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A review on palm oil biodiesel as a source of renewable fuel
Abstract
The demand of increasing price in fossil fuel has prompted the global oil industry to look at the alternative sources of fuel from renewable energy source which is biodiesel. Biodiesel is considered as better option because of its environmental friendly characteristics while giving almost the same functional properties like fossil fuels. This paper will focus on the biodiesel produced in Malaysia. Palm oil is the main raw stock for biodiesel production in Malaysia as the country is one of the leading palm oil producers in the world. There are many advantages and disadvantages from the economical social and environmental aspects in the Malaysian biodiesel production in specific palm oil biodiesel. The aim of this paper is to analyze the past, current and future of palm oil biodiesel industry in Malaysia. This paper includes the technology aspect used in the palm oil biodiesel production and characteristics of pure palm oil biodiesel to meet the international market standard. Malaysia faces tough competition from other biodiesel producers like Indonesia and Brazil. The scope of this study covers the worldwide biodiesel development in brief in continuation with the challenges faced by Malaysia in becoming the top biodiesel exporter in the world with the advantages and disadvantage of using palm oil as the feedstock.
... India spends time arranging its policies towards using fuel with 20% bioethanol. In Malaysia, the usage of biodiesel is promoted and also Malaysia is one of the world's leading producers of palm oil (palm oil), which is the main crude stock for biodiesel production (Mekhilef et al. 2011). Asia will overtake Europe in terms of biofuel consumption thanks to all these enhancements. ...
... Kesieme et al. (2019) describe that the predominant way of promoting alternative fuels in maritime transport is provided by tax privilege, exemptions, and state subsidies. Mekhilef et al. (2011) point out that governments in Europe have provided biodiesel subsidies to encourage the production of sustainable energy. ...
... "High production efficiency to be achieved in the 3rd and 4th generations" (O1), and "Environmentally friendly and renewable energy" (S3), respectively. Mekhilef et al. (2011) biodiesel is seen as a better option because it is produced in an environmentally friendly and renewable way, although biodiesel provides almost the same technical characteristics as fossil fuels. The environmental effect of biodiesel depends on the production methodology vastly however, in terms of air pollution biodiesel provides transportation with much lower GHG emissions compared to fossil fuels regarding the results of the LCA analysis conducted by Nanaki and Koroneos (2012). ...
Alternative fuels especially those produced in a green way are essential for meeting supplying the world's growing energy needs. Biodiesel is becoming more prominent to meet international maritime organization regulations, minimize reliance on fossil fuels, and lessen the rising harmful emissions in the maritime sector. Four different generations have been investigated in the production stage in which a wide range of fuel types have existed including biodiesel, bioethanol, and renewable diesel. To investigate all facets of biodiesel usage as a marine fuel, the SWOT-AHP method is utilized in this paper in which 16 maritime experts with an average of 10.5 years of experience participated. SWOT factors and sub-factors have been developed in light of the literature review focused on biomass and alternative fuels. The AHP method is utilized for data acquisition from specified factors and sub-factors according to their superiority to each other. The analysis demonstrates the main factors ‘PW and sub-factors’ IPW values, and CR values to calculate the local and global rank of factors. Results highlighted that “Opportunity” has the highest prominence among the main factors; however, “Threats” remain at the lowest level. Moreover, “Tax privilege on green and alternative fuels supported by the authorities” (O4) is the one with the highest weight compared to the other sub-factors. Noteworthy energy consumption will be fulfilled in the maritime industry in addition to the development of new-generation biodiesel and other alternative fuels. This paper will be a quite valuable resource for experts, academics, and industry stakeholders to lessen the ambiguity around biodiesel.
Graphical abstract
... Due to the sensitive nature of NOx generation to incylinder temperature and oxygen availability [22, 23], NOx emissions increase with in-cylinder conditions as well as fuel and air homogeneity, improved combustion, and better air/fuel mixing (λ=1.0 to 1.2). By burning fuel with an excess of air compared to the stoichiometric amount required for combustion per unit mass of fuel, it's possible to reduce in-cylinder temperature, thus leading to lower NOx emissions [24]. Conversely, a more diluted 46 ABSTRACT. ...
... In addition, it is frequently used in alternative fuel research due to its important features such as easy accessibility and producibility from many sources. There are studies using biodiesels obtained from different sources such as soybean [20], frying oil [21], waste oil [22], cottonseed [23], palm oil [24], animal [25] and vegetable [26] oils. ...
The use of renewable energy sources is increasing to reduce the carbon footprint. Renewable energy sources provide limited electricity generation and cannot meet the variable energy demand. Large-scale energy storage systems are needed for sustainability. The applicability of energy storage technology depends on many factors such as energy source, site availability, energy density, storage time, storage capacity, system cost, environmental impact, reliability, durability, and system integration capacity. Solid gravity storage technology is seen as a promising new alternative for large-scale energy storage. There are various types of SGES systems classified according to the application method. In this paper, studies on various SGES methods are reviewed. Studies on the applicability factors of SGES systems and their integration into the electricity grid are evaluated. SGES technology has advantages in terms of geographical compatibility, storage volume, security, and energy conversion efficiency. It has been observed that successful results have been obtained in the theoretical studies. However, there is a need for the development of physical simulations and more comprehensive techno-economic analyses.
... Palm oil biodiesel has been discussed from various perspectives. Since it is an alternative fuel to fossil fuels, first of all, its renewable fuel characteristic is emphasized [11][12][13]. Biodiesel provides almost the same functionality as fossil fuels, but it is more environmentally friendly since it is easily biodegradable and a nontoxic alternative fuel [14]. Additionally, there is also an energy security contribution as it can reduce reliance on crude oil [15]. ...
... Despite the advantages, there are also some obstacles associated with palm oil. One area of issues revolves around labor, plantation management, and the harvesting of the fruit [11]. A second issue is the use of palm oil production in biodiesel, which also has some problems like 'food versus fuel', as in other biofuels' production [23]. ...
In the early 2000s, biofuels like biodiesel and bioethanol were seen as renewable alternatives to petroleum, driven by rising crude oil prices and environmental concerns. Palm oil became a key biodiesel raw material, turning the European Union (EU) into a major importer. However, sustainable palm oil concerns emerged in the EU in 2014, leading to trade disputes and import restrictions, with a goal to phase out palm oil biodiesel by 2030. This research explores the EU's palm oil biodiesel policy impact, focusing on key producers, EU imports (crude and refined palm oil, biodiesel), the EU's role in the global biodiesel network, and alignment with a green narrative. Analyzing trade data, we find that, despite concerns, the EU has not significantly reduced palm oil-related imports, highlighting the market's complex relationship to policy. This suggests that the EU's commitment to environmentally sustainable economic development may not align with market stakeholders' preferences, emphasizing the complex interdependencies between the global biodiesel market and policy areas like sustainability, economy, energy, and environment.
... This is referred to as the transesterification process. Crude palm oil (CPO) was chosen for our study because Malaysia is one of the leading exporters and producers of palm oil [1]. Unlike other oils, Crude Palm oil offers several advantages, including perennial crops that are continuous and uninterrupted, a high output yield, and a plantation that requires less fertilizer, water, and pesticides [2]. ...
... As a result, the ideal temperature should be lower. The optimal temperature range is 30 to 50 °C [1]. Hence, in this study, the chosen temperature of 45 °C is with-in the range. ...
In the present study, biodiesel was produced via the enzymatic interesterification of Crude Palm Oil (CPO) and methyl acetate within ultrasonic condition. In contrast to alcohol, methyl acetate as an acyl acceptor does not inhibit lipase activity and can create triacetin as a useful byproduct. In this work, Immobilized lipase from Candida Antartica A (CaLA) was utilized as biocatalyst and the effect of using non-pretreated CPO and pre-treated CPO as feedstock were explored. The pre-treatment of CPO involves degumming with acid, washing with water, and bleaching. The enzymatic interesterification was conducted in three-neck flasks using an ultrasonic water bath at 45o C. Few parameter effects on biodiesel production were also investigated, including the effect of molar ratio of CPO to methyl acetate, the effect amount of lipase, and the reusability of immobilized lipase (CaLA) in the interesterification reaction. The highest average Biodiesel yield of 80.6% was obtained from pretreated CPO at a molar ratio of 1:9 with 100 mg (1% w/v) of Immobilized CaLA, after three hours of reaction. Further research on the reusability of immobilized CaLA revealed that the yield of biodiesel reduced significantly after the second run. The results of the present study also demonstrated that Immobilized CaLA performed well at low concentrations but had low stability, with productivity decreasing to 92% upon reuse after the initial run. In order to make Immobilized lipase economically viable, further research must be conducted to overcome its low stability in the reaction.
