Article

Accounting for CO2 emissions from international shipping: Burden sharing under different UNFCCC allocation options and regime scenarios

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

CO2 emissions from international shipping, which are currently unregulated, are predicted to rise dramatically if no regulations are implemented. International bunker fuel emissions have been excluded from the Kyoto Protocol; the UNFCCC conference in Copenhagen also failed to bring about clear directions on how to proceed with these emissions. In this paper, the various options suggested by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice of the UNFCCC for allocating CO2 emissions from international shipping to individual countries are investigated. This is followed by a discussion of the economic and regulatory issues related to these options and the consequences of applying them. Then, the various options are evaluated on the basis of environmental effectiveness, possibility of legal implementation, and fairness of burden sharing. The evaluation shows that there is no single allocation option that can be regarded as environmentally effective, legally effective and allowing for fair burden sharing. Nevertheless, it is concluded that an allocation of international shipping emissions should be conducted on the basis of the operating company.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... Taking into consideration options outlined by a UNFCCC subsidiary body in 1996 (SBSTA 1996), a few previous studies have quantified outcomes of allocation options based on the country location of shipping industry actors and ships (den Elzen et al 2007, Faber et al 2009, Heitmann and Khalilian 2011. Heitmann and Khalilian (2011) most recently calculated how much CO 2 emissions would be added to different countries and regions. ...
... Taking into consideration options outlined by a UNFCCC subsidiary body in 1996 (SBSTA 1996), a few previous studies have quantified outcomes of allocation options based on the country location of shipping industry actors and ships (den Elzen et al 2007, Faber et al 2009, Heitmann and Khalilian 2011. Heitmann and Khalilian (2011) most recently calculated how much CO 2 emissions would be added to different countries and regions. Their analysis was based on estimates of CO 2 emissions for the year 2007 using assumptions about ship type and annual average fuel consumption. ...
... We use spatially-resolved data based on detailed ship movements for estimating CO 2 emissions. Further analysis using such data was called for by Heitmann and Khalilian (2011). We use data on ship movements and bunker fuel sales to calculate outcomes related to five national allocation options: (a) the country where the ship is flagged ('flag country'); (b) the country of the ship owner ('owner country'); (c) the country of the ship manager ('manager country'); (d) the country of the ship operator ('operator country'); and (e) the country where bunker fuel is sold ('bunker fuel country'). ...
Article
Full-text available
Neither international treaties nor domestic policies control carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from international shipping. To enhance mitigation, a new multilateral mechanism could allocate these emissions to national carbon budgets, where different options could be used based on the location of industry actors and ships. We analyze five allocation options, showing that a clear majority of CO2 emissions would be distributed to ten countries under each option; however, the top ten countries vary across allocation options and the amount of CO2 emissions allotted to individual countries could increase their carbon budgets thousand-fold or more. We further examine how the different objectives, principles for decision-making, and geographical coverage of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the International Maritime Organization influence the design and implementation of an allocation mechanism under each of these two bodies. We find that the allocation mechanism that best meets criteria related to effectiveness and equity would be one in which emissions are assigned to countries of ship owners, and which operates under the UNFCCC.
... 2. LEGISLATION IN FREIGHT FORWARDING Acquis communautaire, French, (short acquis) is the legal heredity of a community and it presents rights and obligations and commitments in form of connection of all the countries of the European Union. It doesn't only present the law in the strict sense, but also includes the content, principles and political objectives of the Treaties, the application of the Treaties, the judgment of the Court of the European Union, declarations and resolutions, measures [1] [2] [3] [8] [11] [13] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19]. ...
... According to the Law on Foreign Trade, the business of international freight forwarding and shipping is an organization of delivering goods in international trade of goods by enterprise carries on its own behalf and by order and for the account of the account holder. Law of Obligation relations, requires shippers by contract that in their own name and for the account of the customer carry out transportation of certain things and do other common tasks and actions, and the employer is obliged to pay a certain fee [1] [2] [3] [8] [11] [13] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19]. In international law three legal systems concerning freight forwarding services are recognized:  French Legal System (Treats shipping businesses as mostly similar to the commission businesses. ...
...  The Anglo-Saxon legal system or the English and American Commercial Law (classifies the freight forwarders as agents who sign contracts for others and on the account of others). Legal regulations for international road and rail transport are related to the following Conventions, for the international rail transport the most important document for editing is legal-property relations under the contract of carriage is the Convention concerning International Carriage by Rail (COTIF), and for international road traffic contractual agreements of freight forwarder and customer are regulated by the Convention on contracts for the international transport of goods (CMR, Geneva, 1956.) and relations from the contract of carriage of passengers and baggage are governed by the provisions of the Convention on the Contract for the International Carriage of Passengers and Baggage (CVR) [1] [2] [3] [8] [11] [13] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19]. Shipping activity is in international businesses regulated by international conventions and agreements. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Shipping is a very complex and dynamic system of interrelated factors, and requires knowledge of the laws of the countries through which the services are performed, as well as techniques of international trade, international transportation regulations, trade rules, banking, insurance and rules of customs. It's very important to have skills to cope in space, during a grand expedition. We conclude that it is very important to know the laws, rules, regulations, norms and conventions, guidelines and standards, as well as the quality performance of basic tasks and international freight forwarding services.
