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Offshore wind farm development in Europe and its comparison with onshore counterpart
Abstract
Wind power, as a renewable source of energy, produces no emissions and is an excellent alternative in environmental terms to conventional electricity production based on fuels such as oil, coal or natural gas. At present, the vast majority of wind power is generated from onshore wind farms. However, their growth is limited by the lack of inexpensive land near major population centers and the visual pollution caused by large wind turbines. Comparing with onshore wind power, offshore winds tend to flow at higher speeds than onshore winds, thus it allows turbines to produce more electricity. Estimates predict a huge increase in wind energy development over the next 20 years. Much of this development will be offshore wind energy. This implies that great investment will be done in offshore wind farms over the next decades. For this reason, offshore wind farms promise to become an important source of energy in the near future. In this study, history, current status, investment cost, employment, industry and installation of offshore wind energy in Europe are investigated in detail, and also compared to its onshore counterpart.
... Wind energy is a highly clean and eco-friendly form of energy. Due to the growing scarcity of land resources, the advancement of offshore wind power has emerged as a crucial route for the future development of wind power [1][2][3]. Aggressively advancing the development of offshore wind power is a crucial step towards achieving the "dual-carbon" objective and transitioning to renewable energy sources. The Global Wind Energy Council's (GWEC) Global Wind Power Report 2024 states that a total of 117 GW of new wind power was installed worldwide in 2023, resulting in a cumulative installed capacity of 1 TW [4]. ...
... = · · · = P n−1 U wt(n−1) = P n U wtn (1) where i DC is the output current of the series-connected all-DC wind farm, and P i and U wti are the output power and output voltage of the i th DCWT, respectively. Equation (1) demonstrates that the output power of each DCWT in the series-type all-DC wind farm is exactly proportional to the output voltage. ...
... = · · · = P n−1 U wt(n−1) = P n U wtn (1) where i DC is the output current of the series-connected all-DC wind farm, and P i and U wti are the output power and output voltage of the i th DCWT, respectively. Equation (1) demonstrates that the output power of each DCWT in the series-type all-DC wind farm is exactly proportional to the output voltage. Therefore, the U wti value of the i th DCWT can be represented as ...
Offshore wind farms connected in series, with each wind turbine connected in series with one another, enhance the coupling between them. Significant differences in wind speeds between neighboring DC wind turbines (DCWTs) might result in a substantial disparity in the output voltage, hence posing a risk of overvoltage. Nevertheless, implementing voltage-limiting configurations for DCWTs might lead to the dissipation of wind energy, thereby diminishing the wind farm’s capacity to deliver electricity. This work introduces a half-bridge voltage balancing circuit (HVBC) topology as a solution to the issue of DCWT output voltage changes affecting the stable operation of wind farms. The proposed HVBC topology is designed specifically for large-capacity series-connected all-DC wind farms where wind speed variations occur. This design achieves power decoupling for series-connected all-DC wind farms by providing current compensation to the series-connected DCWTs. A control strategy is devised by examining the decoupling principle and operational characteristics of the HVBC. A 60 kV/48 MW tandem-type all-DC wind farm model consisting of six DCWTs in series is built in Matlab/Simulink. The model is then simulated to evaluate its performance under conditions of unequal wind speed, rapid changes in wind speed, and wind turbine failure shutdown. This research verifies the feasibility of the HVBC topology and improves the stability of the series-type all-DC wind farm.
... Onshore wind energy has been the primary renewable energy resource, being an excellent alternative in environmental terms to conventional electricity production based on fuels [9]. However, land facilities have difficulties in expansion and growth due to the visual and sound pollution caused by large wind turbines [10]. ...
... With favorable indicators in almost every environmental index, combined with large areas and better wind conditions, for instance, higher wind speeds with lower turbulence effects and lower wind shear, offshore wind plants have become the future of wind energy [11]. However, these systems require more complex marine foundations, underwater power cables, and crew and transportation logistics, leading to a more expensive investment [10,12]. ...
The deployment of offshore wind turbines (WTs) has emerged as a pivotal strategy in the transition to renewable energy, offering significant potential for clean electricity generation. However, these structures’ operation and maintenance (O&M) present unique challenges due to their remote locations and harsh marine environments. For these reasons, it is fundamental to promote the development of autonomous solutions to monitor the health condition of the construction parts, preventing structural damage and accidents. This paper explores the application of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in the inspection and maintenance of offshore wind turbines, introducing a new strategy for autonomous wind turbine inspection and a simulation environment for testing and training autonomous inspection techniques under a more realistic offshore scenario. Instead of relying on visual information to detect the WT parts during the inspection, this method proposes a three-dimensional (3D) light detection and ranging (LiDAR) method that estimates the wind turbine pose (position, orientation, and blade configuration) and autonomously controls the UAV for a close inspection maneuver. The first tests were carried out mainly in a simulation framework, combining different WT poses, including different orientations, blade positions, and wind turbine movements, and finally, a mixed reality test, where a real vehicle performed a full inspection of a virtual wind turbine.
... One of the most widely used is wind, which is the movement of air produced by the irregular heating of the earth's surface by the sun, which kinetic energy can be converted by wind systems into electricity. Wind energy has no depletion limits and is extremely economically efficient, showing beneficial effects in terms of employment, investment, research, economic activity and energy independence (Esteban et al., 2011;Bilgili et al., 2011). However, onshore wind power, which is now considered traditional energy production, is experiencing a critical period related to the saturation of available sites and the environmental impacts associated with such installations. ...
... In addition to high design costs in order to guarantee higher reliability of these technologies, high construction and maintenance costs are encountered due to difficulties in transporting elements to installation sites, related complications due to weather conditions and the need for longer and more submerged energy transport networks. Therefore, with the aim of making offshore wind power generation highly competitive on the market, so as to take full advantage of its high potential in terms of power generation and increase the number of installations, it is necessary to invest on research in this area reducing its critical aspects (Esteban et al., 2011;Bilgili et al., 2011;Breton and Moe, 2009). Advantages and disadvantages of Offshore Wind Turbine respect to Onshore Wind Turbine are summarized in Table 2. Offshore wind production (Fig. 2), although it has considerable potential, still has some gaps that need to be filled to make this technology more competitive on the market. ...
The main purpose of the present paper is to cover the lack of a reference point in the literature providing
a comprehensive review of the state of the art, recent developments, and future challenges relatives to
analytical, experimental, and numerical approaches tailored for the field of dynamic characterization of floating
offshore wind turbines, with a focus on aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, and anchoring systems. The Real Time
Hybrid Approach makes it possible to overcome some of the problems associated with the scaling laws of
the classical experimental approach, so the development of advanced actuators in association with numerical
models that can guarantee accurate simulation and low computational burden are the main challenges of these
approaches. In the field of numerical modeling, Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics methods show the highest
levels of accuracy for studying fluid–structure interaction. Associated with this, the identification of analytical
or semi-analytical formulations to solve coupled problems related to the dynamic characterization of floating
offshore wind turbines could offer considerable contribution to overcome the limitations arising from the
computational burdens of numerical methods. For future developments, additional topics of interest include
a deeper investigation in terms of control strategies, wind farms, including wake effects, shared anchors, and
mooring lines, as well as the use of new materials in mooring lines.
... According to existing studies, a key determinant of the effectiveness of wind farms is their appropriate location [2]. This aspect is linked to the availability of adequate wind resources, which reach higher speeds in the open sea than onshore winds and are generally a better source of green energy [3,4]. The quality of the wind resource [5] is considered in terms of its strength, intensity and direction, which are to an important extent determined by the conditions of the sea [6]. ...
... Drawing attention to the conditions indicated, it is highlighted as pointless to overlook existing energy resources, particularly in countries directly adjacent to offshore or ocean basins [24], promoting the natural need to develop offshore wind energy, and this development is noted worldwide. Offshore wind energy technologies are constantly being improved [3,25,26], increasing the investment justification in the direction in question. In 2021, 93 GW of wind energy was produced, where 21 GW was created by offshore wind [12], confirming the strong development of this dimension of the world's energy transition. ...