... High oil content and higher yield of production with a low market price [28][29][30] High viscosity and density of palm biodiesel results in poor fuel atomization and increases the ignition delay [31,32] Palm biodiesel is ecofriendly, renewable, biodegradable, and nontoxic; it is compatible with any diesel engine without any modification [33,34] High pour and cloud points, as well as low volatilities [35] High cetane number of palm biodiesel lowers knocking tendency [32,36] Early nozzle opening and advanced injection due to higher volume modulus [37] Palm biodiesel possesses enhanced lubricity property [11] High oxygen content in palm biodiesel releases a high amount of NOx emission [15,38,39] Low sulfur content [40] Several engine defects such as carbon deposit, piston ring sticking, lubricating oil thickening, and injector cooking [10,41] High flashpoint improves safety [36,42] Difficulties in cold weather performance due to poor flow properties at lower temperature [43] Low emissions (CO, CO 2 , and HC) and noise [15,44] Lower energy content compared to diesel, increasing fuel consumption [36] New job opportunities that improve living standards and social developments [13,28] Negative impact on the environment due to deforestation of palm oil plantation [45] Oxygen content (10-12%) in palm biodiesel contributes to better combustion characteristics [16] Another feedstock used for biodiesel production has been solketal as a green solvent, commercialized at market prices of >2000 EUR/t [46]. In the work presented by Turck et al. [46], the physical and chemical behavior of solketal in ternary blends with diesel/biodiesel oil was investigated. ...
... Other studies have also shown that environmental taxes can impact the production and consumption of biofuels, having a medium-term effect on transport taxes and an immediate impact on the development of the importance of bioenergy within a country [11,12,19]. ...
In this article, the most important publications on the subject are compiled to highlight the progress in biodiesel production from tropical cultivars, including energy and environmental potential, raw materials, and the advantages and disadvantages of this biofuel. A critical and objective review of biodiesel production as an alternative fuel for power generation systems and its importance in the energy matrix was conducted. A survey of real applications, new computational and experimental trends, and proposals in internal combustion engines employing organic biofuel was performed. The main findings were as follows: (i) there is the possibility of integration and support in the energy matrix of different countries, as well as the competing with and complementing, energetically, other renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind; (ii) Jatropha curcas, sunflowers, soybean, Moringa oleifera, palm, cottonseed, castor, rubber seed, and coconut are tropical cultivars used to obtained oils into biodiesel; (iii) the findings can be utilized as a theoretical basis for future policies influencing the energy sector through regulatory measures.
... Additionally, adopting environmentally friendly preharvest equipment, such as electric-powered machines or those using cleaner fuel alternatives, can mitigate environmental impacts within plantation areas (Wicke et al., 2007;Mekhilef et al., 2011;Board, 2015;Zahid-Muhamad & Ab Aziz, 2018;Hamzah et al., 2019;Radzi et al., 2020;Zamri et al., 2022). Thus, developing and using pre-harvest machinery not only enhances production efficiency, but produces positive social and environmental outcomes. ...
This bibliometric study aimed to explore research on oil palm pre-harvest machinery from 2000 to 2022 by reviewing a total of 557 articles, published in 195 selected journals, with 2989 citations, involving 142 authors. Malaysia was the most productive country in terms of published articles, and Biosystems Engineering the most prolific journal. The main themes identified were biodiesel, pre-harvest machinery, and energy efficiency. The analysis underscored the critical role of pre-harvest machinery in improving the efficiency and sustainability of the palm oil industry and revealed key trends towards developing more efficient and sustainable machinery and technologies to boost biodiesel production. This study also identified significant research trends and frequent topics, suggesting new avenues for future research.
Key words: palm oil; pre-harvest machinery; equipment; research trends; bibliometric
... Biodiesel (B100) mempunyai sifat fisik dan kimia yang "mirip" dengan minyak solar, sehingga campuran biodiesel (Bxx) dapat langsung digunakan pada mesin diesel tanpa atau sedikit modifikasi (Solikhah et al., 2020). Biodiesel merupakan sumber energi terbarukan sebagai biofuel (Mekhilef et al., 2011;Saxena et al., 2017). Industri biodiesel memegang peranan penting saat ini dan di masa depan, terutama karena perolehan devisa dari ekspor, penghematan devisa dari impor minyak, kesempatan kerja dan perbaikan lingkungan dalam hal pencemaran udara. ...
The main problem of the study is related to transportation of goods that cannot be separated from the risks of the goods and the field condition. Based on the previous observation, there were five risk’s categories of biodiesel fuel transportation; force majeure risk, risk of equipment or transportation mode of distribution pipe, risk of equipment or tanker transportation mode, workforce risk, and system and procedural risk. The purpose of the research is to analyze the risk identification, the risk assessment and the risk control of biodiesel fuel transportation from PT XYZ in South Kalimantan to Pertamina Wayame Ambon Maluku. The research method used the risk assessment with Likert scale. The research found that there are three types of risks with the same average score (risk of equipment or transportation mode of distribution pipe, risk of equipment or tanker transportation mode, and workforce risk) and four types of risks that have cost greatest impact of the medium category (force majeure risk, risk of equipment or transportation mode of distribution pipe, risk of equipment or tanker transportation mode, workforce risk).
... The palm oil plant is renowned for its high oil yield of approximately 5 tons per hectare annually. Biodiesel studies focus on palm oil due to its abundant production from palm fruit, notably in countries like Indonesia and Malaysia, where yields are about ten times higher than those from soybean, sunflower, and rapeseed crops [46]. Despite requiring minimal fertilizer and water, palm plants are renewable and sustainable, offering advantages such as a high cetane number, low sulfur content, and a high flash point in biodiesel production. ...
Selecting suitable feedstock oils is essential for cost-effective biodiesel production. Research is focused on non-food oils such as Jatropha, Karanja, and animal fats. Karanja contains 27.5% fat, while Jatropha has non-edible fat content of 38–40%. Industrial hemp seeds (Cannabis sativa) also stand out, with an oil content of about 30–35%. Additionally, microalgae, which absorb CO2 and help reduce greenhouse gases, are an appealing biodiesel source. Biodiesel production also utilizes oils derived from soybeans (7%), sunflowers (3%), palm oil (15%), rapeseed oil (47%), canola oil, and cottonseed. Other significant biodiesel feedstocks in the United States include animal fats sourced from meat processing plants, used (recycled) cooking oil, and yellow grease (18%) from restaurants, as well as animal fats (8%). Yellow grease is specifically employed in biofuel production. This diversity is crucial in the selection of feedstocks for biodiesel production, considering sustainability, especially in terms of whether they are primary food sources or not, and taking into account the variety and oil content of bioenergy feedstocks. The physical (macro-scale), structural (micro-scale), and compositional (molecular-scale) characteristics of feedstock types, in addition to their lipid content, are crucial in biodiesel production, influencing conversion efficiency and process economics.
... In addition to that, some researchers have utilized superplasticizers to achieve the desired workability (Part et al., 2015;Sumesh et al., 2017). For instance, a study by Mekhilef et al. (Mekhilef et al., 2011) noted that concrete mixes with POFA replacements of 10 %, 20 %, and 30 % required higher dosages of superplasticizer (8.5, 11.8, and 16.9 kg/ m 3 , respectively) to achieve moderate slump values. Similarly, studies by Mohammadhosseini et al. (Mohammadhosseini et al., 2015), Nagaratnam et al. (Nagaratnam et al., 2016) and Kanagaraj et al. (Kanagaraj et al., 2023) concluded that the utilization of POFA in selfcompacting concrete (SCC) and geopolymer at high replacement levels necessitated a higher dosage of superplasticizer to attain selfcompacting ability. ...