... Mitigation options can reduce global emissions of 3.6 GtCO 2 e by 70%. Delineating national responsibilities for mitigation calls attention to emissions outside of such responsibilities (that is, shipping) that tend to be overlooked 30,31 . ...
... -do not fall under the jurisdiction of any one country30 and account for 2% of global emissions. Our analysis shows that this jurisdictional dilemma leads to 20.5 MtCO 2 e of unallocated emissions globally, greater than 179 jurisdictions, 69 of which engage in the natural gas supply chain 37 . ...
Article
Full-text available
Over 100 countries pledged to reduce methane emissions by 30% by 2030 at COP26, but whether gas can serve as a bridge to lower-carbon options remains disputed. With an increasingly global supply chain, countries have different responsibilities in mitigation. We determine the global average of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from the delivery of gas-fired electricity to be 645 gCO2e kWh−1 (334–1,389 gCO2e kWh−1), amounting to 3.6 GtCO2e yr−1 in 2017 (10% of energy-related emissions). Deploying mitigation options can reduce global emissions from gas-fired power by 71% with carbon capture and storage, methane abatement, and efficiency upgrades contributing 43%, 12% and 5%, respectively. Mitigation falls within national responsibilities, except an annual 20.5 MtCO2e of ocean transport emissions. For gas to truly be a bridge fuel, countries involved with the life cycle of gas-fired power need to deploy all mitigation options while balancing the risk of locking in carbon-intensive electricity. Natural gas is seen as a key interim fuel along the pathway to a zero-carbon energy system, yet there is some concern it may delay the transition. This Analysis estimates the life cycle emissions from gas-fired electricity and the abatement potential of different mitigation options.
... Many specialists have agreed on the prominence of MBMs on Table 1 Average hull roughness based on the age of a ship (Olmer et al., 2017). (Shi, 2016;Psaraftis, 2012;Fan et al., 2021;Heitmann and Khalilian, 2011;Wang et al., 2015;Lee et al., 2013). The theme of MBM was first raised in 2003, followed by MEPC 56 in 2006, further ten MBM proposals submitted to the IMO in 2010 (Kachi et al., 2019), and finally, this debate was suspended in 2013 due to the lack of consensus on the optimum option. ...
... Considering the potential of MBM in emission reduction (Shi, 2016;Psaraftis, 2012Psaraftis, , 2019bFan et al., 2021;Heitmann and Khalilian, 2011;Wang et al., 2015;Lee et al., 2013;Psaraftis et al., 2021;Keen et al., 2013), and to design a conceptual framework in this study, we assume that the MBM is the final policy solution that can provide a framework for the implementation of other energy regulations in shipping. This assumption is confirmed by (Kachi et al., 2019;Bazari and Longva, 2011;Shi, 2012) that emphasizes on insufficiency of current regulations (EEDI and SEEMP), and by Psaraftis (2019b) who states that a bunker levy is a preferable instrument compared to a speed limit mechanism. ...
Article
Over the past decade, the shipping industry has tried to reduce its carbon footprint; however, there have always been problems in enforcing and enacting energy regulations in shipping. By highlighting the complications in operational, technical, and data collection regulations, this study tries to offer solutions in the form of two hypotheses, first a new standard in ship operation and based on that a new hybrid MBM (Market Based Measure). The proposed ship operational standard and its indicator, operational KPI (O-KPI), aim to combine the energy management system in shipping companies with the operational measures onboard ships. A practical combination technique to combine this operational indicator (O-KPI) with technical index is recommended and the result is a new energy efficiency gauge which is the base for a novel hybrid MBM. The proposed MBM which is a differentiated levy shows how a bunker levy could be implemented smartly with more promising results. The functionality of the whole MBM mechanism is demonstrated through a hypothetical example. Finally, this study shows how the proposed mechanism could supplement the implementation of the short-term measures and bridge it to the most important medium-term measure which is MBM in shipping.
... The regime of shipping emissions reduction has been discussed for decades. Beginning with the proposal of the eight options for shipping emissions responsibility allocation by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 17 , numerous efforts have been made to explore the rationality and justification of different options [18][19][20][21][22][23] . Different allocation options may leave countries with vastly different emissions burdens, and currently there is no single option that is effective in terms of environment, law and fair burden sharing 20 . ...
... Beginning with the proposal of the eight options for shipping emissions responsibility allocation by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 17 , numerous efforts have been made to explore the rationality and justification of different options [18][19][20][21][22][23] . Different allocation options may leave countries with vastly different emissions burdens, and currently there is no single option that is effective in terms of environment, law and fair burden sharing 20 . This demonstrates the infeasibility of compulsory responsibility allocation and the necessity of new mechanism construction. ...