The development of green technology in the world is progressing extremely rapidly. New possibilities for obtaining energy from renewable sources are constantly being sought and existing solutions are being improved. The multifaceted potential of the seas and oceans is an important aspect being taken into account in the development of the energy systems of a number of economies. One dimension of action in this area is the orientation towards offshore wind energy and the construction of offshore wind farms for this purpose. The purpose of this article is to analyse the importance of offshore wind farms in Poland’s energy system and to assess public perception of the changes taking place in this dimension. The article is based on research and critical analysis of the available literature, legal regulations and industry reports, as well as on the results of our own surveys, the scientific findings of which were developed with the application of statistical instruments using PQstat software, ensuring the expected quality of results. The findings of the article indicate the significant importance of offshore wind farms in the creation of Poland’s energy mix, with differing public attitudes towards their construction. Furthermore, the results of the research indicate a differentiated attitude of society towards the construction of offshore wind farms. The main motivation for majority support of the measure in question are economic reasons, which are connected with the expectation of a real price reduction per 1 kW of energy, as well as increased attractiveness of the region due to investments in this area. The main concern with the measure relates to environmental aspects, with concerns about the functioning of ecosystems in light of the construction and subsequent operation of wind farms. Negative public opinion is also signalled in relation to the potential risk of landscape change in a direction that is undesirable for the studied developed coastal tourist region in Poland.
... The main advantages are greater generation capacity, enhanced reliability, and remote location. This kind of wind generating has higher wear and tear and higher installation and maintenance costs because these facilities are located deep in the ocean, which raises the price of generation [146][147][148][149][150][151][152][153][154]. Figure 29 presents important facts and projections derived from a thorough review of the report. There are two sections to this figure: (A) and (B). ...
... The main advantages are greater generation capacity, enhanced reliability, and remote location. This kind of wind generating has higher wear and tear and higher installation and maintenance costs because these facilities are located deep in the ocean, which raises the price of generation [146][147][148][149][150][151][152][153][154]. Figure 29 presents important facts and projections derived from a thorough review of the report. There are two sections to this figure: (A) and (B). ...
The voltage source converter‐based high voltage direct current transmission (VSC‐HVDC) is considered the most appropriate option to harness the maximum potential of renewable energy, particularly offshore wind. With improved reliability and functionality of the network, reduced conversion losses, and reduced cost, the VSC‐based multiterminal direct current (MTDC) transmission has gained significant importance and popularity. This review paper provides a wide‐ranging overview of VSC‐HVDC networks. It includes detailed discussions on circuit configurations for VSC‐HVDC, MTDC‐based configurations for VSC‐HVDC, and the converter topologies. The review also contains a discussion on the control methodologies for VSC‐HVDC networks. Furthermore, it outlines the details of protection equipment, primarily focusing on conventional and advanced circuit breakers. In addition to the details of VSC‐HVDC networks, this review also thoroughly examines the renewable energy landscape in the key South Asian Region (SAR). It provides pertinent renewable energy statistics to demonstrate the gap between the current utilization of renewable energy resources (RESs) and the potential of the region, with a preliminary focus on wind energy. Considering the major challenge of bridging the gap between the existing and available wind energy capacity, this review proposes some recommendations for maximizing the utility of wind energy by bolstering the VSC‐HVDC transmission. By accepting the suggested premises, affordable access to clean energy can be made possible, contributing to the achievement of the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) on affordable energy for the SAR to some extent. A comprehensive literature survey with key energy statistics concludes that an efficient and cost‐effective transmission network is necessary to maximize the utility of available sustainable and renewable energy sources.
... Photo courtesy Evan Krape Introduction W ind energy is widely regarded as an important strategy for climate change mitigation. 1 While onshore wind infrastructure has a longer history as a power generation source, offshore wind (OSW) is becoming an important renewable energy resource and its development is rapidly expanding across the globe. 2 The global OSW capacity in 2023 reached 75.2 gigawatts (GW). 3 This represents a 24 percent increase since 2022, and forecasts predict that annual additions of offshore wind power will likely triple by 2028. 4 Asia is the global leader in OSW development (over 40 GW of installed capacity), 5 followed by Europe (34 GW). ...
The offshore wind industry is rapidly expanding across the globe as countries aim to meet ambitious renewable energy targets and provide renewable energy to coastal population hubs. Offshore wind represents not only a transformation of energy markets but also ocean spaces with which individuals and communities have economic, personal, and cultural ties. Social science research can help understand the complexity of this human-technology interaction by exploring individuals’ perceptions of offshore wind projects and their effect on sociocultural systems. In this article, we review two theories that examine the social dimensions of offshore wind: social acceptance and energy justice. We then conduct a literature review of offshore wind research using these social acceptance and energy justice frameworks, with a focus on three groups of affected communities (coastal residents, tourists and recreationists, and commercial and recreational fishers) and compensation measures. We finish with a discussion of what the current literature reveals about the complex and diverse responses people have to offshore wind development in their community and the implications for future research.
... Overall, offshore wind holds great potential for the Mediterranean region, and further research is necessary to assess the feasibility of new projects. Wind energy is now indispensable in the world's energy markets and generates a large number of new employments; this sector already employs over 400,000 people, and in a short while, that figure is predicted to reach the millions [38]. ...
... Offshore wind turbines offer an alternative located farther away from communities and wildlife and access to faster and more consistent wind speeds (Bilgili et al., 2011). However, it introduces additional technical challenges and costs driven by underwater depth and the corrosive and unpredictable marine environment. ...
... As a highly efficient form of renewable energy, offshore wind power harnesses wind energy at sea and converts it into electricity through wind turbines (Li et al., 2020). Compared with onshore wind power, offshore wind power offers greater efficiency and more stable wind speeds because of the abundant and steady wind resources in marine environments (Bilgili et al., 2011;Sun et al., 2012). Since the first offshore wind turbine was installed in Sweden in the 1990s, several European countries (such as Denmark, the United Kingdom, and Germany) have made significant advances in this field, with the scale of offshore wind power expanding continuously; consequently, such systems are expected to play a crucial role in future energy systems (Esteban et al., 2011). ...
... generation [1] due to its clean, renewable characteristics, and its positive impact on the environment is self-evident. With the global focus on reducing carbon emissions and promoting the energy transition, accelerating the installation and operation of wind turbines has become an important way to promote the green transformation of the energy sector [2]. ...
Wind turbines are vital equipment for converting wind energy into electrical energy. Precise detection of wind turbines in high-resolution images is of great importance for building accurate wind turbine databases. However, their distinctive white appearance poses challenges for detection in snowy domain images. To address this problem, a domain adaptive deep convolutional neural network model named DAWindNet, is proposed, aiming at cross-domain extraction of wind turbines in snow background images. First, in the image-level module, the model learns discrepancies between images from different domains, alters the image style, and achieves data alignment for complete images. Second, in the instance-level module, the model focus shifts to the structural information of wind turbine targets, further refining cross-domain data alignment. Perception loss and domain difference loss are designed to preserve semantic consistency across domains and mitigate domain offset phenomena of the target. Finally, bidirectional feature pyramid network and an attention mechanism are incorporated to enhance the network's ability to extract wind power features and achieve higher recognition rates. Experimental results on datasets representing ordinary, bare soil, and snowy domains validate that DAWindNet achieves satisfactory performance, with a recall rate of 63.8% and an average precision (AP) of 67.3% when transitioning from ordinary to snow background domains, and a recall rate of 65.1% and an AP of 66.1% for the transition between bare soil and snow background domains. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed modifications for the cross-domain extraction of wind turbines
... Moreover, as a result of rising energy demand and environmental concerns, renewable energy sources (such as solar, biomass, geothermal, and wind) are widely utilized worldwide for their high energy content, lack of toxicity, and sustainability (Olabi and Abdelkareem [10] ; Gielen et al. [11] ). Particularly, wind energy is often favored for its cleanliness and abundance (Wang et al. [12] ; Nelson and Starcher [13] ). Offshore wind power is more abundant than onshore, and has advantages of not occupying land resources, and not generating noise pollution for nearby residents (Bilgili et al. [14] ; Zhang et al. [15] ). ...
... The Global Wind Energy Outlook reports that the total installed capacity of wind power is expected to approach 2000 GW in the world by 2030 and wind energy resources contribute almost 41 % to global installed electricity generation capacity by 2050 under optimistic scenarios [3]. In recent years, wind power farms have begun to move offshore, since wind quality is better in the offshore area, i.e., smoother geography at sea compared to onshore area and stronger and less turbulent wind for large-scale electricity generation [5][6][7][8]. Compared with the onshore wind turbines, offshore wind turbines (OWTs) produce 1.7 times more electrical output with 1.2 times faster wind speed [9,10]. ...
