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Review article
Status of forests in Uganda
Joseph Obua
1
*, Jacob G. Agea
2
and Joseph Jones Ogwal
3
1
The Inter-University Council for East Africa, PO Box 7110 Kampala,
2
Department of Community Forestry, Makerere University, PO Box 7062
Kampala and
3
Ministry of Water and Environment, PO Box 7096, Kampala, Uganda
Abstract
Trees, forests and woodlands cover about 14% of Uganda’s
land surface. Over the last 30–40 years, growth in human
population and corresponding increase in demand for
forest products for domestic and industrial use, expansion
of agricultural land, illegal settlements and weak forest
management capacity have adversely affected the status of
natural forests in Uganda, particularly the biodiversity.
Until recently, little attention had been paid to develop-
ment of commercial forests which should have provided
alternative forest products and services to relieve the
pressure on natural forests and conserve biodiversity. As a
result, Uganda’s forests have been degraded, and in some
cases, the biodiversity has been eroded. There is a need for
regular data collection and monitoring of the status of the
forests in terms of areal extent, distribution, plantation
species introductions and biodiversity.
Key words: conservation, forest, management, reserves,
status, Uganda
Re
´sume
´
Arbres, bois et fore
ˆts couvrent environ 14% de la superficie
terrestre de l’Ouganda. Au cours des 30 a
`40 dernie
`res
anne
´es, la croissance de la population humaine et la
demande correspondante de produits forestiers a
`usages
domestique et industriel, l’expansion des terres agricoles, les
installations ille
´gales et de me
´diocres capacite
´s de gestion
forestie
`re ont eu des effets ne
´fastes sur l’e
´tat des fore
ˆts
ougandaises, et spe
´cialement sur leur biodiversite
´. Jusqu’il y
a peu, l’on avait accorde
´que peu d’attention au de
´velopp-
ement de fore
ˆts commerciales qui auraient duˆ fournir des
produits et des services forestiers alternatifs, afin de soulager
la pression exerce
´e sur les fore
ˆts naturelles et de pre
´server la
biodiversite
´. Par conse
´quent, les fore
ˆts ougandaises sont
de
´grade
´es et, dans certains cas, la biodiversite
´est touche
´e. Il
faut collecter des donne
´es re
´gulie
`res et suivre le statut des
fore
ˆts en termes d’e
´tendue, de distribution, d’introduction
d’espe
`ces plante
´es et de biodiversite
´.
Introduction
The term forest refers to a type of vegetation dominated
by trees most of which at maturity are more than 5 m
tall and establishes a minimum tree canopy cover of 30%
(National Forestry Authority, 2008). It includes all
alpine, tropical high- and medium-altitude forests,
woodlands, wetland and riparian forests, plantations and
trees, whether on public or private land (Ministry of
Water, Lands and Environment, 2001). For an area to be
considered a forest, it should have a tree cover of at least
20% or more and the area should not be <0.5 ha in size
(National Environment Management Authority,
2004 ⁄2005). On the other hand, a woodland is an area
predominantly covered with woody plants, trees over
4 m high, shrubs and grasses. When discussing the sta-
tus of forests in Uganda, woodlands are also included
because many forests have extensive woody species
coverage. On the other hand, tree cover in grasslands
and woodlands may increase because of dynamics in the
faunal populations leading to formation of a forest.
Forests that are found on public land are referred to as
forest reserves. A forest reserve is an area of land that is
reserved by law for forestry purposes, including protection
*Correspondence: E-mail: j.obua@vicres.net
2010 The Authors. Journal compilation 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Afr. J. Ecol. 1
of ecologically important areas and production of forest
goods and services. Forest reserves also include bushlands
and grasslands within the reserved land.