Article
Full-text available
The ambitious targets for shipping emissions reduction and challenges for mechanism design call for new approaches to encourage decarbonization. Here we build a compound model chain to deconstruct global international shipping emissions to fine-scale trade flows and propose trade-linked indicators to measure shipping emissions efficiency. International maritime trade in 2018 contributes 746.2 Tg to shipping emissions of CO2, of which 17.2% is contributed from ten out of thousands of trade flows at the country level. We argue that potential unfairness exists if allocating shipping emissions responsibility to bilateral traders due to external beneficiaries. However, a huge shipping emissions-reduction potential could be expected by optimizing international trade patterns, with a maximum reaching 38% of the current total. Our comprehensive modelling system can serve as a benchmark tool to support the construction of a systematic solution and joint effort from the shipping industry and global trade network to address climate change.
... Governance of international shipping is complicated by being multi-level, multi-purposed, multifunctional and heterogenic, arguably opening for a polycentric approach (Gritsenko, 2017). Yet, to address climate change, emissions from combustion bunker fuels need to be regulated and accounted for (ben Brahim et al., 2019;Heitmann and Khalilian, 2011;Kellner, 2016). 12 As consistent with the economic approach to production-based emissions, the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (United Nations et al., 2014) and EXIOBASE as well as option 4 put forward by the UNFCCC in its 1996 National Communication by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA, 1996). ...
... 12 As consistent with the economic approach to production-based emissions, the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (United Nations et al., 2014) and EXIOBASE as well as option 4 put forward by the UNFCCC in its 1996 National Communication by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA, 1996). (Heitmann and Khalilian, 2011;SBSTA, 1996). As monetary value added from activities using bunker fuels are included in GDP, emissions from the combustion of these should arguably be added to territorial emissions in studies of the relationship between a country's GDP and emissions (Pedersen and De Haan, 2008;Peters and Hertwich, 2008). ...
Article
Full-text available
Ecological modernisation in the form of support to the notion of green growth remains the dominant discourse in environmental policy globally. Still, questions of limits to economic expansion and growth on a planet with finite natural resources have been at the core of environmental discourses at least since the 1970's. A recent effort by Stoknes and Rockström (2018) seeks to unite notions of ecological limits with the concept of green growth by proposing genuine green growth as denoting a situation when growth respects planetary boundaries. Focusing on recent trajectories in emissions intensity, they highlight Nordic countries including Denmark as examples of such genuine green growth. In this article, we demonstrate that the specific conceptualization of genuine green growth and resulting claims about the Nordic countries rest on particular assumptions, specifically concerning national-level carbon accounting frameworks and the size of the remaining global carbon budget. By opening up these assumptions for analysis we illustrate the partiality and potentially misleading nature of the conceptualization of GGG.
... There are many studies that discussed the technical (Ančićn and Šestan 2015;Tzannatos and Stournaras 2014;Ekanem Attah and Bucknall 2015) and operational policies (Acomi and Acomi 2014;Lu et al. 2015;Sun et al. 2013) in restraining emissions. Meanwhile, lots of studies investigated the feasibility of implementing the market-based policies (Wang, Fu, and Luo 2015;Lee, Chang, and Lee 2013;Shi 2016;Heitmann and Khalilian 2011). In addition to these, a plethora of studies have analyzed the role of slow steaming in emission abatement (Woo and Moon 2013;Ferrari, Parola, and Tei 2015;Doudnikoff and Lacoste 2014) and discussed the optimal ship speed for different types of ships or routes under different green shipping scenarios (Fagerholt et al. 2015;Du et al. 2019). ...
... Finally, although there is no consensus on how to carry out the MBMs policy yet, many researchers agreed on the significance of MBMs on emission abatement (Wang, Fu, and Wang, Xiaowen, and Luo 2015;Lee, Chang, and Lee 2013;Shi 2016;Heitmann and Khalilian 2011). So, V 8 V 1 is negative. ...
Article
Many policies and practical measures have been designed for emission reduction in shipping. Many have studied their contribution to emission reduction and impacts on the shipping industry without considering their interactions. This study analyzes how a change in one policy or measure affect the others using a system pulse model. The results suggest that the factors influencing shipping emissions are inter-dependent, and the developed systematic shipping emission model fluctuates periodically. We find that slow steaming is actually not effective in emission reduction in the long-run as it impacts the implementation of other policies. It poses a high demand for the adoption of the EEDI (Energy Efficiency Design Index) policy so as to promote the application of advanced technologies in the shipbuilding process. It also suggests that although the implementation of the EEDI policy can promote the adoption of the EEOI (Energy Efficiency Operating Index) policy, the EEOI policy actually relieves the demand for the EEDI policy.
... Therefore, an in-depth research on optimizing resource management and scheduling plans for ports and shipping networks under emission control policies is important to control operating costs while developing green ports. Although emissions from shipping activities have a significant impact on the global environment, regulating emissions during shipping is difficult for multisource owners (Heitmann and Khalilian, 2011). As a result, the optimization research on emission grading and control policies and other subsidy policies should be initiated. ...
... The emission reduction principle needs to reconcile the two principles of international law (i.e., "common but differentiated responsibilities" and "no more preferential treatment"), but a plan acceptable to developed and developing countries has yet to be proposed. Heitmann and Khalilian (2011) discussed the influence of various proposals from the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and found that no existing proposal can effectively and fairly solve the emission problems. Lee et al. (2013) analyzed the economic impact of carbon tax on international container transportation. ...