Monopiles are the most widely adopted foundation type for Offshore Wind Turbines (OWTs) in shallow waters. With the expansion of the construction of OWT, the number of OWT farms in seismic regions increases globally including the coastal areas of Japan and China. It is necessary to evaluate the impact of earthquakes including the vibration and soil liquefaction on the OWTs supported by the monopile foundation, while the effects of liquefaction on offshore structures, especially for OWTs with monopiles, have not been sufficiently studied. This study investigates the seismic response of the monopile-supported OWTs with the use of an advanced soil model. A three-dimensional numerical model is built, and dynamic analyses are carried out using the OpenSees framework. The pressure-dependent multi-yield (PDMY03) constitutive model is used to simulate the dynamic soil behavior. The applicability of the large-diameter pile modeling method for proper soil-pile interaction modeling in this numerical analysis is first validated through centrifuge tests on monopiles subjected to lateral loading. The dynamic analyses are then carried out to demonstrate the seismic response of the entire OWT system. The numerical results indicate that the contribution of higher modes of vibration is becoming of increased importance for large wind turbines and soil-structure interaction plays a significant role in the dynamic response. Moreover, the monopile-supported OWT in dense sand deposits experiences substantial lateral displacement and rotation under the combined action of wind and earthquake loads when liquefaction occurs.
... Offshore energy infrastructure has costs associated with it that are higher than those that occur onshore, for example, wind turbines are 50% more expensive offshore than onshore (Bilgili et al., 2011). Savings may be possible with salt caverns, as the brine produced by the creation of the salt caverns can be sold to reduce costs or, if not possible, diluted and disposed of at sea, which is more cost-effective than the cost of transporting the brine onshore (Ahmad and Baddour, 2014). ...
Future energy systems with a greater share of renewable energy will require long-duration energy storage (LDES) to optimise the integration of renewable sources and hydrogen is one energy vector that could be utilised for this. Grid-scale underground storage of natural gas (methane) is already in operation in solution-mined salt caverns, where individual cavern capacities are ∼0.025–0.275 TWh. While salt caverns have traditionally been restricted to being developed onshore, in some offshore locations, such as the UK Continental Shelf, there are extensive evaporites that have the potential for storage development. Capacity estimates for offshore areas typically rely on generalised regional geological interpretations; they frequently do not incorporate site-specific structural and lithological heterogeneities, they use static cavern geometries and may use methodologies that are deterministic and not repeatable. We have developed a stochastic method for identifying potential salt cavern locations and estimating conceptual cluster storage capacity. The workflow incorporates principle geomechanical constraints on cavern development, captures limitations from internal evaporite heterogeneities, and uses the ideal gas law to calculate the volumetric capacity. The workflow accommodates either fixed cavern geometries or geometries that vary depending on the thickness of the salt. By using a stochastic method, we quantify the uncertainties in storage capacity estimates and cavern placement over defined regions of interest. The workflow is easily adaptable allowing users to consider multiple geological models or to evaluate the impact of interpretations at varying resolutions. In this work, we illustrate the workflow for four areas and geological models in the UK’s Southern North Sea: 1) Basin Scale (58,900 km ² ) - >48,800 TWh of hydrogen storage with >199,000 cavern locations. 2) Sub-Regional Scale (24,800 km ² ) - >9,600 TWh of hydrogen storage with >36,000 cavern locations. 3) Block Specific–Salt Wall (79.8 km ² ) - >580 TWh of hydrogen storage with >400 cavern locations. 4) Block Specific–Layered Evaporite (225 km ² ) - >263 TWh of hydrogen storage with >500 cavern locations. Our workflow enables reproducible and replicable assessments of site screening and storage capacity estimates. A workflow built around these ideals allows for fully transparent results. We compared our results against other similar studies in the literature and found that often highly cited papers have inappropriate methodologies and hence capacities.
... Currently, offshore wind accounts for just 7% of global wind capacity, but installation is increasing rapidly (GWEC, 2022). Offshore windfarms have several technical advantages over onshore windfarms including higher sustained windspeeds, no need for expensive land acquisition, and they are removed from population centers, which reduces noise impacts (Bilgili et al., 2011). ...
Ireland is planning to install 5 GW of new offshore wind energy by 2030 as a part
of their strategy to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050. Environmental Impact Assessment of new windfarms requires completion of a Seascape Visual Impact Assessment (SVIA). The conservation planning software Marxan has potential to enhance existing SVIA methods. This study evaluated whether a GIS-based Marxan analysis could be used to effectively assess the visual impacts of offshore wind, using the Sceirde Rocks Relevant Project site as a case study. The SVIA method for evaluating the significance of visual impacts served as a framework for the Marxan analysis, which incorporated spatial data representing visually sensitive locations and Zones of Visual Influence (ZVIs) for theoretical turbine layouts. The results suggest that there are three primary geographic regions that have the potential to experience major visual impacts from an offshore windfarm at the Sceirde Rocks site: 1) Ballyconneely; 2) Dog’s Bay, Carna, and Carraroe; and 3) the northeastern side of Inishmore. The results also demonstrate that Marxan can be used effectively to assess visual impacts from offshore wind, and therefore it has potential to be used as an SVIA tool.
... Following complementary frameworks developed by experts in the field, its application has been extended to also cover the other sustainability dimensions in holistic assessments known as Life Cycle Sustainability Assessments (LCSA) (Kloepffer, 2008 Offshore wind power presents several technical advantages related to the specificities of the ocean sitting area compared to the onshore wind configuration. Indeed, the marine environment offers large surfaces and, generally, stronger and more regular average wind than onshore sites (Bilgili et al., 2011). Hence, it is expected that, for a given wind turbine (i.e., at equal rotor diameter and generator power), the average capacity factor (i.e., the number of kWh produced divided by its peak capacity) is higher for an offshore wind configuration than for an equivalent onshore one. ...
... As the demand for renewable energy sources continues to grow, floating offshore wind turbines have emerged as a promising technology for harnessing wind energy in deep waters (Breton and Moe, 2009;Esteban et al., 2011;Bilgili et al., 2011). However, several challenges impede the competitiveness of the technology in the market, particularly in the case of floating offshore wind turbines used in deep water applications (Butterfield et al., 2007;Willis et al., 2018;Soares-Ramos et al., 2020). ...
The present work addresses a significant topic in the current understanding of the structural dynamic behavior of mooring lines for floating offshore wind turbines (FOWT) in operating condition and aims to contribute to the ongoing efforts to enhance the performance and reliability of floating offshore wind energy systems. The present paper investigates the impact of operating conditions on mooring line tension for FOWT. A numerical model of a spar-type FOWT developed in Orcaflex, validated with experimental data, was employed to perform dynamic analyses and to calculate the most probable maximum tension values for scenarios involving wave-only and combined wind-wave actions under various operating conditions. Results indicate that the peak frequency of oscillations is primarily influenced by wave frequency and remain unchanged in operating conditions, but the significant variability in the structure's displacement response leads to a notable fluctuation in tensions within the mooring lines. Specifically, higher tensions are observed in the upwind region while lower tensions are evident in the downwind area. However, for prolonged periods it becomes apparent that operating conditions induce high tension levels across all mooring lines, while also exerting a damping contribution related to wave-induced effects. The study underscores that the primary detrimental factor affecting mooring lines in operating conditions is the widening of the operating tension range.
... This prospect of strengthening the national energy system also applies to Poland, due to the significant wind energy potential of the Baltic Sea. Offshore wind, by definition, adopts higher speeds than onshore wind [7], but only professional research makes it possible to assess its usefulness for offshore wind energy [8] by determining its energy quality [9]. The strength, intensity and direction of the Baltic Sea wind in studies scores well, with an average speed assessment of about 8-10 m/s [10]. ...