... Of course, biodiesel could be produced through other sources, such as rapeseed and soybean oil. However, palm oil as a particular source has numerous advantages over other sources (Basiron, 2002;Mekhilef et al., 2011). ...
This review examines the local steps that are involved in the palm oil production in Nigeria, which includes; harvesting palm fruits from palm trees, collecting the bunches of palm fruits to a spot, splitting the palm fruits bunches into smaller pieces known as spikelets, removal of palm fruits from spikelets, boiling of the palm fruits to soften its mesocarp, removal and grinding the palm fruits mesocarp from its endocarp, separation of palm oil from other constituents, heating the crude palm oil to obtain refined palm oil, packaging the palm oil in various sizes of sealed containers such as plastic container. Local technique of palm oil production is cheap and readily available, but it comes with poor yield. However, modern technique (the use of machine) is expensive, though, but it makes the process easier and faster, and enhances commercial palm oil production.
... The main raw materials used for ME production are the following types of vegetable oils: rapeseed, soybean, cottonseed, palm, sunflower [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. An additional source of raw materials is also oils with deteriorated performance. ...
The extraction of natural fats as well as the production of derived products based on them are renewable processes that play a major role in the modern energy industry. An example in this regard is the so-called biodiesel fuel which is Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME), the production of which in recent years has reached enormous scales. Its main advantage is that it is an ecological product (methyl ester of higher fatty acids), which before and after use does not pollute the environment. Quality biodiesel fuel, in turn, is obtained from quality raw materials, which invariably limits its production. On the other hand, every year as a result of improper storage or processing, as well as obtained as waste products huge amounts of low-quality oils remain unutilized and they in turn, represent a valuable raw material and source of energy after their conversion into biodiesel fuel. The present work investigates the possibility of obtaining methyl esters of fatty acids (biodiesel) from low-quality (bad-quality) vegetable oils with high acid values by transesterification with an alkaline catalyst, which includes the selection of suitable catalysts and conditions for the optimal course of the process.
... Advantages of using biodiesel for Malaysia[31,98,[104][105][106][107]. ...
Biodiesel, an environmentally degradable and renewable biofuel derived from organic matter, has exhibited its capacity as a viable and sustainable substitute for traditional diesel fuel. Numerous comprehensive investigations have been conducted to assess the effects of biodiesel on internal combustion engines (ICEs), with particular emphasis on diesel engine performance metrics, combustion dynamics, and emission profiles. Biodiesel demonstrates a significant decrease in emissions of particulate matter (PM), hydrocarbon (HC), and carbon monoxide (CO) in diesel engines. The addition of biodiesel has shown a minor decrease in power output and a slight increase in fuel consumption and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. Nevertheless, the extensive implementation of biodiesel, despite its potential to effectively reduce detrimental emissions, has encountered obstacles stemming from external influences including restricted availability of feedstock, volatile petroleum oil prices, and inadequate governmental backing. This review presents a concise summary of significant advancements in the global adoption of biodiesel from a sustainability perspective. This review provides valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities associated with the advancement of sustainable biofuel technologies by synthesizing the current state of palm biodiesel and examining global trends in biodiesel implementation. The wider adoption of biodiesel can be facilitated by addressing concerns pertaining to feedstock availability, price stability, and policy support. This would allow for the realization of significant environmental advantages and contribute to a more environmentally friendly and sustainable biofuel.
... Palm oil is a perennial crop, unlike soybeans and rapeseed, meaning its oil production is continuous and uninterrupted (Wong et al. 2019). Additionally, palm oil has higher productivity, requiring less fertilizer, water, and pesticides than other crops (Mekhilef et al. 2011). The average world palm oil yield is 3.68 tons/ha/ year, significantly higher than soybeans (0.36 tons/ha/year) and rapeseed (0.42 tons/ha/year) (Basiron 2007 Palm Kernel Oil (PKO), and Palm Kernel Cake (PKE), and the remaining waste products, such as fiber, empty fruit bunches, and Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) (Wicke et al. 2008). ...
This study aims to optimize the development of aviation biofuel as a sustainable energy source by simulating system dynamics modeling. This study is based on the System Dynamics modeling approach, which is a set of conceptual tools designed to understand the structure and dynamics of complex systems. This study used the system dynamics method specifically designed to analyze complex systems. It has been applied to various sustainability-related issues, including urban area sustainable development modeling, sustainability of water resources, environmental management, and sustainable urbanization. The result obtained using the quantitative modeling showed that the contribution of aviation biofuel to flight intensity in Indonesia is still insignificant. The practical implications of this study are that palm oil has the potential to be a viable raw material for aviation biofuel production in Indonesia, and implementing policies to mitigate negative consequences and optimize land use for aviation biofuel fuel production can contribute to sustainable urban development. The originality of this study lies in its use of System Dynamics modeling to analyze the potential of palm oil as a raw material for aviation biofuel production and identify the various social, economic, environmental, and technological factors that impact it.
... Biodiesel offers several advantages, including increased oxygen levels that promote complete combustion and a higher cetane number that reduces ignition delays and unwanted emissions (Lin et al., 2020;Monyem & Gerpen, 2001). Palm oil biodiesel (POBD) has emerged as a promising feedstock for biodiesel production, with a production rate of 6 metric tonnes per hectare per year, high cetane number, reduced gum formation, and compatibility with both petrol and diesel fuel (Mekhilef et al., 2011;Debnath et al., 2013). ...
This study investigates the potential utilization of pure palm biodiesel in compression ignition (CI) engines, exploring the impact of enriched hydrogen-air supplied at the inlet manifold and the incorporation of nanoparticles into the fuel. The experimental campaign encompasses different fuel types: neat palm biodiesel (POBD), palm biodiesel with enriched hydrogen at a flow rate of 10 L per minute (lpm) mixed with air (POBD + H2), and palm biodiesel with 30 ppm cerium oxide nanoparticles and enriched hydrogen-air (POBD + H2 + CeO2). The engine’s performance is compared against that of neat diesel fuel. The testing of hydrogen-enriched air with palm biodiesel (POBD + H2) yields an average reduction of 14.29% in specific fuel consumption (SFC), a 4.06% increase in brake thermal efficiency (BTE), and significant reductions in exhaust pollutant emissions: carbon monoxide (CO) by 31.77%, hydrocarbon (HC) by 25.2 ppm, and smoke opacity by 47.37%. However, the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx) increases by 194.6 ppm compared to diesel fuel. Upon the introduction of cerium oxide nanoparticles into the aforementioned experimental setup (POBD + H2 + CeO2), significant enhancements were seen, including a reduction of 20.67% in SFC and a 6.28% increase in BTE. The levels of polluting gases exhibited significant reductions. Specifically, CO levels decreased by 42.25%, HC levels decreased by 29.6 ppm, smoke opacity decreased by 57.01%, and there was a remarkable decrease of 59 ppm in nitrogen oxide levels as compared to the use of diesel fuel.
... In order to enhance the competitiveness and sustainability of palm oil exports, the Malaysian government and industry have adopted a series of measures, such as strengthening R&D and innovation, promoting sustainable palm oil certification, and opening up new markets and products. While palm oil is essentially part of the solution to prevent deforestation, Mekhilef (2011) has developed renewable biofuel technologies to help reduce the use of traditional fossil fuels and contribute to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set out by the United Nations. ...
This study explores the export potential of the Malaysian palm oil industry to RCEP (Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership) member countries based on the regional economic framework. The panel data from 2018 to 2022 were analyzed using the Trade Gravity Model, RCA (Revealed Comparative Advantage), and TCI (Trade Complementarity Index) indices. The results categorize the fifteen RCEP member countries into three potential classes based on the type of potential. In addition, it was found that the trade complementarity of RCEP member countries showed a significant positive correlation with the export size of Malaysian palm oil and its products. The study provides insights into the trade pattern of palm oil in the region and provides a valuable reference for future trade policy formulation and industry development and provides a basis for research related to the sustainable development of the Malaysian palm oil industry.