Article
Full-text available
Global ports and maritime shipping networks are important carriers for global supply chain networks, but they are also the main sources of energy consumption and pollution. To limit ship emissions in ports and offshore areas, the International Maritime Organization, as well as some countries, has issued a series of policies. This study highlights the importance and necessity of investigating emergent research problems in the operation management of green ports and maritime shipping networks. Considerable literature related to this topic is reviewed and discussed. Moreover, a comprehensive research framework on green port and shipping operation management is proposed for future research opportunities. The framework mainly comprises four research areas related to emission control and grading policies. This review may provide new ideas to the academia and industry practitioners for improving the performance and efficiency of the operation management of green ports and maritime shipping networks.
... If inventory costs and freight rates increase, while bunker costs decrease, the liner shipping companies will most likely increase the vessel sailing speeds. Heitmann and Khalilian [15] mentioned that CO 2 emissions from international shipping were unregulated and forecasted to significantly increase. Various emissions allocation options were evaluated based on their effectiveness, possibility of implementation, fairness, and burden sharing. ...
... Constraints sets (11) and (12) compute the waiting time at port i, necessary to ensure feasibility of arriving at the next port of call. Constraints set (13) calculate a vessel departure time from port i. Constraints set (14) estimate hours of late arrival at port i. Constraints sets (15) and (16) ...
Article
Full-text available
The fluctuating demand of international seaborne trade, overcapacity, and increasing attention to environmental issues force liner shipping companies to improve efficiency of their operations, while complying with the established emissions limitations. This paper proposes a mathematical model for the green vessel scheduling problem, imposing constraints on emissions produced by a vessel at each voyage leg of the liner shipping route. The original mixed integer non-linear mathematical model is linearized and solved efficiently using CPLEX. Numerical experiments are conducted to demonstrate changes in the vessel schedule that a liner shipping company has to make for a given shipping route, when emissions constraints are imposed.
... Although regional road and aviation transportation carbon pricing policies, including carbon trading and carbon taxes, are implemented in various countries and regions across the world, such as the European Union (EU), Western Climate Initiative regions (Led by California and Quebec), New Zealand, and some of China's pilot areas [9,10], the enactment of carbon pricing legislation in the maritime sector has been complex. Due to regional differences, regional trade protection, administrative challenges, and the issue of carbon leakage, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) suspended discussions on maritime carbon pricing in 2013 [11][12][13][14][15]. In 2018, carbon pricing, also known as market-based measures (MBMs), was incorporated into the IMO's future medium-term initiatives, with a possible global rollout expected by 2030 [16]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Recent military acts in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are forcing merchant ships to reroute, thereby driving up international shipping rates, prolonging delivery dates, and causing additional greenhouse gas emissions. Utilizing the European Union (EU) Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification emissions database and real time Automatic Identification System data, this study conducted frequency analysis and causative investigation on container ships circumnavigating the Cape of Good Hope. The findings indicate that the current policy framework under the EU Emissions Trading System (EU-ETS) poses a higher risk of carbon leakage, particularly for medium and small-sized container ships, thereby undermining the effectiveness of the nascent EU maritime carbon pricing. If the crisis continues, combined with anticipated tighter emission regulations, this risk is expected to escalate. International maritime policy administrators should make timely adjustments in response to the chain reactions caused by war, enhancing the robustness of cross-regional carbon pricing.
... There is good evidence to suggest that the location where fuel is purchased does not reliably represent where the fuel is used. For example, allocation to nations based on fuel sales results in considerable discrepancies with other emissions allocation methodologies (Entec, 2005;Gilbert & Bows, 2012;Heitman & Khalilian, 2011). ...
Thesis
The shipping industry is heavily reliant on the use of fossil fuel and contributes significantly to global emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter (PM) resulting in deleterious impacts upon the climate, human health and the environment. A large proportion of global fishing and other small commercial vessels (< 100 GT) are omitted from global shipping emissions inventories, leading to potentially significant underestimation of emissions from the shipping sector. Effective quantification of shipping emissions requires quality data and sophisticated methods. This thesis introduces a new method for the calculation of emissions inventories for small commercial vessels that utilises Automatic Identification System (AIS) data, a highquality source of activity data for modelling atmospheric emissions from ships. The methodology offers a novel approach to activity sampling for modelling the emissions of vessels that cannot be directly matched to AIS data. A new speed calculation methodology based on the AIS data is also developed. An approach is also introduced for the detection of pushing and towing operations of vessels such as dredgers and trawlers in order that corrected engine load estimates can be applied for these operations. A case study emissions inventory for the year from May 2012 to May 2013 is calculated for UK fishing vessels. This is compared with the annual emissions calculated using a fuel-based methodology. Fuel use calculated using the activity-based methodology is 270.8 kt, which is slightly higher than the fuel-based methodology which yielded results of 251.8 kt. The activity-based method produced a CO2 emissions estimate of 864.3 kt, compared to 803.3 kt for the fuel-based approach. An analysis of uncertainty and sensitivity shows that activity sampling and emission factor uncertainty produce significant but unbiased uncertainty in results. However, uncertainties in values used to parameterise engine load calculation are found to generate potentially significant bias in results, highlighting the importance of calibrating model input parameters to ensure that sensible results are produced. Overall uncertainties in fuel use and emissions calculated using the activity-based method are found not to exceed ±6% at the 95% confidence interval. The close alignment of the results of the fuel-based and activity-based methods and the relative stability of results shown by the uncertainty analysis indicates that an AIS-based methodology with activity sampling is a viable approach for the calculation of emissions from small commercial vessels. The finding that 43.5% of UK fishing fleet emissions are produced by small vessels (< 100 GT) supports the claim that omitting these vessels from emissions inventories could lead to a significant underestimation of shipping emissions.