The availability of energy-bearing resources is a key determinant of the development strategy of the world’s energy systems. In the case of Poland, the wind energy potential of the Baltic Sea provides the basis for the development of offshore wind energy in the country. The processes of transforming solutions towards green technologies require appropriate legislation, significant financial outlays, as well as public support for this dimension of activities. The latter strand requires continuous measurement to dynamically model the energy transition strategy. In the author’s opinion, the available literature does not sufficiently explain this theme in relation to Polish conditions. Hence, it was considered reasonable to investigate the impact of offshore wind energy development in Poland on public opinion in a selected region of Poland, in order to diagnose the current scale of support for the changes taking place, and to identify the main expectations and fears related to this activity, which was assumed as the main objective of the study. The added value of the survey is the analysis of changes in public opinion over time. The methodology used for the research was a study of the scientific literature, with analysis of the results of own and secondary research conducted in Poland. In terms of in-depth research, statistical survey techniques supported by the PQstat programme were used. The results of the survey confirmed significant public support in the surveyed area for offshore wind energy development in Poland (68%). The overall percentage of support for offshore development increased by 5% y/y. Economic considerations for the support of the activities in question with the potential vision of lowering energy prices in the domestic market were confirmed with a result of 65%. It was further confirmed that a key aspect of support for the offshore development strategy in the surveyed region of Poland is the potential for development of the region in relation to offshore farm investments, with a focus on the labour market, with indications of 53% for both themes. Interestingly, there was no concern in relation to the risk of landscape change in an undesirable direction in 2024.
... For example, the disparity between the two values was equivalent to 3400 USD/kW in 2017 and reduced to 1634 USD/kW in 2021. Here, cost savings of offshore installed wind farms have been achieved due to various factors, including the standardization of turbine and foundation designs, growth in industry experience, localization of offshore wind farm component production at regional hubs, and simplification of installation methods [40]. Costs per unit capacity and installation times have declined due to the accumulated experience of turbine manufacturers and plant installers, the use of vessels specially designed for offshore wind farm projects, and the adoption of larger turbines that amortize installation efforts over higher capacities. ...
Wind energy, which generates zero emissions, is an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional electricity generation. For this reason, wind energy is a very popular topic, and there are many studies on this subject. Previous studies have often focused on onshore or offshore installations, lacking comprehensive comparisons and often not accounting for technological advancements and their impact on cost and efficiency. This study addresses these gaps by comparing onshore and offshore wind turbines worldwide in terms of installed capacity, levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), total installed cost (TIC), capacity factor (CF), turbine capacity, hub height, and rotor diameter. Results show that onshore wind power capacity constituted 98.49% in 2010, 97.23% in 2015, and 92.9% in 2022 of the world’s total cumulative installed wind power capacity. Offshore wind capacity has increased yearly due to advantages like stronger, more stable winds and easier installation of large turbine components. LCOE for onshore wind farms decreased from 0.1021 USD/kWh in 2010 to 0.0331 USD/kWh in 2021, while offshore LCOE decreased from 0.1879 USD/kWh in 2010 to 0.0752 USD/kWh in 2021. By 2050, wind energy will contribute to 35% of the global electricity production. This study overcomes previous limitations by providing a comprehensive and updated comparison that incorporates recent technological advancements and market trends to better inform future energy policies and investments.
... However, the stochastic nature of wind patterns presents a formidable challenge in the seamless integration and operational management of wind energy units within electrical grids. This issue becomes particularly acute given the large generation capacities often associated with wind farms [1]. Even minor fluctuations in wind speed and other meteorological variables can disproportionately affect grid stability, making the task of managing these units exceedingly complex. ...
This study elucidates the formulation and validation of a dynamic hybrid model for wind energy forecasting, with a particular emphasis on its capability for both short-term and long-term predictive accuracy. The model is predicated on the assimilation of time-series data from past wind energy generation and employs a triad of machine learning algorithms: Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and K-Nearest Neighbors (K-NN). Empirical data, harvested from a 2 MW grid-connected wind turbine, served as the basis for the training and validation phases. A comparative evaluation methodology was devised to scrutinize the performance of each constituent algorithm across a diverse array of metrics. This evaluation framework facilitated the identification of individual algorithmic limitations, which were subsequently mitigated through the implementation of a dynamic switching mechanism within the hybrid model. This innovative feature enables the model to adaptively select the most efficacious forecasting technique based on historical performance data. The hybrid model demonstrated superior forecasting accuracy in both, short-term energy forecasts at 15-min intervals over a day, and in broad, long-term. It recorded a Normalized Mean Absolute Error (NMAE) of 5.54 %, which is notably lower than the NMAE range of 5.65 %–9.22 % observed in other tested models, and significantly better than the average NMAE found in the literature, which spans from 6.73 % to 10.07 %. Such versatility renders it invaluable for grid operators and wind farm management, aiding in both operational and strategic planning. The study's findings not only contribute to the existing body of knowledge in renewable energy forecasting but also suggest the hybrid model's broader applicability in various other predictive analytics domains.
... Recent studies in North America have also linked opposition to wind farm development with variable socioeconomic and ethnic privileges [40], revealing that concern over development is a demographically variable phenomenon. Offshore wind farms, by contrast, offer greater opportunity for energy generation [41] from development areas that are largely out of sight and mind to many onshore communities [42], although the impact of offshore developments on natural marine resources as well as coastal heritage landscapes (as at St Abb's Head in Scotland, [43]) have also generated opposition to development. ...
Development of the continental shelf has accelerated significantly as nations around the world seek to harness offshore renewable energy. Many areas marked for development align with submerged palaeolandscapes. Poorly understood and difficult to protect, these vulnerable, prehistoric landscapes provide specific challenges for heritage management. Indeed, there now appears to be a schism between what underwater cultural heritage policy intends and what it is achieving in practice. Shortcomings in international and national legislature ensure that large parts of the continental shelf, including areas under development, may have little or no legal protection. Increasingly impacted by extensive development, these unique cultural landscapes are ever more at risk. However, heritage challenges posed by such development also create opportunities. An immense amount of data is being generated by development, and there is an opportunity to establish broader cooperative relationships involving industrial stakeholders, national curators, government bodies, and heritage professionals. As a matter of urgency, the archaeological community must better engage with the offshore sector and development process. If achieved, we may revolutionise our knowledge of submerged prehistoric settlement and land use. Otherwise, our capacity to reconstruct prehistoric settlement patterns, learn from past climate change, or simply manage what are among the best-preserved postglacial landscapes globally may be irreparably undermined.
... The utilization of offshore wind energy resources is a crucial driver for economic development [1,2] and an essential pathway towards achieving net-zero carbon goals. In recent years, offshore wind power construction has been gradually expanded from offshore areas to deeper parts of the sea, which further causes more difficulties and costs in soil sampling of marine geotechnical surveys [3]. ...
The undrained shear strength is an essential parameter in the foundation design of marine structures. Due to the complex marine environment and technical limitations, it is difficult and costly to obtain offshore samples. Piezocone penetration tests (CPTU) are relatively low-cost compared to drilling and sampling methods. Therefore, based on the soil behavior type index (Ic) derived from CPTU results, a model for estimating cone factors (Nkt, Nke) is proposed to improve the accuracy of estimation of undrained shear strength. The result shows that the soil behavior type index (Ic) and cone factors take on a negatively correlated exponential relation. Incorporating a cone factor that varies with the soil behavior type index (Ic) significantly enhances the accuracy of undrained shear strength predictions compared to the conventional method of using a constant cone factor. This approach reduces the root mean square error (RMSE) for Nkt (Nke) from 0.124 (0.126) MPa to 0.056 (0.06) MPa, and the mean absolute error (MAE) from 0.0154 (0.016) MPa to 0.0032 (0.0036) MPa. The method was validated at an additional location and the predictions were in high agreement with the results of the consolidated quick direct shear test. The developed method can serve as an effective tool used in the design of foundations of marine structures.
... WEPPs are categorized into two groups: onshore and offshore power plants (Bonou et al., 2016). Onshore power plants are built on land, while offshore power plants are constructed on or near the sea or ocean (Bilgili et al., 2011). These power plants are established and operated through various projects. ...