Of the total of 4.9 million hectares of forests and
woodlands in Uganda, 64% (1, 265, 471 ha) are found
outside the Permanent Forest Estate (PFE), (land set aside
for forestry activities in perpetuity, managed by private
landowners and regulated by local governments). The PFE
is 1.9 million ha, of which 61.4% is managed by the
National Forestry Authority (NFA), 33.6% is managed
by Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA); 4.7% of the PFE is
jointly managed by NFA and UWA and 0.3% by local
governments. The central forest reserves (CFRs) were
reserved to provide forest products, amenity and recrea-
tion, conserve biodiversity, ameliorate climate, stabilize
soils, and protect water catchments and steep slopes,
riverbanks and lakeshores.
Uganda’s forest reserves were gazetted with the aim of
ensuring continuous supply of forest goods and services
to the people of Uganda. Since the establishment of the
Forestry and Scientific Department in 1890, forestland
was reserved for research, protection of ecological systems
and future supply of forest products. As early as the
1930s, the inadequate supplies of forest products and
deteriorating ecological functions were foreseen, and
mitigation measures put in place although these
measures have not prevented the degradation and loss of
forests.
The functions of CFRs remain largely the same as
stipulated in the Forestry Policy of 2001 and the National
Tree Panting and Forest Act of 2003. However, there
have been weaknesses in forest governance associated
with implementation of policies and laws. CFRs become
the targets for forest crime during periods of political
campaigns elections, often with the tacit support of the
politicians seeking votes. At the same time, institutional
issues of corruption and inadequate capacity to manage
forests are still persistent.
The principle of ‘Man and the Biosphere’ has been
applied in the management of Uganda’s natural forests in
which the forests have been zoned into nature reserves
(20% of the forest is protected), protection ⁄buffer zone
where low-impact uses are permitted (30%) and the pro-
duction zone for controlled production of timber and other
forest products (50%). Sixty-five CFRs with a total area of
840,100 ha are part of a network of sites of special sci-
entific interest that are critical for biodiversity conservation
in Uganda.
Country setting
Uganda is a landlocked country lying astride the equator
between latitudes 130¢South and 4North and longitudes
2930¢and 35East (National Environment Management
Authority, 2004 ⁄2005). It covers an area of about
241,500 km
2
of the central African plateau north of Lake
Victoria. The central part of the country is characterized by
a gentle topography of flat-topped hills and broad swampy
valleys lying at an altitude of 1000–1500 m above sea
level (Howard, 1991). Uganda has a diverse climate
influenced by the country’s latitudinal position, altitude
and topography. Seasonal movements of the Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone determine the general pattern of rain-
fall. Much of the country receives between 1000 and
1500 mm per annum except in Karamoja in the north-
east that receives 750 mm per annum. The mountainous
areas of Rwenzori and Elgon and the islands in Lake Vic-
toria receive about 2000 mm per annum. The mean
temperatures vary from 18 to 20C in the highlands of the
south-west and eastern borders to 25–30C in the rift
valley and plains of northern Uganda. Climatic conditions
favourable to forest formation are found in parts of the
southern half of the country where rainfall exceeds
1150 mm per annum and evenly distributed throughout
the year. The tropical high forests are found in three dis-
tinct geographical zones: the zone lying along the eastern
rim of the rift valley escarpment in the west of the country,
in a broad belt around the north-western shores of Lake
Victoria, and on the scattered mountains (Moroto, Kadam
and Elgon) in the east of the country.
The importance of Uganda’s forests
Forests are of immense importance to Ugandans. The NFA
report of 2008 indicates that in 2004, the total economic
value of Uganda’s forests, including all marketable and
nonmarketable values, was estimated at Uganda shillings
(Ushs) 593.24 billion (USD 304 million at the exchange
rate of USD 1 = Ushs. 1920), equivalent to about 5.2% of
the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Forests and trees con-
tribute Uganda shillings 332.3 billion (US$173 million) to
the total annual incomes of the households in Uganda. The
Forest Sector Review Report (Ministry of Water, Lands and
Environment, 2001) indicates that wood and nonwood
products removed from the forest for subsistence use are
about Ushs. 210 billion (USD 109 million) or 2.75% of the
GDP. Thus, the overall contribution of forests is about 6%
2Joseph Obua et al.
