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A review on palm oil biodiesel as a source of renewable fuel
Abstract
The demand of increasing price in fossil fuel has prompted the global oil industry to look at the alternative sources of fuel from renewable energy source which is biodiesel. Biodiesel is considered as better option because of its environmental friendly characteristics while giving almost the same functional properties like fossil fuels. This paper will focus on the biodiesel produced in Malaysia. Palm oil is the main raw stock for biodiesel production in Malaysia as the country is one of the leading palm oil producers in the world. There are many advantages and disadvantages from the economical social and environmental aspects in the Malaysian biodiesel production in specific palm oil biodiesel. The aim of this paper is to analyze the past, current and future of palm oil biodiesel industry in Malaysia. This paper includes the technology aspect used in the palm oil biodiesel production and characteristics of pure palm oil biodiesel to meet the international market standard. Malaysia faces tough competition from other biodiesel producers like Indonesia and Brazil. The scope of this study covers the worldwide biodiesel development in brief in continuation with the challenges faced by Malaysia in becoming the top biodiesel exporter in the world with the advantages and disadvantage of using palm oil as the feedstock.
... India spends time arranging its policies towards using fuel with 20% bioethanol. In Malaysia, the usage of biodiesel is promoted and also Malaysia is one of the world's leading producers of palm oil (palm oil), which is the main crude stock for biodiesel production (Mekhilef et al. 2011). Asia will overtake Europe in terms of biofuel consumption thanks to all these enhancements. ...
... Kesieme et al. (2019) describe that the predominant way of promoting alternative fuels in maritime transport is provided by tax privilege, exemptions, and state subsidies. Mekhilef et al. (2011) point out that governments in Europe have provided biodiesel subsidies to encourage the production of sustainable energy. ...
... "High production efficiency to be achieved in the 3rd and 4th generations" (O1), and "Environmentally friendly and renewable energy" (S3), respectively. Mekhilef et al. (2011) biodiesel is seen as a better option because it is produced in an environmentally friendly and renewable way, although biodiesel provides almost the same technical characteristics as fossil fuels. The environmental effect of biodiesel depends on the production methodology vastly however, in terms of air pollution biodiesel provides transportation with much lower GHG emissions compared to fossil fuels regarding the results of the LCA analysis conducted by Nanaki and Koroneos (2012). ...
Alternative fuels especially those produced in a green way are essential for meeting supplying the world's growing energy needs. Biodiesel is becoming more prominent to meet international maritime organization regulations, minimize reliance on fossil fuels, and lessen the rising harmful emissions in the maritime sector. Four different generations have been investigated in the production stage in which a wide range of fuel types have existed including biodiesel, bioethanol, and renewable diesel. To investigate all facets of biodiesel usage as a marine fuel, the SWOT-AHP method is utilized in this paper in which 16 maritime experts with an average of 10.5 years of experience participated. SWOT factors and sub-factors have been developed in light of the literature review focused on biomass and alternative fuels. The AHP method is utilized for data acquisition from specified factors and sub-factors according to their superiority to each other. The analysis demonstrates the main factors ‘PW and sub-factors’ IPW values, and CR values to calculate the local and global rank of factors. Results highlighted that “Opportunity” has the highest prominence among the main factors; however, “Threats” remain at the lowest level. Moreover, “Tax privilege on green and alternative fuels supported by the authorities” (O4) is the one with the highest weight compared to the other sub-factors. Noteworthy energy consumption will be fulfilled in the maritime industry in addition to the development of new-generation biodiesel and other alternative fuels. This paper will be a quite valuable resource for experts, academics, and industry stakeholders to lessen the ambiguity around biodiesel.
Graphical abstract
... Unlike rapeseed and soybean, palm oil is a perennial crop, which means this oil is continuously and uninterruptedly produced. Compared with rapeseed, soybean, and sunflower oil plantations, palm oil plantations have higher oil yields, as shown in Fig. 3. Palm oil that is exported from Malaysia to Europe is equivalent to 1.7 million ha of rapeseed or 4.9 million ha of soybeans [15]. ...
... On the other hand, CPO has lower water content and higher resistance to oxidation [12]. The following points summarise the benefits of utilizing palm oil as a feedstock for the production of biofuel and bio-binders [15]: ...
... The primary challenges associated with using CPO in asphalt pavement applications are securing palm oil as a feedstock for non-food products such as biofuel and bio-asphalt, as well as securing a sufficiently large amount of palm oil as edible oil to ensure food and energy security, particularly in light of the expectation that fossil fuels will run out in 50 years. Competition between the biofuel and food industries should be avoided since this will lead to increased consumer needs, which in turn will cause increased demands for vegetable oil and the increased price of palm oil [15]. ...
This research aims to discuss the utilization of crude palm oil (CPO) and by-products obtained from palm oil waste materials as biomaterials for green construction material applications. The CPO is the primary product in the palm oil industry and has a variety of uses in the production of food and non-food items such as cooking oil, biodiesel, and cosmetics. The oil palm frond, empty fruit bunches, mesocarp fibre, palm kernel shell, and oil palm trunk, as well as CPO, are all products of the palm oil tree and have been used in several asphalt pavements and building construction applications after further processing to produce highly efficient bio-products. The manufacturing process, characteristics, motivations, and challenges associated with using palm oil and other palm tree waste products as a substitute material in asphalt pavement and concrete materials are explored in this paper to better understand and promote palm-based green bio-materials for sustainable construction. It was discovered that CPO and its by-products could be used to make sustainable and cost-effective asphalt and concrete as they are more renewable, environmentally friendly, and safer to handle than petroleum-based binders. Furthermore, they can be used to produce concrete effectively, together with palm oil fuel ash (POFA) and palm oil clinker (POC). However, using CPO in pavement construction has challenges, such as securing palm oil as a feedstock for non-food items and collecting sufficient palm oil for edible oil to maintain food and energy security, particularly in countries where CPO is not produced.
... This is referred to as the transesterification process. Crude palm oil (CPO) was chosen for our study because Malaysia is one of the leading exporters and producers of palm oil [1]. Unlike other oils, Crude Palm oil offers several advantages, including perennial crops that are continuous and uninterrupted, a high output yield, and a plantation that requires less fertilizer, water, and pesticides [2]. ...
... As a result, the ideal temperature should be lower. The optimal temperature range is 30 to 50 °C [1]. Hence, in this study, the chosen temperature of 45 °C is with-in the range. ...
In the present study, biodiesel was produced via the enzymatic interesterification of Crude Palm Oil (CPO) and methyl acetate within ultrasonic condition. In contrast to alcohol, methyl acetate as an acyl acceptor does not inhibit lipase activity and can create triacetin as a useful byproduct. In this work, Immobilized lipase from Candida Antartica A (CaLA) was utilized as biocatalyst and the effect of using non-pretreated CPO and pre-treated CPO as feedstock were explored. The pre-treatment of CPO involves degumming with acid, washing with water, and bleaching. The enzymatic interesterification was conducted in three-neck flasks using an ultrasonic water bath at 45o C. Few parameter effects on biodiesel production were also investigated, including the effect of molar ratio of CPO to methyl acetate, the effect amount of lipase, and the reusability of immobilized lipase (CaLA) in the interesterification reaction. The highest average Biodiesel yield of 80.6% was obtained from pretreated CPO at a molar ratio of 1:9 with 100 mg (1% w/v) of Immobilized CaLA, after three hours of reaction. Further research on the reusability of immobilized CaLA revealed that the yield of biodiesel reduced significantly after the second run. The results of the present study also demonstrated that Immobilized CaLA performed well at low concentrations but had low stability, with productivity decreasing to 92% upon reuse after the initial run. In order to make Immobilized lipase economically viable, further research must be conducted to overcome its low stability in the reaction.
... High oil content and higher yield of production with a low market price [28][29][30] High viscosity and density of palm biodiesel results in poor fuel atomization and increases the ignition delay [31,32] Palm biodiesel is ecofriendly, renewable, biodegradable, and nontoxic; it is compatible with any diesel engine without any modification [33,34] High pour and cloud points, as well as low volatilities [35] High cetane number of palm biodiesel lowers knocking tendency [32,36] Early nozzle opening and advanced injection due to higher volume modulus [37] Palm biodiesel possesses enhanced lubricity property [11] High oxygen content in palm biodiesel releases a high amount of NOx emission [15,38,39] Low sulfur content [40] Several engine defects such as carbon deposit, piston ring sticking, lubricating oil thickening, and injector cooking [10,41] High flashpoint improves safety [36,42] Difficulties in cold weather performance due to poor flow properties at lower temperature [43] Low emissions (CO, CO 2 , and HC) and noise [15,44] Lower energy content compared to diesel, increasing fuel consumption [36] New job opportunities that improve living standards and social developments [13,28] Negative impact on the environment due to deforestation of palm oil plantation [45] Oxygen content (10-12%) in palm biodiesel contributes to better combustion characteristics [16] Another feedstock used for biodiesel production has been solketal as a green solvent, commercialized at market prices of >2000 EUR/t [46]. In the work presented by Turck et al. [46], the physical and chemical behavior of solketal in ternary blends with diesel/biodiesel oil was investigated. ...
... Other studies have also shown that environmental taxes can impact the production and consumption of biofuels, having a medium-term effect on transport taxes and an immediate impact on the development of the importance of bioenergy within a country [11,12,19]. ...
In this article, the most important publications on the subject are compiled to highlight the progress in biodiesel production from tropical cultivars, including energy and environmental potential, raw materials, and the advantages and disadvantages of this biofuel. A critical and objective review of biodiesel production as an alternative fuel for power generation systems and its importance in the energy matrix was conducted. A survey of real applications, new computational and experimental trends, and proposals in internal combustion engines employing organic biofuel was performed. The main findings were as follows: (i) there is the possibility of integration and support in the energy matrix of different countries, as well as the competing with and complementing, energetically, other renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind; (ii) Jatropha curcas, sunflowers, soybean, Moringa oleifera, palm, cottonseed, castor, rubber seed, and coconut are tropical cultivars used to obtained oils into biodiesel; (iii) the findings can be utilized as a theoretical basis for future policies influencing the energy sector through regulatory measures.