Wind energy power plants (WEPPs) are renewable energy generation facilities that are increasingly used today. The performance evaluations of these energy plants are generally based on technical performance. Although there are studies in the literature focusing on determining the technical performance of WEPPs, there is a lack of research on evaluating their sustainable performance. The primary motivation of this study is to develop a decision model for identifying the sustainable performance of WEPPs. The model incorporates fuzzy logic and multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) approaches, incorporating expert opinions and both qualitative and quantitative criteria. To determine the influence levels of experts, spherical fuzzy (SF) sets are utilized. The weighting of criteria is achieved using the SF-defining interrelationships between ranked criteria II (DIBR II) method, which is a novel extension of the DIBR II method based on SF sets. Additionally, an SF-alternative ranking order method accounting for two-step normalization (AROMAN) method is developed for ranking the sustainable performance of WEPPs, building upon the AROMAN method, and adapting it to SF sets. This hybrid model is named the SF-DIBR II-AROMAN hybrid model. The step-by-step procedures of this model are presented in the research, and an algorithm for these procedures is developed. To demonstrate its practicality, a case study is conducted, focusing on WEPPs with a capacity ranging from 25 to 150 megawatts in Çanakkale, Turkey. According to the research results, among the fifteen WEPPs in the Çanakkale region, "Saros WEPP" is identified as having the best one. The robustness of the obtained results is ensured through sensitivity analyses. Based on the results of two sensitivity analysis scenarios, "Saros WEPP" is found to have the highest sustainable performance. The SF-DIBR II-AROMAN hybrid model results are compared with different alternative ranking method results, highlighting its superior aspects. Overall, SF-DIBR II-AROMAN is consistent and robust. The research also provides insights and managerial implications, as well as explains the benefits of the proposed model for evaluating WEPPs' sustainable performance.
... Other renewable energy technologies have not shown such sustained rapid growth. Historical growth and future estimates of European deployment of renewable technologies (EU27+UK), solar PV, onshore and offshore wind data [33][34][35][36][37]. Tidal stream shows historical deployments and known projects [25], plus a plausible growth scenario reaching 20-40 GW by 2050 [32]. ...
There is a need for increased renewable energy to meet net-zero targets and decarbonise the economy. Harnessing the predictable power of the tides with tidal stream turbines can contribute to this. Tidal energy is a nascent technology with higher costs at present. However, cost reductions have been observed with an increased deployment in other renewable energy technologies that have received financial support, and it is postulated that similar will happen with tidal energy. The first tidal stream projects have been awarded market support in the UK through the Contracts for Difference (CfD) scheme, with almost 100 MW expected to be commissioned by 2028. This work uses learning rates to investigate how much investment in ongoing market support might be needed to achieve cost reductions through subsidised deployment alongside research and innovation. Using a range of informed ‘what if?’ scenarios, it shows sensitivity to key inputs. The results show that the support needed is most sensitive to the learning rate, reducing it from 15% to 12.5% or 10% doubles or more than quadruples the investment required, respectively. The support is also highly dependent on the starting cost from which learning occurs, taken as the CfD Strike Price in 2025. Varying this between 156 and 220 GBP/MWh results in total investment of GBP 6.7 and 22.3 bn, respectively. Most importantly, a balance is needed between subsidising deployment to drive down costs through learning and funding innovation to maintain a high learning rate.
... It is important to note, however, that while renewable energy sources are distributed across the globe, some places show higher resource prevalence than others. For example, offshores tend to have stronger, evenly flowing winds compared to onshores [17]. Similarly, some places experience reception of higher solar irradiance than others. ...
An enormous number of studies has been carried out on distributed energy resources (DERs) from the microgrids’ point
of view and later as an attachment to the distribution subsystems.
However, recent requirements to decarbonize the grid with potential retirement of fossil-fuel based generators necessitate consideration of DERs for participation in bulk power systems. This paper investigates the potential impact of DERs on the voltage stability of bulk power systems. The paper adopts a scenario-based approach to study the allocation and penetration level of DERs and evaluate their effect on the static voltage stability using the continuation power flow method. The uncertainties of DERs and loads are simulated from their statistical model distributions using Monte Carlo simulation
technique. The assessment is performed on the simplified 14-
generator, 59-bus Australian benchmark system as a test case
assembled in MATLAB/Simulink and analyzes the different loading
conditions. Results show that DERs have a significant positive
influence on the voltage stability of power systems, requiring careful planning for reactive power support for wind farms in order to achieve optimal performance. Moreover, by placing DERs closer to loading centers and increasing solar power penetration, results indicate an improved voltage stability, while wind farms, unless compensated, may have comparably lower impact due to their increased reactive power demand.
Offshore wind energy is integral to Europe’s climate and energy goals, with plans to install 500 GW of capacity by 2050. However, wake effects, which involve reductions in wind speed and energy yield caused by upstream turbines, pose a significant efficiency challenge, particularly in dense wind farm clusters in the North Sea. This study examines the implications of large‐scale wakes, focusing on cross‐border effects and mitigation strategies. Through an assessment of the kinetic energy budget of the atmosphere (KEBA), it identifies wake‐induced yield reductions of 30% for the German Bight in the North Sea, with half of these being attributed to the cross‐border accumulation of wakes. The findings demonstrate that redistributing wind farm capacities across borders could reduce wake losses to 18%, thereby enhancing energy yield. This could prevent the equivalent of about 8 GW offshore wind generation capacity being lost due to wakes and reduce the levelised cost of electricity. This study highlights the importance of cross‐border collaboration and sea basin wide planning to optimise wind farm placement, enhance production efficiency, and ensure the economic viability of offshore wind energy.
Purpose
With the continuous development of the wind power industry, wind power plant (WPP) has become the focus of resource development within the industry. Site selection, as the initial stage of WPP development, is directly related to the feasibility of construction and the future revenue of WPP. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to study the siting of WPP and establish a framework for siting decision-making.
Design/methodology/approach
Firstly, a site selection evaluation index system is constructed from four aspects of economy, geography, environment and society using the literature review method and the Delphi method, and the weights of each index are comprehensively determined by combining the Decision-making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) and the entropy weight method (EW). Then, prospect theory and the multi-criteria compromise solution ranking method (VIKOR) are introduced to rank the potential options and determine the best site.
Findings
China is used as a case study, and the robustness and reliability of the methodology are demonstrated through sensitivity analysis, comparative analysis and ablation experiment analysis. This paper aims to provide a useful reference for WPP siting research.
Originality/value
In this paper, DEMATEL and EW are used to determine the weights of indicators, which overcome the disadvantage of single assignment. Prospect theory and VIKOR are combined to construct a decision model, which also considers the attitude of the decision-maker and the compromise solution of the decision result. For the first time, this framework is applied to WPP siting research.
The condition of the environment remains at the forefront of contemporary debates among political leaders and societal stakeholders, particularly in the context of addressing climate change. Offshore Wind Farms (OWFs) are emerging as a promising pathway for renewable energy development in the Mediterranean. While existing literature extensively explores the potential of OWF technology in advancing climate neutrality targets by 2030, comparatively little attention has been given to the challenges and trade-offs associated with its implementation. This essay examines the costs and benefits of deploying OWFs in the Mediterranean, assessing their economic, environmental, and social impacts through a trade-off analysis. Despite regulatory and environmental challenges, the deployment of OWFs in the Mediterranean is set to expand, driven by low marginal costs, favourable climatic and geographic conditions, and growing interest from international investors. The study underscores the urgent need for comprehensive legislation to address environmental, social, and economic risks, critically evaluating gaps in the current legal framework and examining the opportunities and challenges associated with renewable energy expansion. The analysis serves as a valuable resource for policymakers, investors, and environmental advocates, providing a framework to balance environmental preservation with the expansion of renewable energy. Addressing these critical considerations aims to support the creation of strategies that foster a harmonious integration of renewable energy projects within the Mediterranean region’s environmental and socio-economic landscape.