... • Glycerol source: we considered glycerol production from other feedstock besides soybeans from the USA, including glycerol from rapeseed oil 62 and palm oil, 63 and soybeans cultivated at an another geographical location, i.e., Brazil. This was modeled by replacing the default glycerine data set with the following Ecoinvent 3.8 data sets: glycerine {BR}|esterification of soybean oil; glycerine {MY}|esterification of palm oil; and glycerine {Europe without Switzerland}|esterification of rape oil. ...
The petrochemical industry can reduce its environmental impacts by moving from fossil resources to alternative carbon feedstocks. Biomass and plastic waste-based production pathways have recently been developed for benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX). This study evaluates the environmental impacts of these novel BTX pathways at a commercial and future (2050) scale, combining traditional life cycle assessment with absolute environmental sustainability assessment using the planetary boundary concept. We show that plastic waste-based BTX has lower environmental impacts than fossil BTX, including a 12% decrease in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Biomass-based BTX shows greater GHG emission reductions (42%), but it causes increased freshwater consumption and eutrophication. Toward 2050, GHG emission reductions become 75 and 107% for plastic waste and biobased production, respectively, compared to current fossil-BTX production. When comparing alternative uses of plastic waste, BTX production has larger climate benefits than waste incineration with energy recovery with a GHG benefit of 1.1 kg CO2-equiv/kg plastic waste. For biomass (glycerol)-based BTX production, other uses of glycerol are favorable over BTX production. While alternative BTX production pathways can decrease environmental impacts, they still transgress multiple planetary boundaries. Further impact reduction efforts are thus required, such as using other types of (waste) biomass, increasing carbon recycling, and abatement of end-of-life emissions.
... Malaysia is the second-largest producer and a net exporter of oil palms [1], which has considerably increased the economic development of the country [2]. Oil palm serves the dual roles of being a source of edible oil and a renewable energy resource [3]. However, the production of oil palms can be hindered by infections such as Basal stem rot (BSR) disease. ...
... Increasing levels of greenhouse gases and rising fuel costs caused a growing demand for cleaner energy alternatives [1]. Efficient energy storage methods that are easily adaptable to different forms pose difficulties for contemporary technology experts [2]. ...
Amidst escalating fuel expenses and growing concerns over greenhouse gas pollution, the adoption of renewable alternative energy sources has become increasingly imperative. In response, scientists are fervently dedicated to identifying energy-saving solutions that are readily adaptable. Notably, silica aerogels have demonstrated remarkable efficacy in temperature management under both hot and cold conditions, while phase change materials are renowned for their capacity to store thermal energy. The study examines the effect of initial pressure on the thermal performance of silica aerogel/PCM/CuO nanostructure in a cylindrical duct. This was investigated using MD simulations and the LAMMPS software. The study will investigate several elements , such as density, velocity, temperature patterns, heat flux, thermal conductivity, and charge time or discharge time of the simulated structure. According to the results, with an increase in the initial pressure, the maximum density increases from 0.0838 atom/Å 3 to 0.0852 atom/Å 3, and the maximum velocity decreases from 0.0091 Å/fs to 0.0081 Å/fs. Also, the findings show that, by increasing the initial pressure, the temperature decreases from 931.42 K to 895.63 K, and thermal conductivity and heat flux decrease to 1.56 W/m.K and 56.66 W/m 2 with increasing the initial pressure to 5 bar. Finally, the results show that charging time increases to 6.34 ns at 5 bar. The increase in charging time with increasing initial pressure may be attributed to the reduced mobility of particles within the structure as a result of the higher pressure. The findings of this study can help for a better understanding of energy-saving solutions, advanced thermal management systems, and the design of efficient energy storage technologies tailored to specific pressure-related operating conditions.
... One of the alternative energy sources is palm oil. Palm oil is the main raw stock for biodiesel production as an alternative energy source (Mekhilef et al., 2011;Devarajan et al., 2017). ...
This study strives in mapping of literature on the link between the palm oil business and environmental quality. It selects a large amount of literature published in the Scopus Database from 2000–2022. The literature was analyzed using a Bibliometric approach. The keywords "palm oil and business" resulted in 672 documents, while "palm oil and environmental quality" resulted in 1.378 documents. The finding expresses that most scholars pay more attention to reveal the impact of palm oil business and sustainable environment. Consequently, the number of documents (literature) increased over time. Journal of Cleaner Production has the highest contribution in the literature on palm oil and environment. Indonesia and Malaysia contribute significantly to qualifying palm oil's sustainable business and environmental quality. A key implication of the findings is that governments and palm oil businesses should ensure palm oil and environmental sustainability in the long-run.
... Most biodiesel studies focused on first generation oil feedstocks from sunflower oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil and corn oil. However, these vegetable oil crops require more land to produce the same amount of oil compared to palm oil [19]. Homogeneous catalyst is commonly used in the transesterification reaction in commercialised biodiesel production. ...
This study proposed biodiesel production from refined, bleached, and deodorised palm oil via transesterification using black pepper seed-KOH catalyst. A heterogeneous industrial waste catalyst, notably black pepper seed-KOH, was proposed because it can offer sustainability in biodiesel production. While among first generation oil feedstocks, palm oil stands out due to its high productivity because more palm oil can be generated per land area than others. Despite the most common use of the pseudo-first-order kinetic model in biodiesel studies, limited attention has been given to the second-order and reversible kinetics studies. Therefore, catalyst characterization encompassed SEM, EDX, TGA, PSA, FTIR, and basicity tests were first performed. Then, transesterification was executed at different temperatures (50–70 °C), 240-minute reaction time, 6:1 methanol-to-oil ratio, 5 wt% catalyst loading, and 200 rpm to obtain the best fit kinetic model and thermodynamic data. The results displayed a pseudo-irreversible first-order kinetics. Activation energy and pre-exponential factor were determined as 61.5195 kJ mol−1 and 1.1367 × 107 min−1. While, thermodynamic value was calculated, ΔH = 58.7528 kJ mol−1, ΔS = − 0.0850 kJ mol−1 K−1 and ΔG = 86.2157 to 87.9162 kJ mol−1. Therefore, the transesterification was defined as an endothermic, endogenic, and non-spontaneous reaction. This study demonstrates the black pepper seed-KOH’s efficacy in biodiesel production and enhances understanding of kinetic and thermodynamic parameters governing the transesterification process.
... However, along with rapid growth, the palm oil industry is also faced with increasingly fierce competition between the companies operating in it. This competition includes aspects of production, distribution, marketing and sustainability (Mekhilef et al., 2011;Teng et al., 2020). Palm oil companies compete to obtain productive land, increase plantation productivity, and optimize supply chains to meet increasing demand. ...
The development of the palm oil industry is increasingly rapid, triggering intense competition among companies in this industry. One of the key factors in winning the competition is a good company image. Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) emerged as a holistic strategy to build and improve a company's image. PT. Anugerah Sawit Inti Harapan, as a leading company in this sector, faces the challenge of strengthening their corporate image amidst market dynamics. This research aims to analyze the strategy for implementing Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) in improving the company's image, with a focus on the case study of PT. Inti Harapan Palm Oil Award. This research uses a literature review method by exploring the latest literature regarding Integrated Marketing Communication and its application in the context of palm oil companies. The main research object is the IMC strategy that has been implemented by PT. Inti Harapan Palm Oil Award. Case study analysis of PT. The Inti Harapan Palm Oil Award also shows the efforts made by the company to integrate marketing communications. The conclusion of this research is that the strategy of implementing Integrated Marketing Communication can be the key to success in building and improving a company's image, especially in the palm oil industry. The practical implication of this research is the need for companies to adopt a holistic and integrated IMC approach to achieve marketing success and build a positive reputation.