... Indonesia memiliki keunggulan karena menempatkan Kelapa Sawit sebagai bahan dasar Biofuel (jenis bioethanol), di mana secara komparatif Kelapa Sawit lebih produktif dan hemat tempat dibandingkan tanaman lain. Secara lebih jelas komparasi Kelapa Sawit dan tanaman lain dapat dicermati pada grafik 4. Grafik 4. Perbandingan Tanaman penghasil Biodiesel sumber: Mekhilef et al. 2011 Berdasarkan grafik dapat dilihat perbandingan jelas mengenai hasil biodiesel yang dapat diperoleh jika mengembangkan aneka jenis tamanan dalam area satu hektar. Sangat jelas keunggulan Kelapa Sawit dibanding tanaman lain seperti kelapa dan kacang. ...
... Sangat jelas keunggulan Kelapa Sawit dibanding tanaman lain seperti kelapa dan kacang. Lebih jauh dalam pengelolaannya, Kelapa Sawit lebih membutuhkan sedikit sinar matahari, air, pestisida, dan pupuk (Mekhilef et al. 2011). Konteks pengembangan biodiesel yang dilakukan Indonesia, yaitu Kelapa Sawit menjadi potensi besar yang mampu meminimalisir ketergantungan energi nasional pada minyak bumi. ...
This article aims to understand the problems of the development of biodiesel made from Palm Oil.Understanding the problems become critical because of the successful development of Biodiesel is oneof the keys to overcome the problem of energy security of Indonesia. Until now, Indonesia experiencedenergy dependence, especially those in petroleum. Option is taken up today rely on oil imports.Whereas the import option raises problems of its own, including further burden the state’s economy,due to government subsidies in order to reduce the sales price of oil at the community level. Thisarticle specifically examines the factors that led to the development of Biodiesel made from Palm Oil inIndonesia is not yet optimal. The article also highlights a number of the problems that are not directlyrelated to the development of Biodiesel, but can be a threat to national security in general. In addition,this article seeks to offer an alternative reform by using Collaborative Governance framework.
... Conventional energy sources, including crude oil, coal, and natural gas, are non-renewable. Moreover, their frequent usage results in global warming and damage to the environment due to the increasing carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere [1]. Despite this, the rapid population and social structure growth have instigated a rise in the use of fossil fuels. ...
... Consequently, researchers have recently begun to investigate alternative fuel sources. Considerable attention has been given to the conversion of various oils (e.g., vegetable, palm, sunflower, rapeseed, and waste cooking oil) for biodiesel production [1][2][3]. Biodiesel production is estimated to account for 69% of soybean oil, palm oil, and rapeseed oil [4]. This high proportion of edible oil use poses a challenge because of its effect on commodity prices and food security [5]. ...
Algal biodiesel is of growing interest in reducing carbon emissions to the atmosphere. The production of biodiesel is affected by many process parameters. Although many research works have been conducted, the influence of each parameter on biodiesel production is not well understood when considering a complete system. Therefore, the experimental data from literature sources related to types of algae, methanol-to-algal-oil ratio, temperature, and time on the biodiesel production rate were reviewed and introduced into a neural-network-inspired correlation (N2IC) model to study the rate of transesterification. The developed N2IC model optimized for biodiesel production is based on the studied variables, specifically reaction time, temperature, methanol-to-algal-oil ratio, and type of algae. It was found from ANN analysis that the reaction time is the most significant parameter with 87% importance, followed by temperature (85%), alcohol-to-oil-molar ratio (75%), and type of algae (62%). Using error analysis, the results from the proposed N2IC model show excellent agreement with the experimentally obtained values with an overall 5% error. The results show that the N2IC model can be utilized effectively to solve the problem of industrial biodiesel production when various operating data are readily available.
... Scholars have investigated palm oil's substantial social and environmental consequences in biodiesel and the potential environmental effects of land conversion and cultivation (Rulli et al. 2019). Previous studies on palm oil's function in biodiesel production and land-use shift (Bicalho et al. 2016), properties of pure palm oil biodiesel and market standards (Mekhilef et al. 2011). Other studies focused on regulatory framework and industry roadmap model for generating electricity from sustainable oil palm biomass (Umar et al. 2018). ...
... Additionally, palm oil biodiesel provides fewer engine emissions (Mekhilef et al. 2011). The non-toxicity, biodegradability, acceptable viscosity, high flash point, high lubricating qualities, and high octane count of palm biodiesel fuel make it an environmentally and eco-friendly energy source (Pandey and Sharma 2018). ...
This study aims to identify current and future research trends in sustainable bioenergy production. The systematic review is conducted using a social network analysis method. The data were collected from the Web of Science and Scopus database (2010–2021). Out of the 1747 articles reviewed, 100 were found to be relevant for thematic analysis. The results uncovered four domains of palm oil biodiesel production for sustainable energy management: (1) renewable energy, (2) biodiesel, (3) bioenergy, and (4) life cycle assessment. This study has proposed a sustainable bioenergy production framework based on the four main domains. The framework sheds light on the future of sustainable bioenergy production. The findings indicate the potential growth of the research topic, including sustainable bioenergy, palm oil biodiesel, energy management, and carbon emissions reduction. Future research must incorporate the energy management framework to design a sustainable energy management ecosystem strategy. In addition, the industry must comply with the international sustainability standard and sustainable development goals to manage the energy supply chain and consistency of palm oil biodiesel production.
... During the last century, Malaysia has been one of the top producers countries for palm oil [11]. Palm oil is considered one of the major food commodities in the world market, which is plentifully planted all over the world. ...
... Therefore, for a developing country, such as Malaysia, this problem needs to be put to prevent any disadvantages to the environment and human health. Recently, palm kernel shell (PKS) has become trending in the research field because of having good properties that are required for stable and strong activated carbon [11]. PKS contains a high amount of carbon content and density but low in ash content. ...
Carbon precursor derived from biomass waste gained significant interest as a component of heterogeneous catalysts that can be functionalized with active groups and provides the advantage of separating the catalyst from reactant and products, unlike common homogeneous catalyst. In this study, palm kernel shell (PKS) based char was developed by pyrolysis and hydrothermal carbonization methods and subsequently utilized for synthesizing bifunctional carbon catalyst. The wet impregnation method by loading K2CO3 and CuO provided bi-functional characteristics to the produced chars for conversion into efficient catalysts, which were suitable for concurrent esterification and transesterification processes. The prepared catalysts were characterized by BET, XRD, FESEM, FTIR, TGA, and CO2/NH3 TPD analysis. The report showed that the sample of hydrothermal-assisted carbonization (HTC) treatment possessed higher surface area (4056 m²/g) due to the steady degradation of lignocellulosic composition, thus improving the porous quality of carbon structure compared to normal pyrolytic carbon (2658 m²/g). Additionally, the PKSHAC@K2CO3-CuO catalyst sample embraced more potent acid-basic properties than PKSAC@K2CO3-CuO, yielding 98.4% and 96.7% of FAME respectively, at optimized reaction conditions, the temperature of 65 °C for 3 h, with 15:1 molar ratio of methanol to WCO with 3 wt% of catalysts loading.The reusability test showed that PKSHAC@K2CO3-CuO could catalyse up to 80.1% of FAME, while PKSAC@K2CO3-CuO recorded a yield of 60.1%. The biodiesel from waste cooking oil was analyzed to meet the ASTM D6751 standard for diesel fuel. The synthesized heterogeneous catalysts using different chars might be widely suitable for low-cost oil feedstocks used for biodiesel production.
Graphical Abstract
... Firstly, CPO must be purified at first through factory processing before it is used as biofuel or vegetable oil. After going through the purification process, CPO is converted into methyl esters and can be used directly as biodiesel (Mekhilef et al., 2011). The second way is to mix the processed CPO products with diesel fuel with certain percentage ratio to be used as diesel fuel. ...
... The second way is to mix the processed CPO products with diesel fuel with certain percentage ratio to be used as diesel fuel. The method of combining crude oil and the processed CPO products is called envo diesel (Mekhilef et al., 2011). ...
he European Union (EU) has officially banned palm oil products as abiofuel material for its members gradually for environmental damage issues. This policythreatens the palm oil commodity and in turn it has a negative effect on Indonesia's economicsecurity. The Indonesian side has carried out various resistances from diplomacy efforts,lawsuits to the World Trade Organization (WTO) to implementing export restriction policies.This study aims to analyze Indonesia's trade dispute with the European Union and its impacton Indonesia’s palm oil products by using the concepts of public diplomacy and nationbranding, economic security, and trade wars. The study used primary data in the form ofexpert interviews and it got support from secondary data in a kind of literature studies. It wasprocessed with qualitative descriptive method. The study results show that the restrictions onnickel exports that Indonesia has implemented after the RED II prevails and the provisions inthe RED II makes Indonesia’s palm oil products difficult indicate a trade dispute between thetwo parties. The ban of the European Union to the palm oil also not purely bases onenvironmental motivations but rather to increase the demand for the EU's local vegetable oilmarket
(PDF) Ban of Indonesia's Palm Oil Products to the European Union and Indonesia's Diplomacy Efforts. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363651846_Ban_of_Indonesia's_Palm_Oil_Products_to_the_European_Union_and_Indonesia's_Diplomacy_Efforts [accessed Sep 19 2022].
... And because of the increased interest in Moringa oleifera, most initiatives are no longer designed just for soil erosion prevention, but also for economic and social advantages [44][45][46]. Most operations are marked by new agronomical and technological issues due to emerging manufacturing and conversion methods as well as adopting new rural business practices and the emergence of environmental problems concerning long-term sustainability [47,48]. ...
... By specific, the acid value of biodiesel is largely a measure of free fatty acid. If the acid value is more than 0.8 mg KOH per g, free fatty acid may be deposited on the fuel system, resulting in a reduced lifetime for the fuel pumps and filters [45]. High viscous fuels might result in inefficient fuel combustion resulting in deposit development. ...
Moringa oleifera grows well in different parts of Africa, including Ghana, and throughout the world as it can tolerate moderate cold and severe drought. Dubbed as the “Miracle Tree,” Moringa has a number of nutritional, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic applications. It is also used as a cure for diabetes and various forms of cancer. Another promising use of this plant is the production of biodiesel. However, such application demands vast cultivation areas and this can lead to competition with the cultivation of crops for food, forestry, and environmental protection. Furthermore, it requires suitable cultivation schedules that favor the growth of pods containing oil-rich seeds. The present work investigates the availability of land for Moringa cultivation in Ghana to increase the energy production from the plant. The study reports on an overview of the soil, water, and climatic conditions that favor Moringa oleifera cultivation and oil production, the conversion of Moringa oleifera oil to biodiesel, and the performance of Moringa oleifera biodiesel versus mineral diesel as well as the commercial enhancement of the Moringa product.