Global wind power generation has grown rapidly in recent years, with China emerging as the world's largest market. Wind turbines, the key devices for this generation, are widely distributed both on land and at sea. Accurate mapping and regular updates of their locations are essential for energy production predictions, efficiency assessment, and environmental impact evaluation. While satellite remote sensing facilitates rapid mapping of offshore wind turbines, methods for detecting land-based wind turbines remain underdeveloped. To address this issue, this study proposes a novel framework for wind turbine detection using Sentinel-2 MSI data and generates the first map of both land- and offshore-based wind turbines in China in 2023. A total of 148,181 land- and 7,541 offshore-based wind turbines are detected with satisfactory accuracy (OA = 0.964, F-score = 0.963). We find that land-based turbines are primarily concentrated in northwest and north China, with the largest numbers found in Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Hebei, and Gansu provinces (>10,000 units). Inner Mongolia is the leading contributor, with over 23,000 units. These turbines are mainly located in areas with low altitudes, gentle slopes, strong winds, and surrounding land cover types of grasslands, cropland, and barren land. Offshore turbines are mostly found in nearshore areas with uniform distribution. This wind turbine map provides essential information for predicting wind power production, optimizing wind farm sites, and evaluating environmental impacts. Moreover, the proposed approach relies entirely on Sentinel-2 data, currently the highest-resolution open-access satellite data globally, providing valuable support for wind turbine localization and installation date updates.
This study analyses renewable energy resources, infrastructure, and practical options to accelerate the energy transition and unlock Chile’s potential as an exporter of renewable energy and products. We analyse data on the potential of wind and solar energy to determine the best areas for renewable projects. The progress of the energy transition occurring in Chile is reviewed in the context of historical events. The abundant renewable energy resources far exceed current demand and offer exceptional harvesting conditions. However, geographical limitations and a lack of enabling infrastructure may limit the participation of Chile in the world net-zero economy. A comparison is made with the UK to provide a broader perspective. This identifies order-of-magnitude differences in the power available in different locations, highlighting the importance of considering where best to deploy limited resources. International cooperation is required to make the best use of the available renewable energy. Three practical international options to unlock Chile’s potential are discussed. Further technical-economic assessment of these energy-transition acceleration paths is recommended. The data and results are integrated into a set of 2D/3D visualisations, facilitating visual insights and enabling a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities facing Chile.
Submarine landslides, as a significant marine geological phenomenon, pose substantial risks to underwater construction projects such as offshore oil and gas exploitation, submarine pipelines and cables, offshore wind power installations, and even coastal engineering. However, existing reviews on submarine landslides primarily focus on summarizing their triggering mechanisms and flow characteristics from the perspective of the landslides themselves, while rarely addressing their impact on ocean engineering applications, which lacks practical significance. Therefore, following an in-depth analysis of the fundamental characteristics, mechanisms of occurrence, and relevant influencing factors of submarine landslides, this study provides an in-depth exploration into the potential impact of submarine landslides on marine infrastructure through illustrative examples of past submarine landslide incidents. Additionally, it proposes risk assessment methodologies as well as monitoring and mitigation strategies for related projects. The key findings from our research are as follows: (1) There is an urgent need to establish a unified classification standard for types of submarine landslides instead of continuously refining their categorization; (2) The primary distinction between marine engineering and land-based engineering lies in the complex marine dynamic environment that necessitates considerations such as geological conditions, environmental factors, and structural design; (3) Current measures to prevent submarine landslide disasters in marine engineering primarily focus on avoiding hazardous areas during the design and exploration stages, with limited emphasis on post-landslide disaster prevention and mitigation measures; (4) Existing field investigation techniques for studying submarine landslides predominantly concentrate on basic research aimed at identifying already existing occurrences but lack industrial applicability due to being mostly experimental single-object monitoring approaches; (5) Numerical models used to simulate submarine landslides often oversimplify the phenomenon's complexity hindering practical project applications. Henceforth, it is crucial to consider macro–micro interconnected effects when simulating the evolution of underwater landslide movements.
Offshore wind energy (OWE) represents a key technology for achieving a sustainable energy transition. However, offshore wind farms (OWFs) can impact the environment via installation, operation, maintenance, and decommissioning activities together with the raw materials and energy required for their manufacturing. This study assesses the material and carbon footprint of potential OWF locations in the North Sea for various possible future technology developments. We find that better sitings could save up to ∼0.11 kg (∼65%) of steel, ∼ 0.16 g (∼31%) of copper, and ∼6.44 kg (∼26%) of embodied CO2-eq per MWh of electricity produced compared to the status quo setups. Nearshore regions of the North Sea, particularly the eastern and northwestern areas, have the lowest CO2-eq per MWh of electricity produced due to favorable wind resources. Developing an OWF in the central North Sea requires more copper and aluminum due to large distances to shore and thus incurs higher embodied CO2-eq per MWh. These areas also overlap with several protected areas and thus remain the least favorable for OWE development. The future emergent OWE technological developments for 2040 such as the installation of larger turbines with an extended lifetime alone could, on average, lead to reductions of ∼0.06 kg in steel demand (∼35%), ∼ 0.15 g in copper demand (∼31%), and ∼10.97 kg of CO2-eq (∼41%) per MWh produced. Future OWFs incorporating these technological developments, when placed in the most suitable locations, have the potential to substantially lower OWF environmental impacts across the full turbine life cycle.
This work presents a prototype of a decision-support system for Offshore Wind Farm (OWF) construction based on the Timed Petri-Nets (TPN) approach, which aims to help the decision-maker in the industry to optimize the process execution. The objective function evaluates the solutions or alternatives to find the optimums. We also present a decoupled scheduling strategy that is computationally efficient and stable comparing to the Mixed-Integer Linear Programming method, which is mathematically exact. Nonetheless, the decision-support system also supports the case, in which multiple agents or installation vessels are used in the projects. The numerical study reveals the relation between the process acceleration and charter cost by using two installation vessels. Last, historical data are used for the weather predictions.
This chapter examines the legal framework pertaining to the offshore development of green hydrogen and seeks to identify legal barriers to its deployment. Offshore production of green hydrogen facilitates the integration of power-to-hydrogen applications with offshore wind energy generation. By converting surplus electricity generated by offshore wind farms into hydrogen and transporting it to shore via pipelines, additional investment in expensive offshore grid infrastructure and the already congested onshore electricity grid can be reduced. Furthermore, by using existing offshore hydrocarbon infrastructure to produce and transport hydrogen, there is an opportunity to extend the (economic) lifetime of that infrastructure. This synergy with existing offshore hydrocarbon infrastructure is particularly attractive for two reasons. First, it avoids the need for further infrastructure investment, as the offshore hydrocarbon infrastructure is already in place and integrated with the onshore gas infrastructure. Secondly, it helps hydrocarbon companies to capitalise on past investments, providing an incentive to move towards a carbon-neutral business model.
The chapter presents a case study on Denmark and the Netherlands. This is because they are actively pursuing large-scale development of offshore wind energy and green hydrogen production as promising strategies to meet their climate change targets. Given that these countries are embedded in a wider international and European Union (EU) context, the focus is on international, EU and national legislation applicable to offshore energy activities in general and offshore hydrogen activities in particular. First, it examines the relevant provisions of the international law of the sea (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea), which establishes the competence of coastal states to regulate offshore energy activities and their rights and obligations at sea. Secondly, it explores the applicable EU legislation and compares the existing legislation (or lack thereof) in Denmark and the Netherlands that applies to the offshore development of green hydrogen production. A robust and enabling legal framework is needed to facilitate the development of offshore hydrogen infrastructure. Without such a framework, investments will not be made and new developments, such as offshore electrolysers, will not be deployed. By assessing the applicability of existing EU and national legislation to the offshore development of hydrogen infrastructure, legal barriers can be identified. One such barrier is the lack of legislation specifically addressing the permitting procedure for offshore hydrogen production.
Offshore wind energy is a renewable energy source that offers an opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions while increasing energy security. However, many ecologists have suggested that offshore wind farms may have severe negative impacts on wildlife, especially seabirds. Thus, balancing seabird conservation with human energy demands is necessary when developing wind farms. Bird sensitivity mapping is a powerful and practical tool that can determine turbine collision risk within specific areas; however, sensitivity maps have seldom been generated for seabirds. Focusing on the Slaty-backed gull (Larus schistisagus), a red-listed species that often collides with wind turbines, we determined factors affecting habitat selection with the goal of reducing negative impacts of offshore wind farms. We then generated a sensitivity map using habitat modeling. GPS loggers set to record at 5-minute intervals between June and August 2018 were attached to six Slaty-backed gulls residing in Ochiishi Bay, Nemuro Prefecture, Japan. A Gaussian mixed model indicated that habitat selection was related to food availability (as determined by sea surface temperature and chlorophyll a content) and distance to the nest site. Sea surface temperature and chlorophyll a content were positively related area visitation frequency of Slaty-backed gulls, whereas distance to nest site was negatively correlated. Moreover, area visitation frequency was unchanged when the distance from the nest site was > 25 km. The sensitivity map indicated that areas both near and far from nest sites with potentially abundant food resources were high-risk areas with respect to turbine collisions for Slaty-backed gulls. Based on these results, we advocate the use of sensitivity mapping to reduce interactions between offshore wind farms and seabirds, especially for species that often forage far from their nest sites.
