air freshener for 1 h. Sensory irritation and pulmonary irritation were evaluated with the ASTM-E-981 test. A computerized version of this test measured the duration of the break at the end of inspiration and the duration of the pause at the end of expiration--two parameters subject to alteration via respiratory effects of airborne toxins. Measurements of expiratory flow velocity indicated changes in airflow limitation. The authors then subjected mice to a functional observational battery, the purpose of which was to probe for changes in nervous system function. Emissions of this air freshener at several concentrations (including concentrations to which many individuals are actually exposed) caused increases in sensory and pulmonary irritation, decreases in airflow velocity, and abnormalities of behavior measured by the functional observational battery score. The test atmosphere was subjected to gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy, and the authors noted the presence of chemicals with known irritant and neurotoxic properties. The Material Safety Data Sheet for the air freshener indicated that there was a potential for toxic effects in humans. The air freshener used in the study did not diminish the effect of other pollutants tested in combination. The results demonstrated that the air freshener may have actually exacerbated indoor air pollution via addition of toxic chemicals to the atmosphere.
Article
To evaluate whether fragrance products can produce acute toxic effects in mammals, we allowed groups of male Swiss-Webster mice to breathe the emissions of five commercial colognes or toilet water for 1 h. We used the ASTM-E-981 test method to evaluate sensory irritation and pulmonary irritation. We used a computerized version of this test to measure the duration of the break at the end of inspiration and the duration of the pause at the end of expiration. Decreases in expiratory flow velocity indicated airflow limitation. We subjected the mice to a functional observational battery to probe for changes in nervous system function. The emissions of these fragrance products caused various combinations of sensory irritation, pulmonary irritation, decreases in expiratory airflow velocity, as well as alterations of the functional observational battery indicative of neurotoxicity. Neurotoxicity was more severe after mice were repeatedly exposed to the fragrance products. Evaluation of one of the test atmospheres with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry revealed the presence of chemicals for which irritant and neurotoxic properties had been documented previously. In summary, some fragrance products emitted chemicals that caused a variety of acute toxicities in mice.
Article
Bioaccumulation of musk xylene (MX) was measured by GC-ECD in adult and developing Long Evans rats. Males and females were fed with MX-containing chow (0.001, 0.01, 0.033, 0.1 g MX/kg food pellets) for 10 weeks before mating. Treatment continued during pregnancy and lactation. Offspring exhibited dose-dependent MX accumulation with 1/2-3/4 of adult female or 3-4 times adult male body fat levels (at 0.1 mg/kg food) at days 1 and 14. Milk levels were comparable to adult female adipose tissue. Data indicate significant transplacental passage and exposure via maternal milk. In rats fed with MX in adulthood, levels were highest in adipose tissue with significant amounts in other organs (ovary, adrenal). Female tissue levels were 3.7-6.8 times higher. This unexplained sex difference was unrelated to lipid content and was absent in offspring.
Article
SWORD is one of seven clinically based reporting schemes which together now provide almost comprehensive coverage of occupational diseases across the UK. Although SWORD is now in its tenth year, participation rates remain high. Of an estimated 3,903 new cases seen this year, 1,031 (26%) were of occupational asthma, 978 (25%) of mesothelioma, 794 (20%) of non-malignant pleural disease, 336 (9%) of pneumoconiosis and 233 (6%) of inhalation accidents. Incidence rates of occupational asthma were generally highest among workers in the manufacture of wood products, textiles and food (particularly grain products and crustaceans) and additionally, in the production of precious and non-ferrous metals, rubber goods, detergents and perfumes, and in mining. Health care workers were noted to have a surprisingly high incidence of inhalation accidents. Occupational asthma attributed to latex has increased dramatically; the highest rates are among laboratory technicians, shoe workers and health care workers.
Article
To study the effects of perfume and phytoncid on GABAA receptors, ionotropic GABAA receptors were expressed in Xenopus oocytes by injecting mRNAs that had been prepared from rat whole brain. Essential oil, perfume and such phytoncid as leaf alcohol, hinokitiol, pinene, eugenol, citronellol and citronellal potentiated the response in the presence of GABA at low concentrations (10 and 30 microM), possibly because they bound to the potentiation-site in GABAA receptors and increased the affinity of GABA to the receptors. Since it is known that the potentiation of GABAA receptors by benzodiazepine, barbiturate, steroids and anesthetics induces the anxiolytic, anticonvulsant and sedative activity or anesthetic effect, these results suggest the possibility that the intake of perfume or phytoncid through the lungs, the skin or the intestines modulates the neural transmission in the brain through ionotropic GABAA receptors and changes the frame of the human mind, as alcohol or tobacco does.