... When considering prominent biodiesel feedstock, palm oil methyl ester (POME) exhibits a significantly higher yield per hectare (4.2 tons/hectare). In comparison, soybean yields only 0.4 tonnes and rapeseed yields 0.7 tonnes (Mekhilef et al., 2011). According to a recent study, it has been suggested that switching demand from palm oil to less efficient edible oils like sunflower or rapeseed that require more land, water, and fertiliser, may potentially result in a higher rate of deforestation (Purnomo et al., 2020). ...
Most diesel engines typically operate with high excess air in part load. Implementing air intake restriction with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) could be a viable option for mitigating NOx emission and soot, particularly when utilizing biodiesel, attributing to biodiesel's inherent oxygen content. This study examines the effect of intake air throttle and EGR coupled with split injection strategies on a turbocharged 4-cylinder engine fuelled with B60-POME fuel. A parametric test was conducted to examine the impact of fuel injection pressure, intake air throttling and EGR, followed by Response Surface Methodology (RSM) optimisation. When EGR is implemented with a 45% intake throttle opening, a relatively low EGR rate of 5% is achieved. A study utilising RSM was conducted to optimise the control of air supply and split injection parameters, involved with a total of 6 control variables. The optimum parameter appears at a dwell angle of 12 °CA, SOI timing of −4°ATDC, 40% intake throttle opening, EGR of 6.75%, fuel injection pressure of 800 bar and split injection ratio of 50%. These settings yield prediction emission results that are closely similar to those obtained from the actual confirmation test.
... Palm oil, which is obtained from the fruit of the oil palm, has Erwiningsih, W., Ali, M. (2023). Environmental Law for Sustainable Palm Oil Development to Combat Deforestation and Climate Change Impact 3 several advantages that make it a popular choice in the global market (Mekhilef et al., 2011). First, palm oil is relatively cheap and efficient in production. ...
Purpose: The aim of this study is to examie how environmental law to mitigate the impact of climate change caused by deforestation in Indonesia due to the high demand for palm oil. Theoretical framework: Theoretical framework incorporate principles from international agreements such as the Paris Agreement and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), aligned with environmental law with Indonesia's national policies and strategies, such as the National Action Plan for Greenhouse Gas Reduction and Indonesia Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO). Design/methodology/approach: The research method used a qualitative approach with data collected through library research. Various sources, including articles, journals, books, reports, and documents, were utilized to gather comprehensive and reliable information on the Indonesian palm oil problem and its environmental and societal impact. Findings: The result of the study concluded that addressing deforestation and the environmental impact of palm oil production requires several measures. These include reducing global demand for palm oil, promoting sustainable palm oil production, and adopting best practices in the palm oil industry. Implementing environmentally friendly approaches, protecting critical conservation areas, respecting the rights of local communities, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions are essential steps to mitigate the issue Research, Practical & Social implications: The study outline the role of engage all stakeholders, including producers, companies, governments, civil society, and global consumers, in these efforts. Striking a balance between economic interests and environmental concerns is vital. By promoting sustainable agricultural practices, negative impacts on the environment and society can be minimized, and progress can be made towards achieving climate change mitigation and sustainable development goals. Originality/value: The value of the study lies in its holistic approach to addressing multiple interconnected issues. It not only focuses on environmental conservation but also considers the socioeconomic aspects of small-scale farmers in Indonesia. This integrated perspective is vital for finding sustainable solutions that benefit both the environment and local communities.
... As reported, biodiesel is considered to be one of the renewable sources of alternative energy and it has been studied by the world's oil industry because demand for fossil fuel is increasing, leading to high prices [83], [84]. Interestingly, biodiesel has nearly the same functional features as fossil fuels but is environmentally friendly, so it is regarded as a superior alternative [85]- [87]. Besides the sustainability of biodiesel production, its benefits also include a significant reduction in carbon emissions, more environment related job opportunities, a reduction in the requirement for imported fossil fuel, and a decrease in fuel costs. ...
Due to recent emission-associated regulations imposed on marine fuel, ship owners have been forced to seek alternate fuels, in order to meet the new limits. The aim of achieving low-carbon shipping by the year 2050, has meant that alternative marine fuels, as well as various technological and operational initiatives, need to be taken into account. This article evaluates and examines recent clean fuels and novel clean technologies for vessels. The alternative fuels are classified as low-carbon fuels, carbon-free fuels, and carbon neutral fuels, based on their properties. Fuel properties, the status of technological development, and existing challenges are also summarised in this paper. Furthermore, researchers have also investigated energy-saving devices and discovered that zero-carbon and virtually zero-carbon clean fuels, together with clean production, might play an important part in shipping, despite the commercial impracticability of existing costs and infrastructure. More interestingly, the transition to marine fuel is known to be a lengthy process; thus, early consensus-building, as well as action-adoption, in the maritime community is critical for meeting the expectations and aims of sustainable marine transportation.
... Firstly, the mandatory use of biodiesel has resulted in a significant increase in the domestic consumption of CPO, leading to a shortage of supply for export markets and, as a result, higher prices for CPO in the domestic market. This has made it difficult for CPO exporters to compete with other producers in the global market, which has hurt the competitiveness of the industry (Mekhilef et al., 2011, Johari et al., 2015, Ahmad et al., 2011. Secondly, the expansion of the CPO industry has also led to deforestation and loss of biodiversity, which has negative environmental impacts (Taheripour et al., 2019). ...
Crude Palm Oil (CPO) is the mainstay of Indonesian agricultural products which is the largest CPO producing country in the world. The high market share of Indonesian CPO exports reflects the high competitiveness of Indonesian CPO in the global market. The purpose of this study is to determine the competitiveness of Indonesian CPO, the concentration of the Indonesian CPO industry, and analyze the factors that are suspected to affect the competitiveness of the CPO industry in Indonesia. The data used in this study are secondary data with a five-digit ISIC (10432) using time series data for 2001-2020 and the analytical techniques used in this study include Revealed Competitive Advantage (RCA), Gini Coefficient, and Error Correction Model (ECM). The results showed that Indonesian CPO has high competitiveness in the international market, the Indonesian CPO industry is not concentrated, in the short term the variables that affect competitiveness are CPO prices, subsidized solar prices policy, and industrial concentrations, while in the long term the influential variables are biodiesel policy, subsidized diesel oil policy and industrial concentration
... Rapid rates of fossil fuel depletion, along with disruptions to crude oil supply, are driving research programmes designed to develop palm oil as a biofuel source to support cleaner energy production (Johari et al., 2015;Tan et al., 2009). The growing demand for palm oil has led to the rapid expansion of plantations across tropical regions (Johari et al., 2015;Mekhilef et al., 2011;Xu et al., 2020), changing land use and land cover over large areas (Basiron, 2007;Shamshiri et al., 2019). In Malaysia, agriculture is one of the most economically important industries, with large-scale investment and widespread development of the plantation sector (Basiron, 2007). ...
Oil palm agriculture has caused extensive land cover and land use changes that have adversely affected tropical landscapes and ecosystems. However, monitoring and assessment of oil palm plantation areas to support sustainable management is costly and labour-intensive. This study used an unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) to map smallholder farms and applied multi-criteria analysis to data generated from orthomosaics, to provide a set of sustainability indicators for the farms. Images were acquired from a UAV, with structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry then used to produce orthomosaics and digital elevation models of the farm areas. Some of the inherent problems using high spatial resolution imagery for land cover classification were overcome by using texture analysis and geographic object-based image analysis (OBIA). Six spatially explicit environmental metrics were developed using multi-criteria analysis and used to generate sustainability indicator layers from the UAV data. The SfM and OBIA approach provided an accurate, high-resolution (~5 cm) image-based reconstruction of smallholder farm landscapes, with an overall classification accuracy of 89%. The multi-criteria analysis highlighted areas with lower sustainability values, which should be considered targets for adoption of sustainable management practices. The results of this work suggest that UAVs are a cost-effective tool for sustainability assessments of oil palm plantations, but there remains the need to plan surveys and image processing workflows carefully. Future work can build on our proposed approach, including the use of additional and/or alternative indicators developed through consultation with the oil palm industry stakeholders, to support certification schemes such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO).
... However, because of the complexity of labour plantation management and fruit harvesting, palm oil yield per man per day is not as competitive as other oilseeds. Palm oil and refined palm oil have increases popularity vegetable oils on the market today [31] . Palm oil is known for its nutrient content, which makes it excellent for daily cooking, according to Imoisi et al [32] . ...
Ghana is a country rich in natural resources, including biodiversity and large water bodies, but it is also plagued by food and energy shortages. Fuel prices are also increasing. Biodiesel made from lipids will attract increasing attention as researchers and experts look for a solution. However, the obvious cheapest option of edible feedstock will be insufficient to meet rising energy and food demand, necessitating the need for a guaranteed feedstock. As a result, this research was conducted to identify lipid-based biomass feedstocks that would be ideal for biodiesel production in Ghana. This research seeks to give current information on the biofuel feedstock currently existing (mostly biodiesel) synthesis from lipid-based biomasses in Ghana. Edible plant oils were the first generation of lipid-based feedstocks, whereas alternative types of feedstocks were identified and reported as the second generation. Non-edible oils, like Jatropha oil, Neem oil, Karanja oil, Nagchampa oil, Calophyllum inophyllum oil, Mahua indica oil, Rubber seed oil, and other non-edible feedstocks are used to make second-generation biodiesels. Vegetable oil waste, industrial wastes and by-products, animal fats, and lipid-derived from microorganisms and insects are also among the 2nd generation feedstocks discussed in this paper. The advantages of 2nd generation feedstocks are the low-cost, high-yielding, and the fact that they do not economically or ethically compete with edible oils (food crops). Nevertheless, all 2nd generation feedstocks are often free fatty acids and having high moisture, which have a significant detrimental impact on the conventional biodiesel synthesis process. As a result, this article contains basic information on processing procedures that can handle 2nd generation feedstocks.