... Malaysia is the second-largest producer and a net exporter of oil palms [1], which has considerably increased the economic development of the country [2]. Oil palm serves the dual roles of being a source of edible oil and a renewable energy resource [3]. However, the production of oil palms can be hindered by infections such as Basal stem rot (BSR) disease. ...
... The palm oil is extracted from the Elaeis guineensis fruit mesocarp. Palm plantation has the highest yield of oil per unit area cultivated and produces 10 times more oil per hectare than other oilseed crops such as sunflower, rapeseeds, cottonseed, peanut (Mekhilef et al., 2011;Mba et al., 2015). The leading countries of palm oil are Indonesia and Malaysia responsible for 59% and 25% of world production, respectively (United States Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service, 2022). ...
... When considering prominent biodiesel feedstock, palm oil methyl ester (POME) exhibits a significantly higher yield per hectare (4.2 tons/hectare). In comparison, soybean yields only 0.4 tonnes and rapeseed yields 0.7 tonnes (Mekhilef et al., 2011). According to a recent study, it has been suggested that switching demand from palm oil to less efficient edible oils like sunflower or rapeseed that require more land, water, and fertiliser, may potentially result in a higher rate of deforestation (Purnomo et al., 2020). ...
Most diesel engines typically operate with high excess air in part load. Implementing air intake restriction with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) could be a viable option for mitigating NOx emission and soot, particularly when utilizing biodiesel, attributing to biodiesel's inherent oxygen content. This study examines the effect of intake air throttle and EGR coupled with split injection strategies on a turbocharged 4-cylinder engine fuelled with B60-POME fuel. A parametric test was conducted to examine the impact of fuel injection pressure, intake air throttling and EGR, followed by Response Surface Methodology (RSM) optimisation. When EGR is implemented with a 45% intake throttle opening, a relatively low EGR rate of 5% is achieved. A study utilising RSM was conducted to optimise the control of air supply and split injection parameters, involved with a total of 6 control variables. The optimum parameter appears at a dwell angle of 12 °CA, SOI timing of −4°ATDC, 40% intake throttle opening, EGR of 6.75%, fuel injection pressure of 800 bar and split injection ratio of 50%. These settings yield prediction emission results that are closely similar to those obtained from the actual confirmation test.
... Palm oil, which is obtained from the fruit of the oil palm, has Erwiningsih, W., Ali, M. (2023). Environmental Law for Sustainable Palm Oil Development to Combat Deforestation and Climate Change Impact 3 several advantages that make it a popular choice in the global market (Mekhilef et al., 2011). First, palm oil is relatively cheap and efficient in production. ...
Purpose: The aim of this study is to examie how environmental law to mitigate the impact of climate change caused by deforestation in Indonesia due to the high demand for palm oil. Theoretical framework: Theoretical framework incorporate principles from international agreements such as the Paris Agreement and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), aligned with environmental law with Indonesia's national policies and strategies, such as the National Action Plan for Greenhouse Gas Reduction and Indonesia Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO). Design/methodology/approach: The research method used a qualitative approach with data collected through library research. Various sources, including articles, journals, books, reports, and documents, were utilized to gather comprehensive and reliable information on the Indonesian palm oil problem and its environmental and societal impact. Findings: The result of the study concluded that addressing deforestation and the environmental impact of palm oil production requires several measures. These include reducing global demand for palm oil, promoting sustainable palm oil production, and adopting best practices in the palm oil industry. Implementing environmentally friendly approaches, protecting critical conservation areas, respecting the rights of local communities, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions are essential steps to mitigate the issue Research, Practical & Social implications: The study outline the role of engage all stakeholders, including producers, companies, governments, civil society, and global consumers, in these efforts. Striking a balance between economic interests and environmental concerns is vital. By promoting sustainable agricultural practices, negative impacts on the environment and society can be minimized, and progress can be made towards achieving climate change mitigation and sustainable development goals. Originality/value: The value of the study lies in its holistic approach to addressing multiple interconnected issues. It not only focuses on environmental conservation but also considers the socioeconomic aspects of small-scale farmers in Indonesia. This integrated perspective is vital for finding sustainable solutions that benefit both the environment and local communities.
... As reported, biodiesel is considered to be one of the renewable sources of alternative energy and it has been studied by the world's oil industry because demand for fossil fuel is increasing, leading to high prices [83], [84]. Interestingly, biodiesel has nearly the same functional features as fossil fuels but is environmentally friendly, so it is regarded as a superior alternative [85]- [87]. Besides the sustainability of biodiesel production, its benefits also include a significant reduction in carbon emissions, more environment related job opportunities, a reduction in the requirement for imported fossil fuel, and a decrease in fuel costs. ...
Due to recent emission-associated regulations imposed on marine fuel, ship owners have been forced to seek alternate fuels, in order to meet the new limits. The aim of achieving low-carbon shipping by the year 2050, has meant that alternative marine fuels, as well as various technological and operational initiatives, need to be taken into account. This article evaluates and examines recent clean fuels and novel clean technologies for vessels. The alternative fuels are classified as low-carbon fuels, carbon-free fuels, and carbon neutral fuels, based on their properties. Fuel properties, the status of technological development, and existing challenges are also summarised in this paper. Furthermore, researchers have also investigated energy-saving devices and discovered that zero-carbon and virtually zero-carbon clean fuels, together with clean production, might play an important part in shipping, despite the commercial impracticability of existing costs and infrastructure. More interestingly, the transition to marine fuel is known to be a lengthy process; thus, early consensus-building, as well as action-adoption, in the maritime community is critical for meeting the expectations and aims of sustainable marine transportation.
... Firstly, the mandatory use of biodiesel has resulted in a significant increase in the domestic consumption of CPO, leading to a shortage of supply for export markets and, as a result, higher prices for CPO in the domestic market. This has made it difficult for CPO exporters to compete with other producers in the global market, which has hurt the competitiveness of the industry (Mekhilef et al., 2011, Johari et al., 2015, Ahmad et al., 2011. Secondly, the expansion of the CPO industry has also led to deforestation and loss of biodiversity, which has negative environmental impacts (Taheripour et al., 2019). ...
Crude Palm Oil (CPO) is the mainstay of Indonesian agricultural products which is the largest CPO producing country in the world. The high market share of Indonesian CPO exports reflects the high competitiveness of Indonesian CPO in the global market. The purpose of this study is to determine the competitiveness of Indonesian CPO, the concentration of the Indonesian CPO industry, and analyze the factors that are suspected to affect the competitiveness of the CPO industry in Indonesia. The data used in this study are secondary data with a five-digit ISIC (10432) using time series data for 2001-2020 and the analytical techniques used in this study include Revealed Competitive Advantage (RCA), Gini Coefficient, and Error Correction Model (ECM). The results showed that Indonesian CPO has high competitiveness in the international market, the Indonesian CPO industry is not concentrated, in the short term the variables that affect competitiveness are CPO prices, subsidized solar prices policy, and industrial concentrations, while in the long term the influential variables are biodiesel policy, subsidized diesel oil policy and industrial concentration
... Rapid rates of fossil fuel depletion, along with disruptions to crude oil supply, are driving research programmes designed to develop palm oil as a biofuel source to support cleaner energy production (Johari et al., 2015;Tan et al., 2009). The growing demand for palm oil has led to the rapid expansion of plantations across tropical regions (Johari et al., 2015;Mekhilef et al., 2011;Xu et al., 2020), changing land use and land cover over large areas (Basiron, 2007;Shamshiri et al., 2019). In Malaysia, agriculture is one of the most economically important industries, with large-scale investment and widespread development of the plantation sector (Basiron, 2007). ...