... This makes it difficult for shipping carbon emission reduction to form a global unified policy. Heitmann and Khalilian (2011) proposed the best way to allocate international shipping emissions within the UNFCCC system is to allocate them to all parties according to the nationality of the transport company, or the country where the ship is registered or the operator is located. ...
Article
Full-text available
The carbon emission of shipping industry accounts for about 3% of the global total. With the continuous growth of international trade, the decarbonization and carbon neutralization of shipping industry has become an important direction for future development. New technologies, fuels and operational measures can help reduce the industry’s greenhouse gas emissions, but without appropriate laws and policies, it will be difficult to achieve the targets set by the industry. Therefore, this paper reviews the decarbonization laws and policies introduced by International Maritime Organization, the European Union and the national levels. Then, this paper reviews the literature from two aspects: applicability and evaluation of laws and policies, improvement of laws and policies. On this basis, we summarize the challenges of shipping in formulating laws and policies and suggestions for improving them. Among them, the most important problem is the coordination between unilateral regulation and uniform regulation. Finally, this paper proposes the development principles based on shipping decarbonization laws and policies, that is, to comply with the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities”, to coordinate the relationship between international trade and international environmental protection, and to guarantee technical assistance to developing countries.
... The global environmental pollution caused by the large number of ships and their exhaust emissions has attracted extensive attention from governments, industry associa-Sustainability 2021, 13, 13901 3 of 18 tions and academia, and corresponding regulatory departments and related green shipping policies have emerged at this historical moment. Nadine [22] argued that if no regulatory measures are implemented, carbon dioxide emissions from international shipping, which are currently unregulated, will increase significantly. Lee [23] analyzed the impact of a shipping carbon tax on the global economy and believed that China would suffer the greatest loss in real GDP. ...
Article
Full-text available
The shipping industry is an important indicator of economic development, and it is closely related to economic growth. At present, China’s economy has moved from a high-speed growth stage to a high-quality development stage. The popularization of the green shipping concept also creates higher requirements for sustainable economic development. The core innovation point of this paper is to construct an index system of green shipping and economic growth in China, and to measure the coupling coordination degree and relative development degree of the two through the comprehensive development index in the form of overall and regional division. This is rarely covered in the existing literature. By constructing an index system for green shipping and economic growth, this paper calculates a comprehensive development index for the two systems and studies the degree of coupling coordination and relative development of the comprehensive system. The results show that, first, during the observation period, the comprehensive system of green shipping and economic growth in China has maintained a growth trend, rising from a near imbalance to a good coordination level, and the two have developed into a synchronous state. Second, the development of the Yangtze River Delta has been relatively rapid, closely followed by that of the Pearl River Delta, while the Bohai Rim area has seen the slowest development. Since 2010, China’s comprehensive system of 11 coastal provinces has mostly left the imbalanced state and it entered the coordination state by 2019. The results of the study provide some suggestions for the coordinated development of green shipping and economic growth.
... Benhelal et al. (2013) and Andres et al. (2012) reported that 1 ton production of cement contains 900 kg of CO 2 which accounts for 5-7% of global carbon emission, which is directly responsible for global warming. Therefore, in order to reduce the carbon emission, the world has come together and signed the Bali agreement and the Kyoto protocol under the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (Skutsch and Trines, 2008) and (Heitmann and Khalilian, 2011). In this agreement, member countries are intended to develop substitute mechanism of production in response to counter carbon emission. ...
Article
Full-text available
A paradigm shift is observed in the production of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) due to its high carbon emission worldwide and the need for adopting sustainability in construction industry. For the same, newer practices have been proposed, which includes the production of sustainable cement whose escalating demand is associated with utilization of different supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). These SCMs, act as a key component in sustainable construction by emitting lesser carbon. This review endeavors to critically examine the role of different SCMs obtained from industrial by-products, natural minerals and agricultural wastes likes blast furnace slag, silica fume, calcined kaolin, calcined dead burnt magnesite, Ye'elimite, Anhydrite and sugarcane ash in producing sustainable cement and discusses their hydration reactivity at microstructural level. Insights derived from different published research work shows the formation of strength compounds like C–S–H and C-A-S-H which are responsible for improved engineering properties.
... In recent studies, the estimated CO 2 amount is 943.5 million tones [5] and around 1 billion tones, which corresponds to 2-4 % of total CO 2 production worldwide [6]. It is also estimated that shipping related CO 2 emissions will have a share of 12-18 % of total CO 2 production by 2050 [7]. Recent estimations indicate that the amount of shipping related NO x emissions are around 6.87 Tg [8] and it is also estimated that shipping is responsible for approximately 15% of total NO x production [9]. ...