... Vegetable oils and fats have been studied as alternative energy sources. In this context, there has been an increased interest in plants from the Amazon aiming at the production of biodiesel [82][83][84]. Lima et al. [35] synthesized biodiesel from pracaxi oil. The product's high thermal stability and other physico-chemical properties met the specifications contained in Resolution 45/14 of the National Petroleum Agency (RANP 45/14), ASTM D6751 (American Society for Testing and Materials) and European Committee Standard EN 14214. ...
Pracaxi (Penthaclethra macroloba (Willd.) Kuntze) is an Amazonian plant, traditionally used by the native population to treat health disorders such as inflammation, erysipelas, wound healing, muscle pain, ear pain, diarrhea, snake and insect bites as well as for cancer treatment. Other common uses include using the oil for frying, skin and hair beautification, and as an alternative source of energy. This review is focused on highlighting its taxonomy, occurrence and botanical origins, popular uses, pharmacology and biological activities, cytotoxicity, biofuel activity and phytochemistry in order to explore future therapeutic use and other applications. Pracaxi contains triterpene saponins, sterols, tannins, oleanolic acid, unsaturated fatty acids and long-chain fatty acids, with a high behenic acid value, which may serve for incorporation into drug delivery systems as well for the development of new drugs. These components are correlated with its anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, healing, anti-hemolytic, anti-hemorrhagic, antiophidic, and larvicidal activities against Aedes aegypti and Helicorverpa zea, which ratify the popular/traditional uses. The species is nitrogen fixing; it is easy to propagate in floodplains and the terra firma, and it can be used for the reforestation of degraded areas. Additionally, the oil extracted from the seeds can leverage the bioeconomy of the region based on sustainable exploration.
... Then, Mekhilef et al. [8] researched the demand of increasing price in fossil fuel has prompted the global oil industry to look at the alternative sources of fuel from renewable energy source which is biodiesel. Palm oil is the main raw stock for biodiesel production inMalaysia as the country is one of the leading palm oil producers in the world. ...
Biodiesel is a fuel substitute for diesel which is considered more environmentally friendly because the raw materials used come from a mixture of palm vegetable oil, increasing production. The emergence of black palm oil campaigns in several importing countries has encouraged the urgency of biodiesel development in Indonesia. This study aims to; photograph the development of the Indonesian biodiesel industry and describe the development prospects of the Indonesian biodiesel industry in terms of raw materials, markets and policies. This research method uses descriptive analysis to examine the chances of developing the Indonesian biodiesel industry regarding raw materials, markets, and policies. The results showed that; the development of the Indonesian biodiesel industry continues to increase when viewed from the aspects of increasingly large raw materials, promising markets, and policies. It will continue to be studied and updated by the Indonesian government, so it is hoped that this biodiesel can significantly replace imported diesel and absorb Indonesian palm oil. The biodiesel industry in Indonesia has an extensive prospect to continue after implementing the B-30, which was first implemented in 2020. It can be achieved by paying attention to the available raw materials used in the biodiesel industry.
... Oils from the oil palm fruit are highly valued products in the market. Palm oil, from the pulp, and palm kernel oil, obtained from the almond, are used for culinary purposes and several products from the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and automotive industries, and is also suitable for conversion into biofuel (Mekhilef et al. 2011). ...
... The competitiveness and advantages of palm oil have made it one of the leading sources of vegetable oils (Mekhilef et al. 2011). According to several studies, oil palm has done well in the global market for oils and fats for several reasons (Ming & Chandramohan 2002, Basiron & Balu 2004, Burri 2012, Von Giebler 2013, Goh et al. 2016, Mat Yasin et al. 2017. ...
In recent years, palm oil production has grown rapidly as a result of rising demand. Oil palm plantations have been established on thousands of acres to meet this demand. The objective of this study is to assess the suitability of oil palm production as driven by soil, climate, and land use. The land suitability assessment (LSA) method was adopted in this study. We use geospatial techniques of overlay mapping as a suitable land suitability assessment method, in which the evaluation criteria are recorded as superimposed layers. A land suitability map is produced by integrating these layers into a single layer. The method is also applied to delineate available areas for growing oil palm in Peninsular Malaysia. The findings revealed that suitable soil areas for oil palm production are extensively found in the selected regions of Peninsular Malaysia, in states like Selangor and some parts of Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu with clay loam and sandy loam soil properties, while in the southern region like Melaka, moderate suitability for oil palm production was found due to the domination of clay soil in the area. Highly suitable areas were estimated (mean annual water deficit <150 mm) to be 3688254.00 ha (29.54%) of the total land area; suitable areas (mean annual water deficit <250 mm) were 6540669.00 ha (52.38%); moderately suitable areas were (mean annual water deficit <400 mm) 2227500.00 ha (17.84%), and unsuitable areas (mean annual water deficit >400mm) for oil palm production as a result of poor water availability was 31104.00ha (0.25%). The Land Use Land Cover Map of Peninsular Malaysia revealed the suitable areas to cover an average of 10885001.46 ha (82.45%), water bodies 1239505.58 ha (9.39%), built-up areas (unsuitable areas) 1051544.34 ha (7.96%), and bare surface areas are also not suitable areas for oil palm production at 26509.73 ha (0.20%). This study recommends that oil palm plantations be expanded into areas with highly suitable soils and climates.
... Oleaginous yeasts create bio-oils for oleochemicals and nutritional oils that are renewable and sustainable. The potential of oleaginous yeasts to collect between 20 and 70 percent intracellular lipid, primarily triacylglycerols (TAGs), has been described [2][3]. Oleaginous yeasts produce lipids that are congruent in composition to vegetable oils for human habitation and biodiesel. ...
Microbial lipid produced using yeast fermentation with in-expensive carbon sources such as hydrolysate from lignocellulosic may be an opportunity feedstock for biodiesel manufacturing. Furfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) that can be engendered during acid hydrolysis of lignocellulose had been brought merely or concurrently into a culture medium comprising a mixture of two sugars (glucose and xylose) as carbon sources to investigate the sole inhibitory actions and their synergic enforcement on the growth and lipid production of Lipomyces starkeyi InaCC Y604. The used strain exhibited a particular resistance level against each of the archetypal inhibitor compounds. When fermented using medium-contained furfural as a sole inhibitor compound, L. starkeyi InaCC Y604 accumulated the highest microbial lipid (67.06%). While, when a mixture of furfural and 5-HMF was used as the inhibitor compounds in the fermentation medium, the microbial lipid production was achieved at 66.9%. Meanwhile, microbial lipid production was achieved at 63.68% when 5-HMF was used as the sole inhibitor in the fermentation medium. L. starkeyi InaCC Y604 showed the dexterity to tolerate inhibitors (furfural and 5-HMF) and the combination of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) was unchanged by the existence of inhibitor compounds. The considerable FAMEs comply with oleic, palmitic, stearic, palmitoleic, and linoleic acids.
... Dey et al. [44] presented a detailed review of the advantages and disadvantages of palm biodiesel production, which is a notable alternative in terms of economy, environment, and efficiency. Mekhilef et al. [45] analyzed the past, present, and future of the Malaysian palm oil-based biodiesel industry by considering the advantages and disadvantages of using palm oil as feedstock and Malaysia's competitiveness in the global biodiesel market. ...
To preserve the environment, several countries have promoted the insertion and expansion of biodiesel into their energy matrices through mandates (mandatory blending of biodiesel and fossil diesel). This study analyzed the short- and long-term effects of changes in biodiesel mandates on certain representative variables in the biodiesel industry, including biodiesel demand, fossil diesel imports, and the retail price of diesel B. Three potential scenarios (growth, stability, and decline) were established to forecast future fluctuations in biodiesel mandates from September 2021 to December 2023. The short-term and long-term equilibrium relationships were determined using the vector error correction model with an exogenous variable (VECX), considering the biodiesel mandate as an exogenous variable. The results of this study are as follows. (i) The time series analyzed were non-stationary and cointegrated. (ii) In the long term, the 1% increase in biodiesel mandate caused increases of 1.1946% in the demand for biodiesel, 1.1967% in the price of diesel B, and only 0.7712% in fossil diesel imports. (iii) In the short term, the 1% increase in biodiesel mandate caused increases of 0.9249% in biodiesel demand, 0.7659% in the price of diesel B, and only 0.0361% in fossil diesel imports.
... Date seeds may be collected in large quantities from date processing factories and companies using either fast or irregular methods. The Phoenix Dactylifera (date palm) is the main tree in Middle Eastern nations, for all intents and purposes in the Gulf participation chamber nations (Mekhilef et al 2011). In certain nations, the date palm is the most important crop, accounting for more than half of total farmed area. ...
During recent decades, focus has increased on biodiesel production from wastes or other nonedible resources. The high expense of the manufacturing process is one of the major obstacles it faces. So, continuous research for cheaper and safer resources is more important. Seed oil from various vegetables and fruit species has garnered a lot of: attention recently in the production of biodiesel, such as date palm. The date palm is. one of the most. popular fruits in the Middle East Egypt has recorded now as the highest countries production of dates. The oil of date seeds (DSO) has high concentrations of fatty acids and minerals. In biodiesel production, lipid extraction is an important step. But the advanced extraction techniques are preferred to protect human health and the environment. Therefore, the demand for innovative and environmentally friendly products is now necessary. Transesterification is the process in which oils (mostly triglycerides) bond with alcohol in the existence of a catalyst to form an alkyl ester. Synthesizing the green catalyst and utilizing it in the manufacture of biodiesel have a great added value. The high yield of biodiesel supports the catalyst suitability for the transesterification reaction. Immobilized lipase, moreover, plays a critical function in the transesterification process, that it is more effective and safer. DSO is being studied to see if its fatty acid profile or physicochemical properties suggest it could be a suitable biodiesel source.
... Another method for improving the effectiveness of the fuel cell hybrid power system is to incorporate a sustainable photovoltaic system, which can cut fuel usage by up to 50%. A power management strategy (PMS) is used to optimize the mechanism in order to achieve costeffective fuel use and guarantee that the workload receives enough energy [15][16][17]. ...