Oil palm agriculture has caused extensive land cover and land use changes that have adversely affected tropical landscapes and ecosystems. However, monitoring and assessment of oil palm plantation areas to support sustainable management is costly and labour-intensive. This study used an unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) to map smallholder farms and applied multi-criteria analysis to data generated from orthomosaics, to provide a set of sustainability indicators for the farms. Images were acquired from a UAV, with structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry then used to produce orthomosaics and digital elevation models of the farm areas. Some of the inherent problems using high spatial resolution imagery for land cover classification were overcome by using texture analysis and geographic object-based image analysis (OBIA). Six spatially explicit environmental metrics were developed using multi-criteria analysis and used to generate sustainability indicator layers from the UAV data. The SfM and OBIA approach provided an accurate, high-resolution (~5 cm) image-based reconstruction of smallholder farm landscapes, with an overall classification accuracy of 89%. The multi-criteria analysis highlighted areas with lower sustainability values, which should be considered targets for adoption of sustainable management practices. The results of this work suggest that UAVs are a cost-effective tool for sustainability assessments of oil palm plantations, but there remains the need to plan surveys and image processing workflows carefully. Future work can build on our proposed approach, including the use of additional and/or alternative indicators developed through consultation with the oil palm industry stakeholders, to support certification schemes such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO).
... However, because of the complexity of labour plantation management and fruit harvesting, palm oil yield per man per day is not as competitive as other oilseeds. Palm oil and refined palm oil have increases popularity vegetable oils on the market today [31] . Palm oil is known for its nutrient content, which makes it excellent for daily cooking, according to Imoisi et al [32] . ...
Ghana is a country rich in natural resources, including biodiversity and large water bodies, but it is also plagued by food and energy shortages. Fuel prices are also increasing. Biodiesel made from lipids will attract increasing attention as researchers and experts look for a solution. However, the obvious cheapest option of edible feedstock will be insufficient to meet rising energy and food demand, necessitating the need for a guaranteed feedstock. As a result, this research was conducted to identify lipid-based biomass feedstocks that would be ideal for biodiesel production in Ghana. This research seeks to give current information on the biofuel feedstock currently existing (mostly biodiesel) synthesis from lipid-based biomasses in Ghana. Edible plant oils were the first generation of lipid-based feedstocks, whereas alternative types of feedstocks were identified and reported as the second generation. Non-edible oils, like Jatropha oil, Neem oil, Karanja oil, Nagchampa oil, Calophyllum inophyllum oil, Mahua indica oil, Rubber seed oil, and other non-edible feedstocks are used to make second-generation biodiesels. Vegetable oil waste, industrial wastes and by-products, animal fats, and lipid-derived from microorganisms and insects are also among the 2nd generation feedstocks discussed in this paper. The advantages of 2nd generation feedstocks are the low-cost, high-yielding, and the fact that they do not economically or ethically compete with edible oils (food crops). Nevertheless, all 2nd generation feedstocks are often free fatty acids and having high moisture, which have a significant detrimental impact on the conventional biodiesel synthesis process. As a result, this article contains basic information on processing procedures that can handle 2nd generation feedstocks.
... Vegetable oils and fats have been studied as alternative energy sources. In this context, there has been an increased interest in plants from the Amazon aiming at the production of biodiesel [82][83][84]. Lima et al. [35] synthesized biodiesel from pracaxi oil. The product's high thermal stability and other physico-chemical properties met the specifications contained in Resolution 45/14 of the National Petroleum Agency (RANP 45/14), ASTM D6751 (American Society for Testing and Materials) and European Committee Standard EN 14214. ...
Pracaxi (Penthaclethra macroloba (Willd.) Kuntze) is an Amazonian plant, traditionally used by the native population to treat health disorders such as inflammation, erysipelas, wound healing, muscle pain, ear pain, diarrhea, snake and insect bites as well as for cancer treatment. Other common uses include using the oil for frying, skin and hair beautification, and as an alternative source of energy. This review is focused on highlighting its taxonomy, occurrence and botanical origins, popular uses, pharmacology and biological activities, cytotoxicity, biofuel activity and phytochemistry in order to explore future therapeutic use and other applications. Pracaxi contains triterpene saponins, sterols, tannins, oleanolic acid, unsaturated fatty acids and long-chain fatty acids, with a high behenic acid value, which may serve for incorporation into drug delivery systems as well for the development of new drugs. These components are correlated with its anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, healing, anti-hemolytic, anti-hemorrhagic, antiophidic, and larvicidal activities against Aedes aegypti and Helicorverpa zea, which ratify the popular/traditional uses. The species is nitrogen fixing; it is easy to propagate in floodplains and the terra firma, and it can be used for the reforestation of degraded areas. Additionally, the oil extracted from the seeds can leverage the bioeconomy of the region based on sustainable exploration.
... Then, Mekhilef et al. [8] researched the demand of increasing price in fossil fuel has prompted the global oil industry to look at the alternative sources of fuel from renewable energy source which is biodiesel. Palm oil is the main raw stock for biodiesel production inMalaysia as the country is one of the leading palm oil producers in the world. ...
Biodiesel is a fuel substitute for diesel which is considered more environmentally friendly because the raw materials used come from a mixture of palm vegetable oil, increasing production. The emergence of black palm oil campaigns in several importing countries has encouraged the urgency of biodiesel development in Indonesia. This study aims to; photograph the development of the Indonesian biodiesel industry and describe the development prospects of the Indonesian biodiesel industry in terms of raw materials, markets and policies. This research method uses descriptive analysis to examine the chances of developing the Indonesian biodiesel industry regarding raw materials, markets, and policies. The results showed that; the development of the Indonesian biodiesel industry continues to increase when viewed from the aspects of increasingly large raw materials, promising markets, and policies. It will continue to be studied and updated by the Indonesian government, so it is hoped that this biodiesel can significantly replace imported diesel and absorb Indonesian palm oil. The biodiesel industry in Indonesia has an extensive prospect to continue after implementing the B-30, which was first implemented in 2020. It can be achieved by paying attention to the available raw materials used in the biodiesel industry.
This study examined the effects of two molybdenum impregnation methods, i.e., spray and wet impregnation, on the activity and selectivity of sulfated mesoporous silica (SO4–SiO2) in producing bio-jet fuel from used palm cooking oil through an atmospheric hydrotreatment process. For the wet impregnation method, 2% (w/w) molybdenum metal from (NH4)6Mo7O24·4H2O was dissolved in 50 mL of deionized water, and 5 g of SO4–SiO2 was soaked in this solution and stirred for 24 h. In contrast, for the spray impregnation method, the same concentration of molybdenum was dissolved in 5 mL of deionized water and sprayed onto 5 g of SO4–SiO2 using a spray bottle. Surprisingly, the spray impregnation method successfully produced the Mo/SO4–SiO2 catalyst, which exhibited higher acidity, BET surface area, and thermal stability than the wet impregnation catalyst. XPS data revealed that the spray catalyst was predominantly composed of Mo(IV) species, resulting in a liquid product conversion of 63.65%. The selectivity for bio-jet fuel (first drop–450 °C) and the total bio-jet fuel yield were 84.71% and 51.29%, respectively. These results outperformed those obtained with the Mo/SO4–SiO2 wet catalyst primarily composed of Mo(VI) species. Furthermore, the second and third applications of the Mo/SO4–SiO2 spray catalyst produced promising total bio-jet fuel yields of 50.96% and 46.59%, respectively. Therefore, this catalyst, prepared using a straightforward method, shows significant potential as a candidate for the biofuel industry in the future to support a green aviation industry.
This chapter critically examines the role of biofuels in addressing the energy demands of developing nations, with a specific focus on palm oil as a renewable energy resource. By tracing the historical development of palm oil as a biofuel feedstock, the chapter evaluates its advantages while addressing the environmental and social challenges associated with its cultivation and production. A comparative assessment with alternative renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, highlights the distinct properties and potential synergies of palm oil biofuel within diversified energy systems.
Advances in research and innovation are explored, including technological improvements, waste management strategies, and Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs), to assess the economic and environmental sustainability of palm oil biofuel production. The integration of palm oil biofuel with other renewable energy technologies is discussed, showcasing its potential to enhance energy resilience and diversification in developing regions.
The chapter further investigates the economic and social impacts of palm oil biofuel, emphasizing its capacity to stimulate regional economies through job creation and income generation. Prospects and challenges in scaling palm oil biofuel are analyzed, highlighting its critical role in advancing sustainable energy solutions for developing nations.