There is an urgent need to decarbonise the global energy system with increased renewable energy. This is compounded by ongoing war in Ukraine and the need to reduce imported gas.
Ocean energy (wave and tidal stream) can offer multiple potential benefits, including:
▪ An alternative source of domestic renewable energy to contribute towards meeting decarbonisation and net-zero targets.
▪ More predictable and often available at different times to wind and solar power.
▪ A significant opportunity for jobs and GVA to the European economy.
▪ Contributing to the just transition, offering skilled jobs and clean energy in and around coastal communities.
If ocean energy follows a similar deployment trajectory to wind, there will be significant infrastructure requirements over the coming decades, planning for this should start now.
▪ The cumulative European (EU27+UK) space requirement for offshore wind ports by 2030 might be 2800 ha or more.
▪ This study estimates ocean energy may only need 1% of the port space needed for offshore wind in the early 2030s. By the end of the decade this could grow to around 13%, or 240 ha.
▪ Continued growth in deployment of ocean energy, as seen in wind, would lead to considerably higher requirements by the 2040s, albeit with greater uncertainty.
Planning and delivering strategic national investments in projects such as ports have long lead times. Port upgrades, being planned now or in future, to support more widespread deployment of offshore wind should consider implications of ocean energy deployments.
There are huge infrastructure synergies between offshore wind and ocean energy, however with some divergent needs which can be complementary. A range of smaller or more constrained ports may be suitable for ocean energy that cannot support offshore wind projects.
▪ Offshore wind projects of ~1GW/year may require 10–100 ha of space, quaysides 600 m or more in length, with unlimited clearance for vessels and turbines.
▪ Ocean energy projects of 10–50 MW annually may only require 0.7–6 ha, 50–200 m quayside, and clearance of 10–50 m, depending on the device and project.
Planners can harness these opportunities by comprehensively integrating ocean energy into their infrastructure planning for ocean energy. In practice this means:
▪ Ensuring offshore wind ports can handle peak requirements in the 2030s and 2040s for offshore wind and ocean energy deployments combined.
▪ Ensure specific offshore wind ports are sufficiently future-proofed so they can be reoriented towards ocean energy’s peak in the 2040s.
▪ Systematically exploring whether existing and/or new port space which is unsuitable for wind can be harnessed to facilitate ocean energy.
▪ Systematically examining existing smaller ports as potential suppliers for wave and/or tidal energy projects — and provide these ports with the necessary infrastructure to effectively take the strain off larger ports.
Support is also required at a regional, national, and European level to effectively develop suitable infrastructure for offshore renewable energy.
Renewable energy represents a pathway towards sustainable development and reducing dependence on fossil fuels for the international workforce. Following the Russo-Ukrainian conflict, the EU has been intensifying its transition towards clean energy, reaffirming its net-zero emissions goal. Under this goal, accelerating the development of renewable energy has become a necessity. Wind power holds a significant position among the EU's RES. Due to the high population density in the EU, offshore wind power, compared to onshore wind power, experiences faster wind speeds and more stable wind sources, making the boost of offshore wind energy a major development trend for the EU's new energy initiatives. The results indicate a significant positive correlation between offshore wind power generation and greenhouse gas emissions. On average, for every 100 million tons of GHG emissions, the EU should achieve an annual power generation of 3148.11 GWh through offshore wind power and increase the cumulative installed capacity of national offshore wind power to 768045 MW. In combination with the EU's carbon trading system and the carbon price and emission reduction effects of offshore wind power proposed by some scholars, an installed capacity of offshore wind power approximately accounts for 2.69% of the EU's emission reductions, potentially generating an economic benefit of 21825 billion euros.
Diesel generators or gas turbines located in the platforms usually do electricity production in oil and gas platforms. Using the above equipment, taking into account safety issues to prevent explosions and fires, as well as fueling them offshore, will be very expensive. In addition, the mentioned devices emit a significant amount of CO2 and NOx. Therefore, the use of renewable energy instead of fossil fuels can be much more economical and environmentally friendly. This study attempts to investigate the potential of using wind energy in the Persian Gulf and the feasibility and detailed economic analysis of using wind turbines on oil and gas platforms to provide part of the energy required. For this purpose, wind speed data are extracted from measurements at 10 meters, 30 meters and 40 meters above the ground. Average wind speed for the mentioned levels as 4.45 m/s, 4.99 m/s and 5.34 m/s respectively. In addition, it gives the annual power density as 128.36 W/m2, 173.80 W/m2 and 210.42 W/m2. The results obtained by using RETScreen software show that in this project with a life span of 30 years, the economic output of wind turbine systems is profitable, so that after 8.2 years, the entire cost of the project will return.
Nowadays, the tendency to use renewable energy sources is increased due to the development of industry. Wind turbines are one of the most important and sustainable tools for production of renewable energy. Because of the development of wind turbine farms in seismic areas, such as East Asia, southern Europe, and western regions of the United States of America, as well as the importance of the foundation of the wind turbines in the design and implementation, it is necessary to study the seismic behavior of wind turbine foundations. In this study, the seismic behavior of monopile foundation of a simplified offshore wind turbine model was evaluated by using finite element method in OpenSees software. At first, the proposed numerical model was validated by the results of a dynamic centrifuge modeling of a steel pile. The analyzes in this research include two main phases. In the first phase of this research, a series of parametric studies were conducted in order to identify the parameters affecting the seismic response of the structure and foundation. In this phase, the effects of various parameters such as dimensions of monopile (diameter and length), soil relative density and two-layered and multi-layered soils, the bearing capacity of the foundation (Frictional Pile, End Bearing Pile and Fixed pile), the existence of wind load (cyclic and static) and also the change Earthquake acceleration (Arias Intensity Effect) was evaluated. The results of this part showed that the changes of these parameters have significant effects on the seismic behavior of the monopile of offshore wind turbines. In the second phase of this study, the effect of near field (forward directivity) and far field earthquakes was evaluated. All of acceleretaions were applied to the base of the model after scaling to the design spectrum of a site of California. The results showed that near field earthquakes have more damage than far field earthquakes, despite their shorter duration and shorter amplitude, and the effect of pulses with long period is clearly evident in the results.
This innovation assessment addresses the factors that have influenced the exceptionally lengthy industrial technology life cycle of wind electrical power generation since its inception in the late 19th Century. It then applies the recently developed Accelerated Radical Innovation (ARI) Model to understand the dynamics of this innovation compared to those of other major 18th–20th Century innovations.Despite market pull in the late 19th Century to link small DC electrical generators with hundreds of thousands of existing wind mills used for mechanical water pumping, several factors prevented this from happening. These include the intermittent nature of wind electrical generation requiring low cost battery storage and DC–AC conversion, and the shift in the 1890s from DC to superior AC electrical generation making possible economies of scale for delivering AC electricity long distances over the grid from large hydroelectric and coal fired plants. As a consequence, wind generated electricity remained primarily a technological development until the first energy crisis in the 1970s.Development of an extensive science and technology base for wind turbine dynamics, and deployment since 2000 of commercial scale wind turbines (> 1MW) have elevated wind electrical power generation to commercial practicality, as described in two earlier papers by the authors applying technical cost modeling and experience curve projections of cost of energy (COE) to explore the economic viability of large scale wind electricity generation.. Strongly promoted by wind energy communities of practice in Europe, North America and Asia, normative COE projections suggest that by 2020 wind electrical power will be cost competitive, without tax incentives, with electricity from conventional fossil and nuclear fuel sources.Overcoming technological, business, market, societal, networking and political hurdles to date has required 120years of development to establish wind electricity generation as a breakthrough innovation with the capability to capture 20% of the world electricity market by the mid-to-late 21st Century. Further growth and maturation is expected to continue to 2100, corresponding to a projected ≅ 210year overall industry life cycle at market saturation. This finding has profound implications for innovation theory and practice, since the length of this life cycle exceeds by a factor of ≅ 4 the average life cycle diagnosed for five industrial revolutions and four key 20th Century innovations. The new ARI model provides a holistic approach to understanding the dynamics of the industrial technology life cycle for a wide variety of radical innovations as well as wind electrical power.