The application of artificial intelligence (AI) has been improvised in various sectors, but one such sector which still remains unexplored is the yacht energy administration system. This work particularly deals with furnishing a framework for a hybrid able power management system for yacht electric systems. The framework was prepared and developed with the aid of the Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS). The study basically deals with regulating battery usage with the aid of ANFIS which present an intelligent way of finding the relationship between various operating factors and their immediate outputs. The average testing error was as low as 4.2 RSME value. Also, various membership functions in ANFIS are selected and the best among them is suggested for further analysis which was the trapezoidal membership function with an error rate of 0.00068. Application of AI in yacht operating system will aid in providing sustainable solutions in cost-effective and efficient manner, thereby safeguarding the environment from harmful exhaust effluents and simultaneously improving the sailing period. 1.0 INTRODUCTION To operate fossil fuels and gas turbines conventional maritime power plants are designed, which are the main contributors of oxides of nitrogen and are the prominent causes of unburnt hydrocarbons (UBHC) from COx and suspended particles triggering air contamination and lowering yacht operating costs [1-3]. Researchers in recent times have begun to examine the quality of the air in the Pearl as a result of ongoing yacht emissions, as well as the properties of exhaust emissions and the consequences of maritime air pollution emissions. Sustainable-fuel alternatives such as liquefied natural gas (LNG), natural methanol, and bio-ethanol along with sustainable energy resources, solar and wind power, fuel cells, and hydrogen fuel must be suggested in place of fossil fuels. Implementations for yacht power plants must be postulated [4-7]. The goal of conserving energy and lowering yacht emissions can be accomplished by Renewable energy resources, but utilizing only a single source of energy can't be a reasonable approach since it is influenced by changing meteorological conditions [8-10].To monitor and restrict the overall greenhouse gas discharges from yachts the International YachtOrganization (IMO) has allowed the use of sustainable energy in a variety of applications. As a result, yacht manufacturers began to follow the trend of non-emitting yachts. Furthermore,
... In this case, Al2O3 compound is a mesoporous material with high acidity to initiate the cracking process, while platinum as a transition metal plays important role for the catalytic cracking and isomerization in the hydrogenation and dehydrogenation process [3]. The Ni/Zeolite catalyst has been successfully used in the catalytic hydrocracking to convert crude palm oil instead of fossil fuels to produce petroleum-based jet fuels, such as alkanes and cycloalkanes [4][5][6][7]. Bimetallic catalyst, such as Ni-Cu/zirconium, Ni-W/zeolite, Ni/Al2O3, and Ni/SiO2-Al2O3, show an additional increase in active metallic sites of catalysts due to the dispersion of more metal ions on the surface porous materials. The result shows that immobilization of metal ions on the large surface areas can promote the catalytic activity, selectivity. ...
The bimetallic oxide NiO-CdO/biochar catalyst was prepared by coprecipitation and calcination methods. Characterizations of catalyst were carried out using Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR), Surface Area Analyzer (SAA), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) mapping methods. The catalyst showed a good average crystalized size of 12.30 nm related to the nanoparticles and high dispersion of Ni and Cd metals on the biochar surface. Analysis of liquid fuel products was observed using Gas Chromatography - Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) which was separated to the main product of gasoline fraction (C6–C10), and the second product of kerosene fraction (C11–C16), and diesel fraction (C17–C23). The presence of the catalyst in the hydrocracking resulted in more liquid product of 56.55 wt% than the thermal cracking with a liquid product of 20.55 wt%. The best performance activity of catalyst was found at a temperature of 150 °C with high selectivity to hydrocarbon fuel with 12 types of gasoline fractions (39.24 wt%) compared to gasoline fractions obtained at higher hydrocracking temperatures of 250 °C and 350 °C. The results of this study showed that the bimetallic oxide catalyst supported with biochar from palm kernel shell plays an important role in the hydrocracking process to increase the selectivity of the gasoline fraction. Copyright © 2022 by Authors, Published by BCREC Group. This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0).
... La elaboración del biodiesel involucra la transesterificación de un triglicérido de origen animal, vegetal o microbiano con un alcohol, preferiblemente de bajo peso molecular, como el metanol. Durante la transesterificación, por cada 100 kg de biodiesel generados también se producen aproximadamente 10.8 kg de glicerol, como se ilustra en la Figura 1.1 [1,[59][60][61][62][63]. La producción mundial de aceite vegetal y el porcentaje de éste empleado en la producción de biodiesel entre 2005 y 2012, se presentan en la Tabla 1.1. ...
Resumen
El incremento en el glicerol obtenido como coproducto del biodiesel ha incentivado la producción de nuevos productos industriales como el 1,3-propanodiol (PDO) mediante transformación biotecnológica usando bacterias como Clostridium butyricum. Ahora bien, a pesar del creciente interés de este proceso de bioproducción, el metabolismo de Clostridium butyricum prácticamente no ha sido modelado. Por lo tanto, fue reconstruido el primer modelo metabólico de escala genómica (modelo GSM) de una cepa de Clostridium productora de PDO (iCbu641), el cual contiene 641 genes, 365 enzimas, 891 reacciones y 701 metabolitos. Fue lograda una predicción en la expresión de enzimas del 83% después de comparación entre datos de proteomica y distribución de fluxes predichos mediante Análisis de Balance de Flujo (FBA). Las restantes enzimas no predichas están direccionalmente acopladas al crecimiento de acuerdo a la Búsqueda de Fluxes Enlazados (FCF) y muchas de ellas están involucradas en procesos que el FBA no puede anticipar, tales como mecanismos de regulación celular. En adición, durante la validación usando datos de fermentación en estado estacionario, diferentes estados fenotípicos fueron observados dependiendo de la concentración de glicerol, los cuales fueron predichos mediante diferentes funciones objetivo. Posteriormente, fue desarrollada una aproximación dinámica que fue validada experimentalmente mediante cultivos de la cepa nativa Clostridium sp. IBUN 158B. Además fue realizado análisis de sensibilidad detectando que la restricción cinética de consumo de glicerol fue el principal parámetro que afectó la predicción de PDO producido. Los restantes parámetros evaluados en el análisis de sensibilidad fueron empleados en el desarrollo de un modelo segregado, el cual permitió predecir comportamientos poblacionales. Por otra parte, perturbaciones en el modelo GSM fueron realizadas mediante deleciones de enzimas, sin embargo ninguna mutante evaluada tuvo incrementos significativos en la producción de PDO, lo cual es debido a que el PDO es un metabolito primario y su producción también es optimizada por el FBA. Seguidamente, simulaciones dinámicas adicionales fueron realizadas con el objetivo de predecir cultivos por lote alimentado, permitiendo mejorar la producción de PDO de 23.5 hasta 66g/L. Finalmente, gracias a que los valores predichos estuvieron de acuerdo con valores experimentales, es posible sugerir que el modelo reconstruido puede ser empleado para proponer nuevos escenarios y por tanto reducir tiempo y costos asociados a la experimentación.
Abstract
The increase of glycerol obtained as a byproduct of biodiesel has encouraged the production of new industrial products such as 1,3-propanediol (PDO) using biotechnological transformation via bacteria like Clostridium butyricum. Despite this increasing role as bio-production platforms, Clostridium butyricum metabolism remains poorly modeled. Herein, it was reconstructed the first genome-scale metabolic (GSM) model of a PDO producer Clostridium strain (iCbu641), which contains 641 genes, 365 enzymes, 891 reactions, and 701 metabolites. It was found an enzyme expression prediction near 83% after comparison between proteomic data and flux distribution estimated using Flux Balance Analysis (FBA). The remaining unpredicted enzymes are directionally coupled to growth according to Flux Coupling Finding (FCF) and many of them are involved in processes that FBA cannot anticipate as cellular regulatory mechanisms. Additionally, in the validation using steady-state fermentation data, different phenotypes states were observed depending on glycerol concentration, which was predicted using different objective functions. Also, a dynamic approach was developed and validated experimentally through cultures of the native strain Clostridium sp IBUN 158B. Furthermore, sensitivity analyses were made to detect the kinetic constraint of glycerol uptake as the main parameter affecting the PDO prediction. The remaining parameters considered in the sensitivity analysis were employed to develop a segregate model, which allowed predicting population behavior. Moreover, perturbations in GSM through enzyme deletions were evaluated, however, no significant increase in PDO production was predicted, which is due PDO is a primary metabolite and its production is optimized by FBA. Additional dynamic simulations were made in order to predict fed-batch cultures, allowing to enhance the PDO produced from 23.5 up to 66g/L. Finally, the agreement between predicted and experimental values allows to the proposal of new scenarios using the model reconstructed and therefore reducing the time and costs associated with experimentation.
... Dey et al. [44] presented a detailed review of the advantages and disadvantages of palm biodiesel production, which is a notable alternative in terms of economy, environment, and efficiency. Mekhilef et al. [45] analyzed the past, present, and future of the Malaysian palm oil-based biodiesel industry by considering the advantages and disadvantages of using palm oil as feedstock and Malaysia's competitiveness in the global biodiesel market. ...
... coffee, cacao) are the largest drivers of deforestation in Southeast Asia (Hansen et al., 2009;Austin et al., 2019; M. C. Hansen et al., 2013). Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand are home to 80% of the world's oil palm plantations, which is driven by global demand for oil palm-derived products, such as renewable energy, food-based, and health/beauty products (Khatun et al., 2017;Mekhilef et al., 2011;Pirker et al., 2016;Wicke et al., 2011). Since 2000, high deforestation rates have occurred in Indonesia and Malaysia (M. C. Hansen et al., 2013), affecting biodiversity, local and regional climate, and land and water quality (Ahrends et al., 2015;Qaim et al., 2020). ...
The fusion of optical imagery with radar data can provide more accurate land cover change analysis of deforestation and tree-based agriculture. Radar data is limited temporally with most geographic areas not covered prior to 2007. This paper presents a new methodology to classify land cover change related to oil palm expansion that takes historic data limitations into account. Our approach utilizes Hansen’s Global Forest Cover data, optical imagery, and texture information, to extract land cover information in Sumatra and Western Malaysia, where historical data is absent. Our method demonstrates how to accurately classify oil palm without radar data with overall accuracies for optical only experiments within 4.4% of optical plus radar classifications. Our results show agricultural land use was the primary driver of land cover change with the largest increase due to oil palm expansion (6.1%). Better estimations of oil palm expansion could be used in sustainable land management policies.