... While energy data are collated as to which country sells bunker fuels, this is very poorly related to which country has responsibility for the combustion of those fuels. Various methods have been proposed to allocate these emissions, such as to the country whose flag a ship operates under, or that which the owner of the ship is a tax resident in, or those that operate the ship, of even those who purchase the goods borne by the ship (Heitmann and Khalilian, 2011). However, none of these are clearly superior to the others, and they can result in very different distributions of these emissions. ...
Article
Full-text available
Since the first estimate of global CO2 emissions was published in 1894, important progress has been made in the development of estimation methods while the number of available datasets has grown. The existence of parallel efforts should lead to improved accuracy and understanding of emissions estimates, but there remains significant deviation between estimates and relatively poor understanding of the reasons for this. Here I describe the most important global emissions datasets available today and – by way of global, large-emitter, and case examples – quantitatively compare their estimates, exploring the reasons for differences. In many cases differences in emissions come down to differences in system boundaries: which emissions sources are included and which are omitted. With minimal work in harmonising these system boundaries across datasets, the range of estimates of global emissions drops to 5 %, and further work on harmonisation would likely result in an even lower range, without changing the data. Some potential errors were found, and some discrepancies remain unexplained, but it is shown to be inappropriate to conclude that uncertainty in emissions is high simply because estimates exhibit a wide range. While “true” emissions cannot be known, by comparing different datasets methodically, differences that result from system boundaries and allocation approaches can be highlighted and set aside to enable identification of true differences, and potential errors. This must be an important way forward in improving global datasets of CO2 emissions. Data used to generate Figs. 3–18 are available at 10.5281/zenodo.3687042 (Andrew, 2020).
... In practice, historical emissions, income level, emissions per capita, and current emissions are the four main indicators that are considered in designing a burden-sharing scheme (Carlsson et al., 2013). Previous studies have shown that there is no burden-sharing rule that is compatible with all three evaluation principles Heitmann and Khalilian, 2011). The burden-sharing scheme used in the CP3 is based on responsibility and capacity to pay, which is similar to the "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities" (Dellink et al., 2009). ...
... Various methods 30 have been proposed to allocate these emissions, such as to the country whose flag a ship operates under, or that https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2020-34 which the owner of the ship is a tax resident in, or those that operate the ship, of even those who purchase the goods borne by the ship (Heitmann and Khalilian, 2011). However, none of these is clearly superior to the others, and they can result in very different distributions of these emissions. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Abstract. Since the first estimate of global CO2 emissions was published in 1894, important progress has been made in the development of estimation methods while the number of available datasets has grown. The existence of parallel efforts should lead to improved accuracy and understanding of emissions estimates, but there remains significant deviation between estimates and relatively poor understanding of the reasons for this. Here I describe the most important global emissions datasets available today and – by way of global, large-emitter, and case examples – quantitatively compare their estimates, exploring the reasons for differences. In many cases differences in emissions come down to differences in system boundaries: which emissions sources are included and which are omitted. With minimal work in harmonising these system boundaries across datasets, the range of estimates of global emissions drops to 5 %, and further work on harmonisation would likely result in an even lower range, without changing the data. Some potential errors were found, and some discrepancies remain unexplained, but it is shown to be inappropriate to conclude that uncertainty in emissions is high simply because estimates exhibit a wide range. While true emissions cannot be known, by comparing different datasets methodically, differences that result from system boundaries and allocation approaches can be highlighted and set aside to enable identification of true differences, and potential errors. This must be an important way forward in improving global datasets of CO2 emissions. Data used to generate figures 4–19 are available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3687042 (Andrew, 2020).
... Indeed, CO 2 emissions caused by shipping represent only 2-4% of the global emissions [3]. Unfortunately, the ratio of shipping related CO 2 emissions is expected to increase up to 12-18% by 2050 according to the study carried out by [4]. The 2018 International Maritime Organization (IMO) targets for lowand zero-emission shipping aspire to reduce the total annual greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions by at least 50% by 2050 over 2008 levels and phase them out, as soon as possible in this century. ...
Article
Full-text available
An exergy based analysis is carried out for waste heat recovery from a marine Diesel engine using various layouts of organic Rankine cycles (ORCs) for driving a vapor compression refrigeration cycle. The ORC layouts studied are a simple organic Rankine cycle (ORC), an organic Rankine cycle with internal heat exchanger (RORC) and a serial cascade ORC cycle (SCORC). In addition to the well-known fluid R134a, two hydrocarbon-based refrigerants, namely butane (R600) and isobutane (R600a), are considered in the present study. It is found that sensible improvements are attained using the cascade ORC and the ORC with internal heat exchanger configurations compared to simple ORC under certain conditions. This improvement depends on both the heat source temperature and the working fluid considered. Moreover, the results indicate that R600 as working fluid has the best performance from a thermodynamic point of view. Finally, though R600, a pure hydrocarbon, is completely accepted by the environment, more attention should be paid to its flammability.