Article
The effect of enhancer(s) (e.g. ethanol (EtOH), 5% linolenic acid/EtOH, and 5% limonene/EtOH) and iontophoresis was investigated on the in vitro percutaneous absorption of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) and ultrastructure of human epidermis by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). 5% linolenic acid/EtOH or 5% limonene/EtOH significantly enhanced (P<0.05) the passive flux of LHRH through human epidermis in comparison to the control (no enhancer treated epidermis). Iontophoresis further increased the flux of LHRH through enhancer(s) treated epidermis. Iontophoretic flux of LHRH through 5% linolenic acid/EtOH and 5% limonene/EtOH treated epidermis was significantly (P<0.05) enhanced in comparison to iontophoretic flux through the control epidermis. TEM is the most efficient way to visualize the ultrastructure of the stratum corneum (SC). TEM results reveal that iontophoresis in combination with enhancers (e.g. linolenic acid/EtOH or and limonene/EtOH) transformed the highly compact cells of the SC into a looser network of filaments, disrupted the keratin pattern, and resulted in swelling of SC cell layers of human epidermis. Thus, linolenic acid/EtOH or limonene/EtOH in combination with iontophoresis increased the flux of LHRH through human epidermis by disrupting keratin pattern as well as loosening and swelling of SC cell layers.
Article
In earlier studies, we have shown that patients with a history of sensory hyperreactivity develop asthma-like symptoms when exposed to strong scents, even if they cannot smell any scent. For study of possible pathophysiologic mechanisms behind sensory hyperreactivity, the patients' airways and eyes were separately exposed to a common inducing factor, perfume. Eleven patients with a history of hyperreactivity to chemical trigger factors, such as perfume, were provoked single-blindly in a placebo-controlled, randomized study. During airway exposure, the eyes were covered and, during the eye exposure, the patients inhaled fresh air. A special face mask or a nose clip was used to avoid any smell. During the 30-min exposure to perfume, there was a gradual increase in three main symptoms; i.e., eye irritation, cough, and dyspnea, after both the airway and eye exposures. The increases were significant compared with placebo. Asthma-like and other symptoms, such as irritation of the eyes, may be induced by exposure of both the airways and the eyes in patients with sensory hyperreactivity. This points to the importance of studying the sensory nervous system, not only in the airways, but also in other organs.
Article
Users of consumer products are invariably and intentionally exposed to complex mixtures in such products. With finished fragrance products, these mixtures may represent 100 or more fragrance raw materials (FRMs). The objective of the described studies was to evaluate the safety of finished fragrance products via the inhalation route. In total, the finished products contained approximately 100 FRMs at concentrations of 1% or greater. Major FRMs evaluated included benzyl acetate, coumarin, hydroxycitronellal, musk ketone, 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethyl-cyclopenta-gamma-2-be nzopyran (HHCB) and phenyl ethyl alcohol. Groups of rats or hamsters were exposed by inhalation (whole body) to the mixtures at 5, 9 or 50 mg/m3 for 4 h per day, 5 days per week for 6 or 13 weeks. For each of the fragrance products, the doses used generally represented a ten- to 100-fold exaggeration of levels expected to be achieved during typical use by consumers. With one exception, the fragrances were aerosolized prior to introduction into the inhalation chamber. The exception product was formulated with a propellant, packaged in a pressurized container and expelled with an automated actuator. In all studies, chamber concentrations of fragrance were monitored. Particle sizes ranged from 0.5 to 7.5 microm, depending on the study. Subchronic exposure to all fragrance mixtures resulted in no toxicologically significant effects on animal survival, behavior, body weights or weight gains, organ weights, or in hematology, clinical chemistry, or urinalysis parameters. No gross pathological or histopathological findings related to test material exposures were observed. These studies support the conclusions that the fragrance mixtures would not pose a hazard to product users based on repeated and exaggerated inhalation exposures of animals.