... Palm oil is obtained from the mesocarp; palm kernel oil is obtained from the seed or kernel. These CPO and CPKO are mainly obtained for edible usages [34], cosmetics, personal care [35], skin-based pharmaceutical products [36] as well in biodiesel production [37]. ...
Grown only in humid tropical conditions, the palm tree provides high-quality oil essential for cooking and personal care or biofuel in the energy sector. After the refining process, this demand could cause numerous oil palm biomass waste management problems. However, the emergence of carbon nanomaterials or CNMs could be a great way to put this waste to a good cause. The composition of the palm waste can be used as a green precursor or starting materials for synthesizing CNMs. Hence, this review paper summarizes the recent progress for the CNMs production for the past 10 years. This review paper extensively discusses the method for processing CNMs, chemical vapor deposition, pyrolysis, and microwave by the current synthesis method. The parameters and conditions of the synthesis are also analyzed. The application of the CNMs from palm oil and future recommendations are also highlighted. Generally, this paper could be a handy guide in assisting the researchers in exploring economic yet simple procedures in synthesizing carbon-based nanostructured materials derived from palm oil that can fulfill the required applications.
Graphical abstract
... The raw material for biodiesel which competes with the food sector is still being a controversy (Mekhilef, Siga and Saidur, 2011). The selling price of biodiesel is too high, and the fluctuation in raw material (food) price causes biodiesel to be unpopular. ...
The depletion of world fossil energy has led to the development of renewable energy from vegetable oils, including Feun Kase with abundant vegetable oils. The main focus of this research was to identify the physicochemical properties and to explore the potential of Indonesian Feun Kase (Thevetia peruviana) oil as renewable energy. Feun Kase oil has been isolated by press and soxhlet method. The soxhlet (66.32% weight) provided a higher yield than the press (25.58% weight). The oil yielded was directly tested for the physicochemical test according to SNI 7182: 2015 (Indonesian National Standard). The parameters in this research were water content, acid number, saponification number, iodine value, density, viscosity, cetane number, flash point, and cloud point. The GCMS profile showed the presence of several fatty acids such as hexadecenoic acid (palmitic acid), 9,12−octadecadienoic acid (linoleic acid), 9−octadecenoic acid (oleic acid), and octadecenoic acid (stearic acid). Although there was no conclusion in terms of biodiesel, this research could give the report as the basic information that revealed the potential of Feun Kase oil. Several tests revealed that Feun Kase oil can be used as the feedstock for biodiesel. Unlike palm oil, the non-edible oil of Feun Kase does not compete with the food sector. Thus, it indicated that Feun Kase oil is a very competitive feedstock for renewable energy.
... But the palm oil biodiesel has more NO x emission (Lim and Teong 2010) but this can be best controlled even up to 80-90% by installing catalytic converters (Lozada et al. 2010). Similarly, the development of winter grade palm oil has actually overtaken the possibility of using the corresponding biodiesel in countries having low atmospheric temperature (Mekhilef et al. 2011). ...
Palms and palm trees form the family Arecaceae. It has 181 genera with around 2600 species. They are known to be geographically restricted to tropical and subtropical climates exhibiting an enormous diversity in physical characteristics and inhabit all habitat within their range from rainforests to deserts. In this Chap. 5 such species are dealt whose oil has high social reception as some of them are used in continental cuisine. These oils are highly saturated with rich source of lauric acid and accordingly known to have high oxidation stability. In few selected pockets of the world such oils are in glut giving promise of being used as supplementary fuel.
Biodiesel is a promising fuel with the potential to reduce some negative aspects of fossil fuels, such as the emission of pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHG), scarcity of natural resources...
One billion liters of biodiesel are thought to be the potential market size in South Africa (SA). To build a stable and expanding market for biodiesel in SA, government regulations and policies are necessary while proactive steps are needed, particularly in the area of creative efforts that can help lower the cost of biodiesel production down to a respectable level. Converting wastes into products is an example of these creative efforts alluded to in the statement before. Thus, it is suggested that the potential for turning two categories of wastes into product and their effects on SA’s biodiesel industry’s economics be studied. The utilization of waste cooking oil (WCO) as a feedstock for the production of biodiesel in this study will be the first category of waste conversion to product. The transesterification process of converting WCO to biodiesel, using mullite-rich tailings (MRT) from density-separated waste copper dust, will be the second category of waste conversion to product. These concepts were prompted as a result of the fact that the use of edible oil to produce biodiesel could potentially lead to a diminution of the oil available as food for both humans and farm animals. Also, the idea to manufacture and characterize hydrotalcite-derived material (HDM) from waste metal dust for the transesterification of WCO to biodiesel utilizing MRT as starting material results from the fact that producing HDM from pure chemicals is expensive. Hence, the proposed study.KeywordsWaste cooking oilMullite-rich tailingsWaste copper dustHydrotalciteBiodieselCatalystTransesterification
This study reports on the bibliometric analysis of energy research in Malaysia from 1994 to 2022 (28 years) from the Elsevier Scopus database. Through bibliographical analysis of 1,207 Scopus-indexed documents, the review found that this is very recent literature, with over 93% of the relevant documents published since 2010. The contributions of institutional energy publications by affiliation showed that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UiTM) had the highest number of publications. Meanwhile, the Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews published the most significant number of publications related to energy research. To the best of the researchers' knowledge, this is the first bibliometric study to analyze energy research in Malaysia. Introduction The study of energy attracts the attention of several scientific institutions, economists, and stakeholders who stand to gain from using energy technology around the globe. Energy is considered the most critical factor in a nation's economic and industrial growth (Abedayo et al., 2021). Malaysia has a diverse range of energy resources, including oil, natural gas, coal, and renewable energy sources such as biomass, solar, and hydro. Despite its abundant resources, the nation remains reliant on fossil fuels for industrial and transportation purposes. In 2018, 92.8% of power was produced from fossil fuels such as natural gas, coal, diesel, and fuel oil (Energy Commission, 2020). Malaysia remains a net energy exporter. Concerns about energy security, fluctuating crude oil prices, and climate change are pushing substantial changes in how energy, notable electricity, is created, delivered, and used in Malaysia. Renewable energy options are becoming more appealing for Malaysia's sustainable energy development. It is because renewable energy sources are numerous in Malaysia, with biomass and solar being the most prominent (Shafie et al., 2011).
Glycerol dehydration to acetol and acrolein is an interesting reaction pathway for conversion of biomass‐derived products. However, they undergo extensive deactivation due to coke deposition and sintering, requiring the design of stable catalysts. The oxides stand out due to their natural abundance, simple synthesis, low cost and tunable acidic, basic and redox properties. The different studies apply these oxides as pure phase, supported, mixed or doped. However, it is observed that despite the large number of applied oxides in glycerol conversion, few works describe in detail about more complex oxides such as ferrites, hexaferrites, perovskites, among others. This review reports different acid oxides in the glycerol dehydration to acetol and acrolein as well as basic and redox oxides, describing a historical perspective, showing the most important theoretical foundations of heterogeneous catalysis to comprehend surface reactions and mentioning the different possibilities to understanding the different reactional pathway, highlighting the proposal mechanisms that explain the participation of the different active sites on the surface reactions. Furthermore, the sequence of reactions which show the origin of the coke deposited on catalyst surface was presented, emphasizing the main challenges. The role of the Lewis and Brønsted acid‐base sites present in the metal oxides and their interactions on glycerol dehydration were described, providing a direction to design catalysts for selective dehydration reactions resistant against coke deposition and sintering. Glycerol dehydration using metal oxides: This critical review discusses different aspects about glycerol dehydration to acetol and acrolein, emphasizing surface reactions and the participation of active sites as well as deactivation mechanisms from metal oxide which are fundamental for the design of new catalysts and can enkindle ideas for the development of solids resistant to deactivation by coke and sintering.
According to Energy outlook 2020, the aviation fuel consumption is expected to increase 13% by year 2050, as compared to year 2019. Increased cost of petroleum fuels and growing environmental concerns have made the aviationAviation biofuels industry to include biofuel as a possible fuel source. Non-edible oils, energy crops and algae are the common feedstock for jet fuel production. There are several biomasses-to-jet fuel conversionBiomass-to-jet fuel conversion pathways such as lipid hydro-processing, Fischer–Tropsch synthesisFischer-Tropsch synthesis (F-T), alcohol-to-jet fuel, pyrolysis processPyrolysis process, hydrothermal liquefactionHydroThermal Liquefaction (HTL) and blending of fatty acid methyl esterFatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME). However, the sustainable production of jet biofuel is still under research. This chapter discusses the opportunities and challenges of these technologies from sustainable development perspective.
A simple preparation method was established for a low water-soluble citric acid crosslinking starch-based foam containing palm oil. The method was performed by pouring the boiling citric acid solution into the starch compound unlike the citric acid starch crosslinking by conventional solution casting. Thermo-physicochemical properties of the starch-based foams were examined. The I 3300 /I 1149 intensity ratio of non-citric acid-containing foam was higher, suggesting greater amounts of the available -OH groups. The addition of citric acid into the starch matrix exhibited weaker thermal stability that was attributed to the lower thermal stability of the substituted ester bonds. The increment of citric acid concentration increased thermoplastic starch foams densities as well as their cell wall thickness. No differences in moisture absorption behavior were observed after soaking in water, the non-citric acid-filled foam exhibited dissolution and changed from its original shape upon drying. Experimental results showed a promising alternative methodology to prepare low water-soluble citric acid crosslinked starch-based foam to replace conventional solution casting.
This study aims to evaluate palm oil productivity by the smallholders in Indonesia, which offered by particular external factors condition. This article consists of 400 smallholders from 5 different districts as respondents. Evaluation of the survey data was undertaken using inferential statistics, one-way and two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and regression methods. An increase of 1 USD income per day would translate to an increase of 2 kg of output. Local government support is more critical than the central government since it can boost up to 100 kg of output. Corporate support and Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil certification help boosting the harvest up to 80 kg of output. The current farming association shows a sign of inefficiency. The plantation lifespan has a positive impact on output productivity, which will be achieved when the plantation lifespan has productive periods. That indicates that external factors affect the smallholder's productivity in its way.