... Auctions could be applied to improve stability confidence for CO2 prices (Grubb and Neuhoff, 2006). The use of ship movement data would be chosen to assess the actual miles of a counsuch data is not applicable for researchers for now (Heitmann and Khalilian, 2011). ...
Article
Full-text available
Although the amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from maritime transport is very low amongst total anthropogenic emissions, reducing shipping related airborne emissions has become an important topic for policy-makers during last decades. Emission Trading Scheme (ETS), which is introduced by Kyoto Protocol, is a cap & trade system used to reduce GHGs by promoting the economic competitiveness. ETS policies should include maritime transport and should develop accounting approaches within the framework of financial reporting standards to increase the applicability of financial instruments notable for their complexity. The aim of this study is to examine the applicability of ETS policies to the Turkish maritime sector and the impact of ETS on financial reporting. A comprehensive review based on the literature has shown that it is necessary to implement emission trading considering international standards for international sectors and it is important to prepare national policies accordingly in order to avoid pressure factors in national economies and not to avoid international harmonization in financial reporting.
... Many argue that these avoidance opportunities render regional taxation of maritime emissions infeasible (e.g. Mishra and Yeh 2011;Keen et al. 2011Keen et al. , 2013Heitmann and Khalilian 2011;Miola et al. 2011). Indeed, an attempt to introduce a maritime fuel tax in Port of Long Beach/California has failed (Mishra and Yeh 2011) and ever since served as a striking counter-argument against unilateral taxation of maritime fuels. ...
Article
Many academics and policymakers agree that implicit tax subsidies for maritime fuels — which are currently granted around the world — are inefficient, but that their abolishment requires a unanimous international agreement. Such an agreement is deemed indispensable because any unilateral action would be impossible due to massive tax competition in this industry, competitiveness effects and the legal limits on regulating an industry operating mostly in international waters, thus outside of any state’s jurisdiction. However, an international agreement to solve these problems has proven impossible to reach, thus resulting in the conservation of the status quo. To break this deadlock, we propose a mechanism whereby a small coalition of countries, to start with, can abolish these implicit tax subsidies even in the absence of an international agreement. This incentive-compatible scheme solves the above-mentioned issues. The mechanism is furthermore designed to avoid locking in a sub-global scheme. Instead, it has the potential to contribute to unlocking the gridlock in negotiations over a global agreement on this matter.
... Because of concerns for the air quality in harbors and port cities, the emissions from ships have recently received more attention. For details on CO 2 emissions from shipping activities and their mitigation, see Fitzgerald et al. (2011), Villalba and Gemechu (2011), Cadarso et al. (2010), Geerlings and van Duin (2011), Heitmann and Khalilian (2011), Schrooten et al. (2009. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Transportation of people and of goods plays an important role in modern life. It is a major source of anthropogenic CO2. This chapter, after introducing some fundamentals of natural climate fluctuations as described by Milankovitch cycles, describes the causes and consequences of man-made climate change and the motivation for increased fuel efficiency in transportation systems. To this end, contemporary and future ground-based and air-based transportation technologies are discussed. It is shown that concepts that were already given up, such as turbine-driven cars, might be worthwhile for further studies. Alternative fuels such as hydrogen, ethanol and biofuels, and alternative power sources, e.g., compressed air engines and fuel cells, are presented from various perspectives. The chapter also addresses the contribution of CO2 emissions of the supply chain and over the entire life cycle for different transportation technologies.
... Findings indicated that vessel type and size significantly influenced the quantity of emissions produced. Heitmann and Khalilian (2011) studied different CO 2 emission allocation options and considered the following factors: possibility of implementation, effectiveness, burden sharing and fairness. Results from the analysis suggested that emission allocation must be conducted on basis of the operating company. ...
Article
Full-text available
Purpose Emissions produced by oceangoing vessels not only negatively affect the environment but also may deteriorate health of living organisms. Several regulations were released by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to alleviate negative externalities from maritime transportation. Certain polluted areas were designated as “Emission Control Areas” (ECAs). However, IMO did not enforce any restrictions on the actual quantity of emissions that could be produced within ECAs. This paper aims to perform a comprehensive assessment of advantages and disadvantages from introducing restrictions on the emissions produced within ECAs. Two mixed-integer non-linear mathematical programs are presented to model the existing IMO regulations and an alternative policy, which along with the established IMO requirements also enforces restrictions on the quantity of emissions produced within ECAs. A set of linearization techniques are applied to linearize both models, which are further solved using the dynamic secant approximation procedure. Numerical experiments demonstrate that introduction of emission restrictions within ECAs can significantly reduce pollution levels but may incur increasing route service cost for the liner shipping company. Design/methodology/approach Two mixed-integer non-linear mathematical programs are presented to model the existing IMO regulations and an alternative policy, which along with the established IMO requirements also enforces restrictions on the quantity of emissions produced within ECAs. A set of linearization techniques are applied to linearize both models, which are further solved using the dynamic secant approximation procedure. Findings Numerical experiments were conducted for the French Asia Line 3 route, served by CMA CGM liner shipping company and passing through ECAs with sulfur oxide control. It was found that introduction of emission restrictions reduced the quantity of sulfur dioxide emissions produced by 40.4 per cent. In the meantime, emission restrictions required the liner shipping company to decrease the vessel sailing speed not only at voyage legs within ECAs but also at the adjacent voyage legs, which increased the total vessel turnaround time and in turn increased the total route service cost by 7.8 per cent. Research limitations/implications This study does not capture uncertainty in liner shipping operations. Practical implications The developed mathematical model can serve as an efficient practical tool for liner shipping companies in developing green vessel schedules, enhancing energy efficiency and improving environmental sustainability. Originality/value Researchers and practitioners seek for new mathematical models and environmental policies that may alleviate pollution from oceangoing vessels and improve energy efficiency. This study proposes two novel mathematical models for the green vessel scheduling problem in a liner shipping route with ECAs. The first model is based on the existing IMO regulations, whereas the second one along with the established IMO requirements enforces emission restrictions within ECAs. Extensive numerical experiments are performed to assess advantages and disadvantages from introducing emission restrictions within ECAs.