By synthesizing historical context with contemporary research findings, this chapter provides an in-depth analysis of palm oil biofuel as a pivotal element in the global transition toward sustainable energy systems in resource-constrained settings.
High-quality alternative diesel derived from renewable resources for smooth combustion in compression ignition engines is a perpetual pursuit of researchers to transition from conventional to renewable fuels. This review focuses on the major domains in the production of renewable diesel using a variety of cutting-edge techniques and technologies, including transesterification, hydrogenation, deoxygenation, Fischer–Tropsch process, catalytic hydrotreatment and blending. The availability and quality of renewable diesel feedstocks for usage consideration before processing in accordance with the mentioned techniques are also covered in this chapter. The physiochemical analysis and biofuel composition in each processing method demonstrate that renewable diesel is essentially a frontier fuel geared towards the future with comparable quality. In fact, some of the properties of renewable diesel (such as cetane number and flash point) are superior to petroleum-based fuels.
With the increasing global demand and rising fossil fuel prices, the oil industry is turning to alternative fuels from renewable sources like biodiesel or vegetable oils. To compensate for the scarcity of fossil fuels, fuel from vegetable oils is one of the alternatives to meet energy needs. Biodiesel is considered a suitable and better choice due to its environmentally friendly features, reduced carbon dioxide emissions, and functional properties similar to fossil fuels. The diesel blend is a renewable fuel derived from a mixture of hydrocarbons (diesel) and fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). This article focuses on biodiesel produced in Indonesia from palm oil as a feedstock for biofuel production. As one of the world’s largest palm oil producers, the production of biodiesel in Indonesia, especially biodiesel from palm oil, has many advantages and disadvantages in terms of economic, social and economic aspects. environment. Use specifically as a fuel is sometimes problematic because biodiesel is hygroscopic and can corrode steel. The scope of this study is based on a brief overview of the progress and challenges in developing palm oil biodiesel feedstock to pursue in the future.
Biodiesel is a promising fuel with the potential to reduce some negative aspects of fossil fuels, such as the emission of pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHG), scarcity of natural resources...
One billion liters of biodiesel are thought to be the potential market size in South Africa (SA). To build a stable and expanding market for biodiesel in SA, government regulations and policies are necessary while proactive steps are needed, particularly in the area of creative efforts that can help lower the cost of biodiesel production down to a respectable level. Converting wastes into products is an example of these creative efforts alluded to in the statement before. Thus, it is suggested that the potential for turning two categories of wastes into product and their effects on SA’s biodiesel industry’s economics be studied. The utilization of waste cooking oil (WCO) as a feedstock for the production of biodiesel in this study will be the first category of waste conversion to product. The transesterification process of converting WCO to biodiesel, using mullite-rich tailings (MRT) from density-separated waste copper dust, will be the second category of waste conversion to product. These concepts were prompted as a result of the fact that the use of edible oil to produce biodiesel could potentially lead to a diminution of the oil available as food for both humans and farm animals. Also, the idea to manufacture and characterize hydrotalcite-derived material (HDM) from waste metal dust for the transesterification of WCO to biodiesel utilizing MRT as starting material results from the fact that producing HDM from pure chemicals is expensive. Hence, the proposed study.KeywordsWaste cooking oilMullite-rich tailingsWaste copper dustHydrotalciteBiodieselCatalystTransesterification
This study analyses the environmental and economic feasibility of producing palm oil-based biodiesel in Mexico in order to substitute of diesel fuel consumption using B5 until 2015 and B10 from 2016 to 2031 in the transportation sector. Two scenarios were created by projecting demand and costs for biodiesel as well as greenhouse gases emissions reduction over the next 26 years. In the environmental section, avoided emissions of Particulate matter, Total Hydrocarbons, Carbon Monoxide, Sulphur Dioxide, and Carbon Dioxide as well as the increase in Nitrous Oxide emissions were estimated for each scenario. In the economic section, a cost–benefit analysis of biodiesel substitution was implemented, and mitigation costs of Carbon Dioxide were estimated. Our results show that the feasibility of palm oil biodiesel use is directly related to the implementation of fiscal incentives, such as the exemption from tax (Special Tax on Production and Services).
Due the environmental concern and limited resources of petroleum oil has increase the demand of biodiesel. One way of reducing the biodiesel production costs is to use the less expensive feedstock containing fatty acids such as inedible oils, animal fats, waste food oil and by products of the refining vegetables oils The fact that Jatropha oil can not be used for nutritional purposes without detoxification makes its use as energy/fuel source very attractive. The lipid fraction of Jatropha oil seed were extracted and analyzed for their chemical and physical properties such as acid value, percentage free fatty acids (% FFA), iodine value, peroxide value and saponification value as well as viscosity, and density. The fatty acid and triacylglycerol (TAGs) composition of the extracted lipid was revealed using the gas chromatography (GC) and high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. Both oleic acid (44.7%) and linoleic acid (32.8%) were detected as the dominant fatty acids while palmitic acid and stearic acid were the saturated fatty acids found in the Jatropha oil. OLL (22.94%) and OOL (17.9%) was detected as major triacylglycerol composition in the jatropha oil. The oil extracts exhibited good physicochemical properties and could be useful as biodiesel feedstock and industrial application.
The use of palm oil as a base stock for an environmentally friendly lubricant for small four-stroke motorcycle engines is investigated. Palm oil was blended with mineral oil at different compositions to the viscosity requirement of commercial lubricant. A liquid additive package was added to improve the viscosity of the lubricant. A blend that meets the viscosity requirement was then chosen for physical and chemical property characterization and subjected to an engine test. The blend consists of 50.6% (wt.) palm oil, 41.6% mineral oil, and 7.8% additive package. The properties evaluated include viscosity, viscosity index, flash point, foaming characteristics, and wear scar. The engine performance and emission tests were carried out with a 125-cc motorcycle on a chassis dynamometer using a Bangkok Driving Cycle. Compared to a mineral-based commercial oil, the palm oil-based lubricant exhibits superior tribological properties, but offers no clear advantage on engine and emission performance.
Energy supply and its security issues have been the topic of interest lately. With growing environmental awareness about the negative implications brought by excessive usage of fossil fuels, the race for finding alternative energy as their substitutions is getting heated up. For now, renewable energy from biodiesel has been touted as one of the most promising substitutions for petroleum-derived diesel. Combustion of biodiesel as fuel is more environment-friendly while retaining most of the positive engine properties of petroleum-derived diesel. Production of biodiesel is also a proven technology with established commercialization activities. The huge potential of biodiesel coupled with the abundance of palm oil which is one of the most cost-effective feedstocks for biodiesel is responsible for the pledging of Malaysia to become the leading producer of high quality biodiesel in the region. Currently, total approved installed capacity of biodiesel production in Malaysia equals to almost 92% of the world biodiesel production output in 2008. While Malaysia does indeed possessed materials, technologies and marketing superiority to vie for that position, many more challenges are still awaiting. The price restriction, provisions controversy, escalating non-tariff trade barriers and negligible public support need to be addressed appropriately. In this review, Malaysia's previous and current position in global biodiesel market, its future potential towards the prominent leading biodiesel status and major disrupting obstacles are being discussed. The feasibility of utilizing algae as the up-and-coming biodiesel feedstock in Malaysia is also under scrutiny. Lastly, several recommendations on the roles played by three major forces in Malaysia's biodiesel industry are presented to tackle the shortcomings in achieving the coveted status by Malaysia. It is hope that Malaysia's progress in biodiesel industry will not only benefit itself but rather as the role model to catalyst the development of global biofuels industry as a whole.
Energy is essential to the way we live. Whether it is in the form of oil, gasoline or electricity, a country's prosperity and welfare depends on having access to reliable and secure supplies of energy at affordable prices. However, it is also one of the benefits taken for granted by many people, knowing little about the impact of electricity on their lives. Having dependent mainly on oil and gas for half a century, Malaysia has started to realize the importance to adopt renewable energy in the energy mix and continuously reviewed its energy policy to ensure sustainable energy supply and security. This paper examines and discusses the intricacy of the existing and new energy policies, issues and challenges in Malaysia. The overall approach in addressing the energy issues and challenges will continue to focus on adequacy, quality, security and sustainability of both non-renewable and renewable energy supply in the country's development and the promotion and implementation of its energy efficiency programs. The recently launched National Green Technology Policy is also discussed.