This papers presents the results of analysis done on a compression-ignition engine supplied with methyl ester of rapeseed oil (Yellow Grease), methyl ester of goose fat (Brown Grease) and pure diesel. The analysis included the engine characteristics, emissions and fuel consumption. Results also include chromatographic analysis for all of the three fuels. Additional evaluation was done on a vehicle idling and under load.
Resumen
La presente investigación evaluó la composición y capacidad de acumulación de lípidos en cuatro microalgas nativas de Colombia y un alga de referencia como fuentes potenciales para la producción de biodiesel. Las microalgas Scenedemus ovalternus y Chlorella vulgaris presentaron las mayores productividades de lípidos con 18,8 y 18,7mg·L-1·día-1, respectivamente, equivalentes a 4,1 veces la productividad de aceite de la palma africana, actual materia prima empleada en Colombia para la producción industrial de biodiesel. De acuerdo con la caracterización de los ácidos grasos producidos por las microalgas estudiadas, todas pueden ser empleadas en la producción de biodiesel, debido a la similitud de estos con aceites ya empleados en la producción de biodiesel, por lo cual fue escogida la microalga Chlorella vulgaris para estudios posteriores, los cuales consistieron en la optimización de la acumulación y productividad de lípidos variando los factores contenido de CO2, irradiancia, fotoperiodo y aireación. La productividad de lípidos óptima predicha por el modelo estadístico dentro del intervalo estudiado fue 69,7 ± 5,9 mg·L-1·día-1, 15,2 veces la productividad de la palma africana, para un contenido de CO2 de 2%, irradiancia de 114 µE·m-2·s-1, fotoperiodo de 24:0 LO y aireación de 1,2 vvm; el contenido de lípidos bajo las condiciones mencionadas fue de 16,4 ± 1,4%. La optimización de los factores para maximizar el contenido de lípidos y minimizar la disminución de la productividad de lípidos se logró para un contendido de CO2 del 1,2%, irradiancia de 22 µE·m-2·s-1, fotoperiodo de 12:12 LO y aireación de 0,4 vvm con valores de 32,7 ± 1,4% y 42,0 ± 5,9 mg·L-1·día-1, respectivamente, equivalente a 9,1 veces la productividad de aceite de la palma africana, las anteriores son condiciones fácilmente alcanzables en cualquier parte del territorio colombiano.
Abstract
This research evaluated the ability to accumulate lipids and their composition of five microalgae, four of them native from Colombia and one reference alga as potential feedstocks for biodiesel production. The microalgae Scenedesmus ovalternus and Chlorella vulgaris had the highest lipid productivity: 18.8 and 18.7 mg·L-1·day-1, respectively, 4.1 times longer than the productivity of palm oil, current feedstock for the industrial production of biodiesel in Colombia. According to the characterization of the fatty acids produced by the microalgae studied, the five microalgae can be employed in the production of biodiesel because their oils have similarities with the oils used in the production of biodiesel. Microalga Chlorella vulgaris was chosen for the next research where CO2 content, irradiance, photoperiod, and aeration were evaluated as parameters of production and accumulation of lipids. The optimal lipid productivity predicted by the statistical model in the range studied was 69.7 ± 5.9 mg·L-1·day-1, 15.2 times the oil productivity of African Palm, for CO2 content of 2%, irradiance of 114 μE·m-2·s-1, photoperiod of 24:0 LO and aeration of 1.2 vvm. The content of lipids in those conditions was 16.4 ± 1.4%. The optimal conditions of the factors in order to maximize the lipid content and to minimize the reduction in lipid productivity was reached with CO2 content 1.2%, photoperiod 12:12 LO, Irradiance 22 μE·m-2·s-1 and aeration 0.4 vvm, these conditions are easily reachable in any part of Colombia. The optimum lipid content and lipid productivity were 32.7 ± 1.4% and 42.0 ± 5.9 mg·L-1·day-1, respectively, 9.1 times the oil productivity of African Palm.
Biodiesel is a well-known biofuel which is intended to partially replace fossil diesel in transportation and industrial applications. It can be obtained from a variety of triglyceride-containing sources, where the quality and price of biodiesel will strongly depend on the kind of raw material used for its production. This chapter reviews various aspects involved in the production and use of biodiesel, including raw materials with potential to produce the biofuel, conventional technologies used in the production processes, techno-economic information about biodiesel production, and an insight on the industrial implementation of the conventional technologies. Information is presented about the advantages of using biodiesel in engines. Finally, a case study on the design and economic assessment of a biodiesel production process is presented.
Fats and oils can be found naturally in a wide range of animal and plant-based sources. They serve an important part of a balanced and healthy diet as they provide energy, support growth and development, provide the essential fatty acids and boost the immune system. Fats and oils are also high in fat-soluble vitamins especially vitamin E (tocopherols) which is well known for its antioxidant properties. Besides, these ingredients also help to enhance the sensory characteristics of various food products. Some fats and oils may even be used for medicinal purposes and biodiesel production. Obviously, fats and oils are essential components for both food applications and industrial uses. Based on the previous literatures, each fat and oil has its own unique fatty acid profile and physicochemical properties. Therefore, the present chapter reviews and focuses on the nutritional values and physicochemical properties of some common edible fats and oils extracted from both plant and animal sources.KeywordsAnimal fatsVegetable oilsPoultry fatLardTallowFish oilPalm oilSoybean oilSunflower oilCoconut oil
Diminishing supply and environmental pollution of fossil fuels are the vital factors leading to the search of alternative sources of energy like biodiesel. Biodiesel is one of the eco-friendly substitutes of energy which is mainly utilized in diesel engines. Ricinus communis (castor plant), which belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae yields an oil rich beans and plays important role in the production of biodiesel. Recently, the demand of castor oil and its products has been raised in the world market due to its versatility to use and simplicity to produce. Therefore, this study investigates the extraction of castor oil and its conversion in to biodiesel via alkali catalyzed transesterification. The seed oil of the plant was extracted using Soxhlet apparatus and the quality of the biodiesel was examined using the standard procedures of American standards for testing methods. Furthermore, the chemical composition of the extracted oil was examined using GC-MS. The seed oil was liquid at room temperature (25 °C), golden yellow in color with a nutty odor. The extraction processes yielded 324 g (9.25% w/w) and 78% of oil and biodiesel respectively. The density (0.86 g/mL), viscosity (5.42 mm2s-1), flash point (87 °C), acid value (0.35 mg KOH/g), water content (0.80%), iodine value (108.60), and cetane number (58.00) were reported in this study and showed a good agreement with the standards of biodiesel. GC-MS analysis of the seed oil also showed the presence of 10 different fatty acids (9-Octadecenoic acid, 12-hydroxy-, methyl ester, [R-(Z)] took the highest composition) which plays significant role for the production of methyl esters. So, the study can assure that castor oil can be used for commercial production of biodiesel at cost effective scales.
The purpose of this research is to explore the possibility of citric acid crosslinking starch-based foam in the presence of palm oil as well as plasticized with sorbitol. Starch compounds were foamed using a thermo-compression technique after being prepared simply with a cooking mixer. The flexural strength of the foams was found to be dependent upon the citric acid loading. The FTIR analysis results through calculating the intensity ratio of absorption peaks at 3300 and 1149 (I3300/I1149) indicated that a lower amount of free hydroxyl group was left from the citric acid added specimens. The TGA curves displayed lowering thermal stability that implied the occurrence of crosslinking reaction via esterification of the citric acid modified sorbitol/starch compounds. The results of the citric acid incorporation were also suggested by the physical properties investigation, which included SEM images, density, degree of swelling and water solubility. For the citric acid-filled foams, cell wall thickness and density both increased as water solubility decreased. All of the observed results confirmed that the citric acid crosslinking sorbitol/starch-based foam was prepared and characterized for use as alternative biodegradable trays and plates foam application.
This study analyses the environmental and economic feasibility of producing palm oil-based biodiesel in Mexico in order to substitute of diesel fuel consumption using B5 until 2015 and B10 from 2016 to 2031 in the transportation sector. Two scenarios were created by projecting demand and costs for biodiesel as well as greenhouse gases emissions reduction over the next 26 years. In the environmental section, avoided emissions of Particulate matter, Total Hydrocarbons, Carbon Monoxide, Sulphur Dioxide, and Carbon Dioxide as well as the increase in Nitrous Oxide emissions were estimated for each scenario. In the economic section, a cost–benefit analysis of biodiesel substitution was implemented, and mitigation costs of Carbon Dioxide were estimated. Our results show that the feasibility of palm oil biodiesel use is directly related to the implementation of fiscal incentives, such as the exemption from tax (Special Tax on Production and Services).
Due the environmental concern and limited resources of petroleum oil has increase the demand of biodiesel. One way of reducing the biodiesel production costs is to use the less expensive feedstock containing fatty acids such as inedible oils, animal fats, waste food oil and by products of the refining vegetables oils The fact that Jatropha oil can not be used for nutritional purposes without detoxification makes its use as energy/fuel source very attractive. The lipid fraction of Jatropha oil seed were extracted and analyzed for their chemical and physical properties such as acid value, percentage free fatty acids (% FFA), iodine value, peroxide value and saponification value as well as viscosity, and density. The fatty acid and triacylglycerol (TAGs) composition of the extracted lipid was revealed using the gas chromatography (GC) and high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. Both oleic acid (44.7%) and linoleic acid (32.8%) were detected as the dominant fatty acids while palmitic acid and stearic acid were the saturated fatty acids found in the Jatropha oil. OLL (22.94%) and OOL (17.9%) was detected as major triacylglycerol composition in the jatropha oil. The oil extracts exhibited good physicochemical properties and could be useful as biodiesel feedstock and industrial application.
The use of palm oil as a base stock for an environmentally friendly lubricant for small four-stroke motorcycle engines is investigated. Palm oil was blended with mineral oil at different compositions to the viscosity requirement of commercial lubricant. A liquid additive package was added to improve the viscosity of the lubricant. A blend that meets the viscosity requirement was then chosen for physical and chemical property characterization and subjected to an engine test. The blend consists of 50.6% (wt.) palm oil, 41.6% mineral oil, and 7.8% additive package. The properties evaluated include viscosity, viscosity index, flash point, foaming characteristics, and wear scar. The engine performance and emission tests were carried out with a 125-cc motorcycle on a chassis dynamometer using a Bangkok Driving Cycle. Compared to a mineral-based commercial oil, the palm oil-based lubricant exhibits superior tribological properties, but offers no clear advantage on engine and emission performance.