2010 The Authors. Journal compilation 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Afr. J. Ecol.
of the GDP. Forests and woodlands also provide a number
of environmental services and direct benefits to agricul-
ture, water and fisheries sectors. These include the value of
watershed and ground water protection, erosion control
and carbon sequestration. These benefits are estimated at
about Ushs. 112 billion or 1.45% of the GDP.
Uganda’s forest types
Uganda’s natural forests vary in structure and composition
in different parts of the country. The differences are because
of the altitudes at which the forests occur, soil types,
drainage and past human activities. Many areas presently
designated as forest reserves have a long history of human
occupancy. Old cultivation plots and fire-maintained
grazing lands have been colonized by trees and represent
young colonising forest types. In the Lake Victoria region,
Kibale and Kasyoha-Kitomi along the western rift valley,
many forests have grown up and expanded in the areas
that were abandoned in the last century because of
rinderpest, sleeping sickness or tribal wars (Dale, 1954;
Langdale-Brown, Osmaston & Wilson, 1964; Hamilton,
1984).
Langdale-Brown, Osmaston & Wilson (1964) classified
Uganda’s forest types into medium altitude–moist-ever-
green forest, medium altitude–moist-semi-deciduous forest
and high-altitude forest. The medium altitude moist-ever-
green forest is structurally complex and rich in species
including many lianas, epiphytes and large trees (Howard,
1991). The three sub-types are named after the dominant
trees, namely Peptadeniastrum-Uapaca type which occurs
on Sese Islands in Lake Victoria, Peptadeniastrum-Albizia-
Celtis which are found on the slightly drier lake shores and
the Parinari excelsa type that are found along the western
rift valley between 1000 and 1500 m above sea level.
The medium altitude–moist-semi-deciduous forests are
found in areas where the dry season is longer and more
severe. The four sub-types are Celtis-Chrysophyllum forest
found in the drier areas to the north of Lake Victoria,
Cynometra-Celtis forest of lower altitude zones along the
western rift, Albizia-Milicia excelsa forest to the north of
Lake Victoria and the Albizia-Markhamia forest which
occurs in the mid-west at altitudes of 1200–1500 m. The
high-altitude forest occurs above 1500 m and tends to be
less species rich than those found at lower altitudes. The
forest has broken and irregular canopy characterized by
trees of low stature. Prunus moist sub-type is found in
south-western Uganda and in the Mt.Elgon area. The sub-
type merges into Arundinaria montane bamboo forest zone
at 2300–2750 m and or Hagenia-Rapenea forest zone of
low trees above 2750 m. On the drier northern slopes of
Mt. Elgon and the Karamoja Mountains Juniperus-Podo-
carpus dry montane sub-type is found between 1500 and
2750 m.
The extent and ownership of forests in Uganda
There are 4.9 million hectares of natural forests and
woodlands in Uganda, which cover 24% of the land area
(National Environment Management Authority, 2002).
Eighty-one per cent (3,974,000 ha) of this is woodland,
19% (924,000) is tropical high forest and <1%
(35,000 ha) is forest plantations (National Forestry
Authority, 2008). Table 1 shows the ownership of Ugan-
da’s forested areas, including tropical high forests, wood-
lands and plantations. The NFA and the UWA manage
Table 1 Areas (hectares) of forest and woodland under different ownership and management categories
Land cover
Government land Private land
TotalForest reserves
National parks &
Wildlife Reserves Private & Customary land
Tropical high forest 306,000 267,000 351,000 924,000
Woodlands 411,000 462,000 3,102,000 3,975,000
Plantations 20,000 2,000 11,000 33,000
Total forest 737,000 731,000 3,464,000 4,932,000
Other cover types 414,000 1,167,000 13,901,000 15,482,000
Total land 1,151,000 1,898,000 17,365,000 20,414,000
Source: Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment (2001)
Status of forests in Uganda 3
2010 The Authors. Journal compilation 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Afr. J. Ecol.
almost equal areas of forested land while the woodlands
are largely under private ownership.