This article discusses current status of palm oil-based biodiesel industry in Malaysia, the policies introduced and strategies for its implementation. Due to renewability, high production rate, technical feasibility and role in reducing greenhouse gases (GHG) emission, palm oil is in the right position to supply the energy needs by the incorporation into the diesel supply. As a leading producer of palm oil, Malaysia has embarked on a comprehensive palm biofuel program since 1982. It has successfully established the use of palm biodiesel blend (B5) as a suitable fuel for the transport and industrial sectors through the introduction of the National Biofuel Policy. The current scenario of biodiesel program in Malaysia, as well as biofuel policies with respect to its use, technology, export, environmental issues and implementation aspects are thoroughly discussed. The roles of the policy towards the prosperity of the stakeholders, oil price and the reduction of greenhouse gasses are also highlighted.
The world is confronted with the twin crises of fossil fuel depletion and environmental degradation. The indiscriminate extraction and consumption of fossil fuels have led to a reduction in petroleum reserves. Petroleum based fuels are obtained from limited reserves. These finite reserves are highly concentrated in certain region of the world. Therefore, those countries not having these resources are facing a foreign exchange crisis, mainly due to the import of crude petroleum oil. Hence it is necessary to look for alternative fuels, which can be produced from materials available within the country. Although vegetative oils can be fuel for diesel engines, but their high viscosities, low volatilities and poor cold flow properties have led to the investigation of its various derivatives. Among the different possible sources, fatty acid methyl esters, known as Biodiesel fuel derived from triglycerides (vegetable oil and animal fates) by transesterification with methanol, present the promising alternative substitute to diesel fuels and have received the most attention now a day. The main advantages of using Biodiesel are its renewability, better quality exhaust gas emission, its biodegradability and the organic carbon present in it is photosynthetic in origin. It does not contribute to a rise in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and consequently to the green house effect. This paper reviews the source of production and characterization of vegetable oils and their methyl ester as the substitute of the petroleum fuel and future possibilities of Biodiesel production.
Response surface methodology (RSM) based on central composite design (CCD) was used to optimize the three important reaction variables — methanol/oil molar ratio (x1), reaction time (x2) and amount of catalyst (x3) for production of biodiesel from palm oil using KF/ZnO catalyst. Based on the CCD, a quadratic model was developed to correlate the reaction variables to the biodiesel yield. From the analysis of variance (ANOVA), the most influential factor on the experimental design response was identified. The predicted yield after process optimization was found to agree satisfactory with the experimental value. The optimum conditions for biodiesel production were found as follows: methanol/oil ratio of 11.43, reaction time of 9.72 h and catalyst amount of 5.52 wt%. The optimum biodiesel yield was 89.23%.
The current use of South Asian palm oil as biofuel is far from climate neutral. Dependent on assumptions, losses of biogenic carbon associated with ecosystems, emission of CO2 due to the use of fossil fuels and the anaerobic conversion of palm oil mill effluent currently correspond in South Asia with an emission of about 2.8–19.7 kg CO2 equivalent per kg of palm oil. Using oil palm and palm oil processing wastes for the generation of energy and preventing further conversion of tropical forest into oil palm plantations by establishing new plantations on non-peaty degraded soils can, however, lead to large cuts in the emission of carbon-based greenhouse gases currently associated with the palm oil lifecycle.
The quest for renewable energy has intensified since the escalating price of crude petroleum in the recent years. Renewable energy such as biodiesel has the potential to replace petroleum-derived transportation fuel in the future. Biodiesel is defined as the mono-alkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils such palm oil, rapeseed and soybean. Currently, more than 80% of the world biodiesel productions are from rapeseed oil. However, the cost of palm oil which is at least US$ 200 per tonne cheaper than rapeseed oil indicates that palm oil could be a more suitable and attractive candidate as the source of biodiesel compared to other vegetable oils. Although palm oil is known to be a multi-purpose vegetable oil with products ranging from food to biodiesel, there are a lot of issues surrounding palm oil production. Nevertheless, some of these issues reported in the literature were found to be misleading and are thus confusing the public perception on palm oil. Thus, the aim of this paper is to highlight and clarify the negative issues reported in the literature surrounding palm oil production. Apart from that, various policies or/and strategies that will lead to a more sustainable production and development of palm oil industries will also be proposed. Hence, palm oil will be able to become the leading vegetable oil in terms of food and non-food production, especially as the main source of renewable energy, biodiesel.
The present global economy downturn affects every corner of the world including the vehicular fuel industry. This paper highlights some of the perspectives for the biodiesel industry to thrive as an alternative fuel, while discussing benefits and limitations of biodiesel. This includes the improvement of the conversion technology to achieve a sustainable process at cheaper cost, environmentally benign and cleaner emissions, diversification of products derived from glycerol, and policy and government incentives. More specifically, an overview is given on making the production process more economical by developing high conversion and low cost catalysts from renewable sources, and utilizing waste oil as feedstock. Further emphasis is given on the need for public education and awareness for the use and benefits of biodiesel, while promoting policies that will not only endorse the industry, but also promote effective land management.
For the past few decades, palm oil has gone through a revolution that few would have predicted. From a humble source of edible oil that was heavily criticized as being un-healthy and un-fit for human consumption, it has proven itself based on scientific findings that it is indeed one of the most nutritious edible oils in the world. Besides, palm oil, the cheapest vegetable oil in the market has diversified as one of the main feedstock for oleo-chemical industries. Recently, with the price of crude petroleum hitting records height every other day, palm oil has become one of the few feasible sources for biodiesel, a renewable substitute for petroleum-derived diesel. Nevertheless, the conversion of palm oil into biodiesel has again received criticism from various NGOs worldwide, mainly on extinction of orang utans, deforestation and particularly the food versus fuel dispute. It was claimed that the conversion of food crops to fuel would significantly increase the number of undernourished people in the world. Malaysia, being the world second largest producer of palm oil, is not spared from this criticism. On the contrary, in the present study it was found that palm oil is indeed the most economical and sustainable source of food and biofuel in the world market. Besides, it was shown that it has the capacity to fulfill both demands simultaneously rather than engaging in priority debate. Nevertheless, fuel is now a necessity rather than a luxury for economy and development purposes. A few strategies will then be presented on how palm oil can survive in this feud and emerged as the main supply of affordable and healthy source of edible oil while concurrently satisfying the market demand for biodiesel throughout the world.
Research on alternative fuel for the vehemently growing number of automotivesis intensified due to environmental reasons rather than turmoil in energy price and supply. From the policy and steps to emphasis the use of biofuel by governments all around the world, this can be comprehended that biofuel have placed itself as a number one substitute for fossil fuels. These phenomena made Southeast Asia a prominent exporter of biodiesel. But thrust in biodiesel production from oilseeds of palm and Jatropha curcas in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand is seriously threatening environmental harmony. This paper focuses on this critical issue of biodiesels environmental impacts, policy, standardization of this region as well as on the emission of biodiesel in automotive uses. To draw a bottom line on feasibilities of different feedstock of biodiesel, a critical analysis on oilseed yield rate, land use, engine emissions and oxidation stability is reviewed. Palm oil based biodiesel is clearly ahead in all these aspects of feasibility, except in the case of NOx where it lags from conventional petro diesel.
Southeast Asia's attempt to join the global biofuel development has not been very successful, despite the large amount of subsidies and incentives allotted for biofuel projects. The outcome of these projects has failed to meet expectation due to overrated assumptions and shortsighted policies. Utilization of edible feedstock such as palm oil and sugar cane for biofuel has disrupted the fragile industry due to the fluctuations of feedstock prices. The appropriate research on jatropha to prove its economic and environmental feasibility as energy crop has not been performed. Biofuel development in Southeast Asia remains at an early stage of development and requires highly intensive monitoring and strict legal enforcement to ensure future success.
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