Energy supply and its security issues have been the topic of interest lately. With growing environmental awareness about the negative implications brought by excessive usage of fossil fuels, the race for finding alternative energy as their substitutions is getting heated up. For now, renewable energy from biodiesel has been touted as one of the most promising substitutions for petroleum-derived diesel. Combustion of biodiesel as fuel is more environment-friendly while retaining most of the positive engine properties of petroleum-derived diesel. Production of biodiesel is also a proven technology with established commercialization activities. The huge potential of biodiesel coupled with the abundance of palm oil which is one of the most cost-effective feedstocks for biodiesel is responsible for the pledging of Malaysia to become the leading producer of high quality biodiesel in the region. Currently, total approved installed capacity of biodiesel production in Malaysia equals to almost 92% of the world biodiesel production output in 2008. While Malaysia does indeed possessed materials, technologies and marketing superiority to vie for that position, many more challenges are still awaiting. The price restriction, provisions controversy, escalating non-tariff trade barriers and negligible public support need to be addressed appropriately. In this review, Malaysia's previous and current position in global biodiesel market, its future potential towards the prominent leading biodiesel status and major disrupting obstacles are being discussed. The feasibility of utilizing algae as the up-and-coming biodiesel feedstock in Malaysia is also under scrutiny. Lastly, several recommendations on the roles played by three major forces in Malaysia's biodiesel industry are presented to tackle the shortcomings in achieving the coveted status by Malaysia. It is hope that Malaysia's progress in biodiesel industry will not only benefit itself but rather as the role model to catalyst the development of global biofuels industry as a whole.
Energy is essential to the way we live. Whether it is in the form of oil, gasoline or electricity, a country's prosperity and welfare depends on having access to reliable and secure supplies of energy at affordable prices. However, it is also one of the benefits taken for granted by many people, knowing little about the impact of electricity on their lives. Having dependent mainly on oil and gas for half a century, Malaysia has started to realize the importance to adopt renewable energy in the energy mix and continuously reviewed its energy policy to ensure sustainable energy supply and security. This paper examines and discusses the intricacy of the existing and new energy policies, issues and challenges in Malaysia. The overall approach in addressing the energy issues and challenges will continue to focus on adequacy, quality, security and sustainability of both non-renewable and renewable energy supply in the country's development and the promotion and implementation of its energy efficiency programs. The recently launched National Green Technology Policy is also discussed.
This article discusses current status of palm oil-based biodiesel industry in Malaysia, the policies introduced and strategies for its implementation. Due to renewability, high production rate, technical feasibility and role in reducing greenhouse gases (GHG) emission, palm oil is in the right position to supply the energy needs by the incorporation into the diesel supply. As a leading producer of palm oil, Malaysia has embarked on a comprehensive palm biofuel program since 1982. It has successfully established the use of palm biodiesel blend (B5) as a suitable fuel for the transport and industrial sectors through the introduction of the National Biofuel Policy. The current scenario of biodiesel program in Malaysia, as well as biofuel policies with respect to its use, technology, export, environmental issues and implementation aspects are thoroughly discussed. The roles of the policy towards the prosperity of the stakeholders, oil price and the reduction of greenhouse gasses are also highlighted.
The world is confronted with the twin crises of fossil fuel depletion and environmental degradation. The indiscriminate extraction and consumption of fossil fuels have led to a reduction in petroleum reserves. Petroleum based fuels are obtained from limited reserves. These finite reserves are highly concentrated in certain region of the world. Therefore, those countries not having these resources are facing a foreign exchange crisis, mainly due to the import of crude petroleum oil. Hence it is necessary to look for alternative fuels, which can be produced from materials available within the country. Although vegetative oils can be fuel for diesel engines, but their high viscosities, low volatilities and poor cold flow properties have led to the investigation of its various derivatives. Among the different possible sources, fatty acid methyl esters, known as Biodiesel fuel derived from triglycerides (vegetable oil and animal fates) by transesterification with methanol, present the promising alternative substitute to diesel fuels and have received the most attention now a day. The main advantages of using Biodiesel are its renewability, better quality exhaust gas emission, its biodegradability and the organic carbon present in it is photosynthetic in origin. It does not contribute to a rise in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and consequently to the green house effect. This paper reviews the source of production and characterization of vegetable oils and their methyl ester as the substitute of the petroleum fuel and future possibilities of Biodiesel production.
Response surface methodology (RSM) based on central composite design (CCD) was used to optimize the three important reaction variables — methanol/oil molar ratio (x1), reaction time (x2) and amount of catalyst (x3) for production of biodiesel from palm oil using KF/ZnO catalyst. Based on the CCD, a quadratic model was developed to correlate the reaction variables to the biodiesel yield. From the analysis of variance (ANOVA), the most influential factor on the experimental design response was identified. The predicted yield after process optimization was found to agree satisfactory with the experimental value. The optimum conditions for biodiesel production were found as follows: methanol/oil ratio of 11.43, reaction time of 9.72 h and catalyst amount of 5.52 wt%. The optimum biodiesel yield was 89.23%.
The current use of South Asian palm oil as biofuel is far from climate neutral. Dependent on assumptions, losses of biogenic carbon associated with ecosystems, emission of CO2 due to the use of fossil fuels and the anaerobic conversion of palm oil mill effluent currently correspond in South Asia with an emission of about 2.8–19.7 kg CO2 equivalent per kg of palm oil. Using oil palm and palm oil processing wastes for the generation of energy and preventing further conversion of tropical forest into oil palm plantations by establishing new plantations on non-peaty degraded soils can, however, lead to large cuts in the emission of carbon-based greenhouse gases currently associated with the palm oil lifecycle.
The quest for renewable energy has intensified since the escalating price of crude petroleum in the recent years. Renewable energy such as biodiesel has the potential to replace petroleum-derived transportation fuel in the future. Biodiesel is defined as the mono-alkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils such palm oil, rapeseed and soybean. Currently, more than 80% of the world biodiesel productions are from rapeseed oil. However, the cost of palm oil which is at least US$ 200 per tonne cheaper than rapeseed oil indicates that palm oil could be a more suitable and attractive candidate as the source of biodiesel compared to other vegetable oils. Although palm oil is known to be a multi-purpose vegetable oil with products ranging from food to biodiesel, there are a lot of issues surrounding palm oil production. Nevertheless, some of these issues reported in the literature were found to be misleading and are thus confusing the public perception on palm oil. Thus, the aim of this paper is to highlight and clarify the negative issues reported in the literature surrounding palm oil production. Apart from that, various policies or/and strategies that will lead to a more sustainable production and development of palm oil industries will also be proposed. Hence, palm oil will be able to become the leading vegetable oil in terms of food and non-food production, especially as the main source of renewable energy, biodiesel.
The present global economy downturn affects every corner of the world including the vehicular fuel industry. This paper highlights some of the perspectives for the biodiesel industry to thrive as an alternative fuel, while discussing benefits and limitations of biodiesel. This includes the improvement of the conversion technology to achieve a sustainable process at cheaper cost, environmentally benign and cleaner emissions, diversification of products derived from glycerol, and policy and government incentives. More specifically, an overview is given on making the production process more economical by developing high conversion and low cost catalysts from renewable sources, and utilizing waste oil as feedstock. Further emphasis is given on the need for public education and awareness for the use and benefits of biodiesel, while promoting policies that will not only endorse the industry, but also promote effective land management.
For the past few decades, palm oil has gone through a revolution that few would have predicted. From a humble source of edible oil that was heavily criticized as being un-healthy and un-fit for human consumption, it has proven itself based on scientific findings that it is indeed one of the most nutritious edible oils in the world. Besides, palm oil, the cheapest vegetable oil in the market has diversified as one of the main feedstock for oleo-chemical industries. Recently, with the price of crude petroleum hitting records height every other day, palm oil has become one of the few feasible sources for biodiesel, a renewable substitute for petroleum-derived diesel. Nevertheless, the conversion of palm oil into biodiesel has again received criticism from various NGOs worldwide, mainly on extinction of orang utans, deforestation and particularly the food versus fuel dispute. It was claimed that the conversion of food crops to fuel would significantly increase the number of undernourished people in the world. Malaysia, being the world second largest producer of palm oil, is not spared from this criticism. On the contrary, in the present study it was found that palm oil is indeed the most economical and sustainable source of food and biofuel in the world market. Besides, it was shown that it has the capacity to fulfill both demands simultaneously rather than engaging in priority debate. Nevertheless, fuel is now a necessity rather than a luxury for economy and development purposes. A few strategies will then be presented on how palm oil can survive in this feud and emerged as the main supply of affordable and healthy source of edible oil while concurrently satisfying the market demand for biodiesel throughout the world.
Research on alternative fuel for the vehemently growing number of automotivesis intensified due to environmental reasons rather than turmoil in energy price and supply. From the policy and steps to emphasis the use of biofuel by governments all around the world, this can be comprehended that biofuel have placed itself as a number one substitute for fossil fuels. These phenomena made Southeast Asia a prominent exporter of biodiesel. But thrust in biodiesel production from oilseeds of palm and Jatropha curcas in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand is seriously threatening environmental harmony. This paper focuses on this critical issue of biodiesels environmental impacts, policy, standardization of this region as well as on the emission of biodiesel in automotive uses. To draw a bottom line on feasibilities of different feedstock of biodiesel, a critical analysis on oilseed yield rate, land use, engine emissions and oxidation stability is reviewed. Palm oil based biodiesel is clearly ahead in all these aspects of feasibility, except in the case of NOx where it lags from conventional petro diesel.
Southeast Asia's attempt to join the global biofuel development has not been very successful, despite the large amount of subsidies and incentives allotted for biofuel projects. The outcome of these projects has failed to meet expectation due to overrated assumptions and shortsighted policies. Utilization of edible feedstock such as palm oil and sugar cane for biofuel has disrupted the fragile industry due to the fluctuations of feedstock prices. The appropriate research on jatropha to prove its economic and environmental feasibility as energy crop has not been performed. Biofuel development in Southeast Asia remains at an early stage of development and requires highly intensive monitoring and strict legal enforcement to ensure future success.
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