Early attempts to document the status of forests
in Uganda
Attempts to formally document the status of forests in
Uganda date as far back as the 1950s when Eggeling &
Dale (1951) and the Flora of Tropical East Africa (1952).
Other efforts by Synnott (1971) generated a list of plant
species (including trees) in some forests of western Uganda.
Hamilton (1984) published a book on Deforestation in
Uganda and provided useful insights into the status of
Uganda’s forests. Hamilton noted that despite some taxo-
nomic uncertainties, there were only 450 known forest
trees in Uganda. He attributed the distribution of forest
plants and animals in Uganda to modern environmental
conditions and changes in climate during the last ice age
(more than 12,000 years ago). Hamilton predicted the
future of forestry in Uganda and observed that ever since
the introduction of agriculture nearly 2500 years ago,
forests have been cleared to make way for agricultural
crops and pasture, a process that still continues, so that
even the remaining forest patches are shrinking fast. In the
savannah and wooded agricultural lands, trees are being
cut for firewood, charcoal and other products. He noted
that there are many places that supported considerable
number of trees in the last 40 years which today are
almost treeless.
A comprehensive account of the biodiversity status of
the natural forests has been given by Howard (1991) in
view of the increasing human activities such as
encroachment, illegal settlement and uncontrolled exploi-
tation of the forests. With the support of the World Con-
servation Union (IUCN), he carried out an inventory of
twelve principal forest reserves in Uganda and reported
that there are 427 tree species, 329 forest bird species,
twelve diurnal forest primate species and 71 species of
forest butterflies and charaxes (Table 2). Building on
Howard’s work, in 1996, the Forest Department published
a series of biodiversity reports in Uganda’s forest reserves
based on biodiversity indicator species (trees, birds, but-
terflies, mammals and primates) inventory data.
Changes in Uganda’s forest cover
The current status of forests in Uganda is a product of
changes in the forest cover because of degradation and
Table 2 The number of species belonging to four biodiversity indicator groups from Uganda’s twelve principal forest reserves
Indicator
group
Maximum
Possible
number of
species Kibale Semliki Budongo
Kalinzu-
Maramagambo Bungoma
Bwindi
Impenetrable
Kasyoha-
Kitomi Itwara
Sango
Bay Mabira
Mt.
Elgon Rwenzori
Trees 427 209 168 240 242 158 163 204 143 170 202 112 75
Birds 329 177 216 159 181 144 214 104 87 119 151 144 89
Primates 12 8 8 5 6 6 7 6 6 6 2 2 4
Butterflies 71 45 51 42 40 42 57 21 25 45 39 36 15
Howard (1991)
4Joseph Obua et al.
2010 The Authors. Journal compilation 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Afr. J. Ecol.
deforestation during the past century. According to the
FAO (1997, 2001), the forest cover may have been as
much as 10.8 million hectares (53%) of Uganda’s land
area in 1890. The National Environment Management
Authority (2004 ⁄2005) reported that Uganda’s tropical
high forest cover dwindled from 12.5% of the total land
area to 3% in 1987. The National Biomass Study data
collected between 1989 and 1995 indicate that this has
now shrunk to <5 million hectares or 24% of the land area
(Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment, 2001).
According to the National Forestry Authority (2008),
Uganda’s forest and woodland cover has dropped from
4.9 million hectares (20% of Uganda’s land area) in 1990
to 3.6 million (14%) in 2005. This represents a 1.9%
deforestation rate, which is slightly higher than in other
Eastern Africa countries whose rate is below 1%. On pri-
vate lands, nearly 1.3 million hectares have been lost over
the last 15 years while 91,000 ha have been lost in CFRs,
confirming that forests on private lands are fast disap-
pearing.