This paper provides an overview of the nascent offshore wind energy industry including a status of the commercial offshore industry and the technologies that will be needed for full market development. It provides a perspective on the status of the critical environmental and regulatory issues for offshore wind and how they are affecting the formation of the U.S. industry. The rationale provided describes why offshore wind has the potential to become a major component of the national electric energy supply. Future projections show this potential could result in over $100 billion of revenue to the offshore industry over the next 30 years in the construction and operation of offshore wind turbines and the infrastructure needed to support them. The paper covers technical issues and design challenges needed to achieve economic competitiveness for near term deployments in shallow water below 30-m depth. It also examines the requirements for future technologies needed to deploy systems in deeper water beyond the current depth limits. Although most studies to date indicate very low impacts to the environment, regulatory and environmental barriers have hindered the first offshore wind projects in the United States. A summary of these issues is given.
Introduction
Over the past two decades, on-shore wind energy technology has seen a ten-fold reduction in cost and is now competitive with fossil and nuclear fuels for electric power generation in many areas of the United States. Wind energy installations in the United States have grown from about 1,800 MW in 1990 to an estimated 9,200 MW at the end of 2005, and are expected to grow to 14,000 MW by the end of 2007 [1].
While onshore wind energy technology appears to be maturing rapidly by some measure, the need for further technology development still remains, as development booms have historically coincided with the existence of the 1.9-cent/kWh production energy tax credit for renewable energy sources. In addition, as wind energy penetrates a larger percentage of the grid, industry growth, dispatchability, and infrastructure, barriers will become critical long-term research issues.
Initial onshore wind development in the United States focused on the windiest sites (Class 6 that average 7.4 m/s at 10 m above surface annually), but these sites are generally in the more remote areas of the west, and on a few ridgelines in the east. The DOE Wind Program has led an initiative to drive the cost of wind energy down further through sustained technology innovations that have been identified, but have not yet been fully implemented under a Low Wind Speed Technology Program [2,3]. As lower costs are achieved, more sites are becoming economically viable in areas closer to energy constrained load centers, giving a higher value to the delivered electricity [4]. The full extent of the vast land-based resource is limited by transmission line access and capacity on the grid, which is making transport of electricity from the windiest areas more difficult [5].
This paper provides an overview of the nascent offshore wind energy industry including a status of the commercial offshore industry and the technologies that will be needed for full market development.
Increase in negative effects of fossil fuels on the environment has forced many countries, including Turkey, to use renewable energy sources. Today, clean, domestic and renewable energy is commonly accepted as the key for future life, not only for Turkey but also for the world. As wind energy is an alternative clean energy source compared to the fossil fuels that pollute the atmosphere, systems that convert wind energy to electricity have developed rapidly. Turkey is an energy importing country, more than half of the energy requirement has been supplied by imports. Turkey's domestic fossil fuel resources are extremely limited. In addition, Turkey's geographical location has several advantages for extensive use of wind power. In this context, renewable energy resources appear to be one of the most efficient and effective solutions for sustainable energy development and environmental pollution prevention in Turkey. Since wind energy will be used more and more in the future, its current potential, usage, and assessment in Turkey is the focus of the present study. The paper not only presents a review of the potential and utilization of the wind power in Turkey but also provides some guidelines for policy makers.
Since the turn of the 21st century, the onshore wind industry has seen significant growth due to the falling cost of wind generated electricity. This growth has coincided with an interest in the development of offshore wind farms. In Europe, governments and developers have begun establishing small to medium sized wind farms offshore to take advantage of stronger and more constant winds and the relative lack of landowner conflicts. In the U.S., several developers are in the planning and resource evaluation phases of offshore wind farm development, but no wind farms are currently operational or under construction. In this paper, we analyze the patterns of development in Europe and compare them to the U.S. We find significant differences in the patterns of development in Europe and the U.S. which may impact the viability of the industry in the U.S. We also discuss the policies used by European nations to stimulate offshore wind development and we discuss the potential impacts of similar policies in the U.S.
The paper reviews characteristics and the developing state of abroad offshore wind farm briefly, and the key technology related to offshore wind farm. The optimization configuration and assessment of abroad offshore wind farm, and rational distribution assess, offshore wind farm electric transmission technology, system insert with operating, wind farm MES and wind turbine base, etc., are studied to put forward corresponding implementation and solution. The conditions for research and development, and demonstration of its application are suggested. Through studying key offshore wind farm technology, we can make offshore wind farm system optimization designing techniques reach the most advanced levels internationally, train teams with innovation ability, which are engaged in designing and running wind farm to manage wind-power electricity generation and wind farm design . All of these are of strategic, economic, social and academic value.
The worldwide demand for renewable energy is increasing rapidly because of the climate problem, and also because oil resources are limited. Wind energy appears as a clean and good solution to cope with a great part of this energy demand. In Denmark for example, 20% of the electricity is produced from wind, and plans are towards reaching 50%. As space is becoming scarce for the installation of onshore wind turbines, offshore wind energy, when possible, seems as a good alternative. This work describes, for Europe and North America, the potential for offshore wind energy, the current status of this technology, and existing plans for the development of offshore wind parks. It also presents existing as well as promising new solutions for offshore wind energy.
The paper provides an overview of the historical development of wind energy technology and discusses the current status of grid-connected as well as stand-alone wind power generation worldwide. During the last decade of the 20th century, grid-connected wind capacity worldwide has doubled approximately every three years. Due to the fast market development, wind turbine technology has experienced an important evolution over time. An overview of the different design approaches is given and issues like power grid integration, economics, environmental impact and special system applications, such as offshore wind energy, are discussed. Due to the complexity of the wind energy technology, however, this paper mainly aims at presenting a brief overview of the relevant wind turbine and wind project issues. Therefore, detailed information on further readings and related organisations is included.
Towards the end of 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries, interest has risen in new and renewable energy (RE) sources especially wind energy for electricity generation. The scientists and researchers attempted to accelerate solutions for wind energy generation design parameters. Our life is directly related to energy and its consumption, and the issues of energy research are extremely important and highly sensitive.In a short time, wind energy is welcomed by society, industry and politics as a clean, practical, economical and environmentally friendly alternative. After the 1973 oil crisis, the RE sources started to appear in the agenda and hence the wind energy gained significant interest. As a result of extensive studies on this topic, wind energy has recently been applied in various industries, and it started to compete with other energy resources. In this paper, wind energy is reviewed and opened for further discussion. Wind energy history, wind-power meteorology, the energy–climate relations, wind-turbine technology, wind economy, wind–hybrid applications and the current status of installed wind energy capacity all over the world reviewed critically with further enhancements and new research trend direction suggestions.
In recent years, the wind power sector has begun to move offshore, i.e. to use space and good wind speeds on the open sea for large scale electricity generation. Offshore wind power, however, is not just technologically challenging but also a capital intensive and risky business that requires particular financial and organizational resources not all potential investors might have. We therefore address the question, what impact offshore wind power may have on ownership and organizational structures in the wind power sector. We compare on- and offshore wind park ownership in Denmark, the UK and Germany. The analysis shows that offshore wind power in all three countries is dominated by large firms, many of which are from the electricity sector. In Denmark and the UK, also investors from the gas and oil industry play an important role in the offshore wind business. This development represents a major shift for countries such as Germany and Denmark, in which the wind power sector has grown and matured on the basis of investments by individuals, farmers, cooperatives and independent project developers. The structural changes by which offshore wind power is accompanied have consequences for turbine manufacturers, project developers, investors, associations and policy makers in the field.
Wind power increase in 2008 exceeds 10-year average growth rate
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Deep water offshore wind technologies Thesis of Master in Science
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Deep water offshore wind technologies
- N Nikolaos
Nikolaos N. Deep water offshore wind technologies. Thesis of Master in Science.
University of Strathclyde Department of Mechanical Engineering, September
2004. http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/Documents/MSc 2004/nikolaos.pdf.