Article
The ubiquitous presence of the polycyclic musks AHTN (6-acetyl-1,1,2,4,4,7-hexamethyltetraline) and HHCB (1,2,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-gamma-2-b enzopyreen) in surface waters and their identification in human milk fat together with their polycyclic nature, which makes them potential candidates for interference with estrogen receptors, prompted us to assess these compounds for their potential estrogenic effects. We therefore investigated the effects of AHTN and HHCB in ERalpha- and ERbeta-dependent gene transcription assays with Human Embryonal Kidney 293 (HEK293) cells, which have proven to be very suitable to estimate the estrogenic activity of compounds with low binding activity (Kuiper, G.G., Lemmen, J.G., Carlsson, B., Corton, J.C., Safe, S.H., Van der Saag, P.T., Van der Burg, B., Gustafsson, J.A., 1998. Interaction of estrogenic chemicals and phytoestrogens with estrogen receptor beta. Endocrinology 139, 4252-4264). Both AHTN and HHCB were found to induce a slight but dose-dependent stimulation of transcriptional activity in the transiently ERalpha transfected HEK293 cells. This weak estrogenic response was not observed in the ERbeta transiently transfected cells. However, these cells were less responsive to estradiol than the ERalpha transfected HEK293 cells. Also, no significant increase in transcriptional activity was observed in HEK293 cell lines, permanently expressing the same estrogen-responsive reporter gene construct and either ERalpha or ERbeta. In the classical uterine weight assay performed in juvenile Balb/c mice, no uterotrophic activity of AHTN and HHCB was noted at relatively high dietary exposure levels up to 50 and 300 ppm, respectively, at which levels an increase in liver weight was evident. Also the vitellogenin production by carp hepatocytes, a sensitive marker of estrogenic activity, was not affected by these two fragrance materials (Smeets, J.M.W., Rouhani Rankouhi, T., Nichols, K.M., Komen, H., Kaminsky, N.E., Giesy, J.P., Van den Berg, M., 1999. In vitro vitellogenin production by carp (Cyprimus carpio) hepatocytes as a screening method for determining (anti-) estrogenic activity of xenobiotics. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 157, 68-76). Therefore it is concluded that these compounds have very weak estrogenic potency, too weak to induce estrogenic effects in wildlife species or humans at the current levels of exposure. These results give further support to the promiscuity of estrogen receptors.
Article
The polycyclic musk fragrances, mainly 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta(g)-2-ben zopyrane (HHCB) and 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyltetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN) are synthetic musk fragrances which are used in almost all scented consumer products, such as perfumes, cosmetics and laundry detergents. Concerning their chemical structures the polycyclic musks are indane and tetraline derivatives highly substituted mainly by methyl groups. Their production has been increased continuously during the last years with a world-wide production volume today of about 6000 t/year. After their application in private households they are dumped via the sewage treatment plants into the aquatic environment. In this review the analysis of polycyclic musk compounds in environmental samples is shortly presented and all published data of polycyclic musk compounds in water, sediment, suspended particulate matter (SPM), sewage sludge, and biota are summarized and discussed. The highest HHCB and AHTN concentrations were analysed in water (maximum concentrations: 6 microg HHCB/l, 4.4 microg AHTN/1) and sludge (maximum concentrations: 63 mg HHCB/kg dry matter, 34 mg AHTN/kg dry matter) from sewage plants, and in fish (maximum concentrations: 159 mg HHCB/kg lipid, 58 mg AHTN/kg lipid) from sewage ponds. In all other samples from different aquatic ecosystems these chemicals were unequivocally detected in varying concentrations dependent on the distance to sewage treatment plants. Even in marine water samples from the German Bight HHCB and AHTN could be quantified at the lower ng/l level. Very often HHCB and AHTN formed the major organic contaminants, in all samples their concentrations exceeded those of musk xylene and musk ketone. Also several by-products and impurities of the commercial polycyclic musks were analysed in river and waste water samples in not negligible amounts. The apparently ubiquitous distribution of polycyclic musks in the aquatic environment demonstrates the persistence and lipophilicity of these pollutants. The high log K(ow) values of HHCB and AHTN (5.7-5.9) do not directly correlate with their relatively low bioconcentration factors (BCFs) derived from fish experiments, this discrepancy may be explained by a particular metabolism in fish. There are indications of a possible species dependent metabolisation. For a general risk assessment of this new group of environmental pollutants besides the missing toxicological data, further studies on the distribution of the polycyclic musk fragrances including their by-products in the aquatic environment, on possible degradation processes in sediment/sludge as well as on the metabolism in fish are urgently needed.
Article
Olfactory stimuli modulate emotional conditions and the whole body immune system. Effects of odorant inhalation on cutaneous immune reaction were examined. Contact hypersensitivity to 2,4, 6-trinitrochlorobenzene was elicited in C57BL/6 mice. The reaction was suppressed at both the induction and elicitation phases by exposure to an odorant, citralva. Topical application of citralva or lyral/lilial did not affect the reaction. The suppressive effect of citralva was more potent than that of another odorant, lyral/lilial. Citralva decreased the number of epidermal Langerhans cells, whereas lyral/lilial had a weak effect. Citralva but not lyral/lilial induced plasma corticosterone. Glucocorticoid receptor antagonist abrogated the suppressive effect of citralva on contact hypersensitivity. Serum interleukin-12 was downregulated by exposure to citralva or lyral/lilial. These data demonstrate that olfactory stimuli regulate the cutaneous immune system.