The quality of the tropical high forest, in terms of
number of species and trees, has also declined over time
with well over 30% being classified as degraded. Although
there is no clear definition or measurement of this degra-
dation, oral accounts from experienced foresters indicate
that 75% of Uganda’s principal forest reserves have been
degraded by heavy mechanical and uncontrolled pit-saw-
ing. In 2000, deforestation rate in Uganda was estimated
at 55,000 hectares (0.9%) per annum based on change in
areas of bushland and woodland from 1990 to 1995.
Other estimates of deforestation rates are 1.10–3.15% per
annum.
The State of the Environment Report of 2002 indicates
that data on the trends in tree cover change and defores-
tation are not consistent because they were not collected in
some years (National Environment Management Author-
ity, 2002). Estimates by the Forest Department show that
by 2002, Uganda was losing about 200,000 hectares of
forest annually. Of a total of 1.17 million hectares of
CFRs, 58,000 hectares (5%) had been degraded or
depleted. Overall, 14 of 500 forest reserves had been
degraded. Table 3 shows changes in forest cover between
1990 and 2005.
Several causes of forest degradation and deforestation in
Uganda have been documented key among which is
breakdown in law and order between 1970 and 1986,
conversion to agricultural land and other land uses,
increase in demand for forest products for domestic and
commercial purposes, higher demand for construction and
furniture timber and weak law enforcement and policy
implementation. About 3,436,000 ha of forests found on
private land have been degraded because the landowners
regard the forest as a major source of income, and poten-
tial agricultural and grazing land. Charcoal, fuel wood,
poles and timber are uncontrollably extracted from these
forests. The high human population growth rate of 3.4%
per annum (Uganda Bureau of Statistics (2002), and
expanding human settlement (urban and rural) have also
been responsible for the high rate of deforestation in
Uganda as forests are cleared to give way to spatial agri-
cultural expansion and settlement. In general, annual rate
of deforestation is highest in the woodlands (2.1%) and
lowest in the relatively well-stocked tropical moist forests
(0.3%).
The National Environment Management Authority
(2004 ⁄2005) has documented a number of underlying
factors that have contributed to the decline in the quality
and extent of Uganda’s forest resources. First, some forest
land was lost as a result of postindependent government
policy to increase agricultural production between 1960
and 1970. Extensive woodlands were at the same time
cleared for livestock production. Second, there are policy
Table 3 Changes (ha) in forest cover in Uganda between 1990 and 2005
Year ⁄Land cover ⁄use
Broadleaved
plantations
Conifer
plantations
THF well
stocked
THF low
stocked Woodland Total forest cover
1990 18,682 16,384 650,150 274,057 3,974,102 4,933,375
2005 14,593 17,174 616,307 187,420 2,719,102 3,554,594
Change in area )4,089 790 )33,843 )86,637 )1,255,000 )1,378,781
Change in area per year )273 53 )2,256 )5,776 )83,667 )91,919
% change in area )22% 5% )5% )32% )32% )28%
% change per year )1.5% 0.3% )0.3% )2.1% )2.1% )1.9%
Source: National Forestry Authority (2008).
Status of forests in Uganda 5
2010 The Authors. Journal compilation 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Afr. J. Ecol.
deficiencies relating to the private sector and local com-
munities over land tenure, access rights and responsibili-
ties for resource management. Third, market failures such
as inappropriate royalty rates, poor market information,
trade restrictions and hidden subsidies which distort the
markets for forest products have in the past affected the
forest resource base. Fourth, although environmental and
forest regulation has improved considerably at the central
government level, at the local level, the institutional
structure to regulate environmental and forest manage-
ment is weak because of inadequate funding for operations
and development. Fifth, the failure of government to pro-
vide alternative energy sources has increased the demand
for biomass energy. Sixth, rural poverty restricts the ability
of local communities to invest in sustainable land use
practices, and lack of alternative livelihood options has
resulted in continued dependence on forest resources.
Seventh, and probably the most important, is the gov-
ernment policy on modernization of the economy. The
policy promotes fast economic growth and rural transfor-
mation centred largely on agriculture. The desire for fast
economic growth triggered government decisions to
degazette forest reserves and the land given to investors
under the guise of increasing agricultural production in
spite of public disapproval and resentment. The degazetting
of Butamira and Bugala Island forests recently are clear
testimonies to this. On Bugala Island in Lake Victoria, over
6000 hectares of relatively undisturbed natural forest
have been cleared to give way to oil palm growing. Mabira
forest reserve on the Kampala–Jinja highway is still at risk
of being given away for sugar cane growing. In the affected
areas, economic reasons are often given to justify conver-
sion of forest land to agricultural land. The perceived
notion is that the forests yield lower social rate of return
than agriculture for the same unit area of land.
The drive for a modern economy has also been coupled
with a significant increase in construction of residential,
commercial and institutional buildings that use millions of
bricks burnt with thousands of tonnes of firewood. Timber
for construction is also on high demand and much of it
comes from the natural forests. Furthermore, the majority
of industries are agro-based and some like tea processing,
sugar production, tobacco curing, bakeries and fish pro-
cessing require huge quantities of firewood. Although all
these indicate the economic importance of forests to
Uganda, they at the same time show the detrimental effects
of social and economic activities on Uganda’s forest and
tree cover.
Concluding remarks
The status of Uganda’s forests cannot be discussed without
referring to issues of governance, poverty alleviation and
human population growth. Although Uganda’s forest
policy is well articulated, its implementation is weak be-
cause of inadequate resource allocation and political
interference that are highly detrimental to good forest
management and conservation. Uganda’s poverty eradi-
cation action plan has been well intentioned but has
achieved little because of inadequate resources. As such,
millions of resource poor Ugandans still depend on envi-
ronmental resources such as trees and forests as the most
readily accessible and valuable resources for personal
acquisition and exploitation for income and to sustain their
livelihoods. Unless great progress is made in addressing
poverty and livelihoods situation in Uganda, especially
household income enhancement, pressure on the forests
will continue to grow and the remaining forests will be
degraded and lost.
Uganda’s forests can also be saved if sufficient resources
are allocated to the NFA to manage, conserve and ensure
their sustainable utilization. The forest sector has been
inadequately financed over the last four decades, along
with other environmental services. Despite the recent
establishment of the National Environment Management
Authority (NEMA) and the NFA as governmental agencies
responsible for implementation of environmental systems
of control, low expenditure on the environment and for-
estry has contributed to their deterioration and this has in
turn aggravated social tensions between these agencies
and the local communities relying on environment and
forest resources. A greater commitment by government
and more financial support is required to manage and
conserve Uganda’s forests. As noted by Hamilton (1984), a
loud and clear voice in favour of forests and trees is needed
to assist the work of the NFA, so too is a firm commitment
by government to conserve and manage forests.
The NFA needs to regularly monitor the status of plan-
tation forests in terms of tree species being planted, their
survival and productivity in the different agroecological
zones. Although government has gazetted a national tree
planting day after the enactment of the Forest and Tree
Planting Act 2003, the increase in tree planting interest in
the last 10–15 years cannot be wholly attributed to it.
Furthermore, NFA together with the UWA and the NEMA
should monitor and report the status of the natural
forests both in and outside the protected areas and the
6Joseph Obua et al.
2010 The Authors. Journal compilation 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Afr. J. Ecol.
information made available to stakeholders in the forestry
sector. Such information will indicate the performance of
the trees species and whether or not there is an increase in
tree cover and acreage. Accurate and reliable information
is needed to inform debates, discussions and decision
making on forest management and conservation in
Uganda.
Lastly, there have been efforts by the NEMA and the
NFA to report the status of Uganda’s forests in terms of
changes in forest cover. This is not enough because the
report on status of forests should also include information
on the number of biodiversity indicator species such as
trees, birds, mammals, primates and butterflies. Without
such information, it is impossible to apply measures that
can enhance forest management and conservation that
should lead to sustained benefits of forests for the current
and future generations.
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Fao (1997) State of the World’s forests. FAO, Rome.
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2010 The Authors. Journal compilation 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Afr. J. Ecol.