... While information on the size of physical trade is more limited, Dittrich and Bringezu (2010) estimate that between 1970 and 2005, the physical tonnage of international trade grew from 5.4 to 10 Gt. Statistics on CO 2 emissions associated with international shipping support these findings (Heitmann and Khalilian, 2011); international shipping has grown at a rate of 3.1 % per annum for the past three decades (Eyring et al., 2010), and there is evidence of a recent acceleration in seaborne trade suggesting that trade, measured in ton-miles has increased by 5.2 % per annum (on average) between 2002 and 2007. This is further supported by van Renssen (2012), who observes a doubling of shipping and aviation emissions between 1990 and 2010. ...
... IMO estimated that the CO 2 emissions are about one billion tons in 2012 (IMO 2014). It is predicted that the ratio of shipping related CO 2 emissions in global amount will be increase to 12-18 % in 2050 (Heitmann and Khalilian 2010). Nitrogen oxides include nitrogen dioxide (NO x ) and nitrogen oxide (NO). ...
Chapter
Shipping runs the major part of world trading with a ratio of over 90 %. The great carrying capacity of ships makes them indispensable elements of transportation of goods. In addition to economical concern, ships are very important actors for pleasure and military purposes. Due to their great benefits, shipping activities are responsible for considerable amount of emissions and wastes in various forms such as solid, liquid and gaseous. Most of the air emissions are produced during the operation phase. It is estimated that there 450 different types of emissions to air due to the internal combustion process in ship engines’. The most important emissions are carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), oxides of sulfur (SOx), volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) and particulate matter (PM). Due to the nonignorable, positive and proved harmful effects of these emissions to global warming, all alternative reducing techniques must be considered. In this study, twobulk carriers, which use the same route, are compared in terms of emission production to air. Two scenarios are designed. In first scenario, Ship A, which is 80,000 DWT, voyages the same route with full load to reach a total 80,000 DWT cargo. In second scenario, Ship B, which is 40,000 DWT, voyage the same route with Ship A, two times to reach a total 80,000 DWT. Thus, the optimum way to carry the load is determined in terms of emissions.
... The analysis showed that international transport emissions due to outsourcing have reached a significant level so that they can no longer be overlooked on the pretext of the difficulty in accurately calculating them. Moreover, emissions are likely to continue to increase dramatically in the absence of a policy designed to mitigate emissions (Heitmann & Khalilian, 2011). There will be undoubtedly challenges in implementing a carbon tax on international emissions. ...
Chapter
This chapter discusses sustainability in supply chains. It starts with a review of the concepts of sustainability and supply chain management; provides a discussion on the globalization of supply chains, its influence on sustainability, benefits of sustainable supply chains followed by the factors affecting the sustainability of supply chains, challenges in integrating sustainability into supply chains and managerial implications. It discusses the influence of supply chains on the triple bottom line. Examples of major factors affecting environmental and social sustainability include travel distances, modes of transportation, vessels used, frequency of trips, packaging materials, efficiencies of manufacturing processes, efficiencies in power generation/distribution, treatments given to polluted air/water generated during various processing from industries, expected product lifetime, manufactured quality of items, management of items failed during warranty or transportation, and the management of disposal of items, among others. The chapter concludes with a future research agenda.
... The analysis showed that international transport emissions due to outsourcing have reached a significant level so that they can no longer be overlooked on the pretext of the difficulty in accurately calculating them. Moreover, emissions are likely to continue to increase dramatically in the absence of a policy designed to mitigate emissions (Heitmann and Khalilian, 2011). There will be undoubtedly challenges in implementing a carbon tax on international emissions. ...
Article
Purpose: This paper highlights the importance and need to include carbon emissions from international transport in the sourcing decisions of corporate organizations and the calculation of National Emissions Inventories (NEI). Design/methodology/approach: The paper proposes a method of attributing emissions from international transportation in global supply chains and calculating their impact on the economic sustainability of corporate organizations through a carbon price. Findings: An application of the original model developed in this paper showed that international transport emissions can have an important effect on NEIs. An example of the imports of manufactured items from China and Germany to the USA showed a 3% increase in emissions from manufacturing activities in the USA. Research limitations/implications: Introducing carbon pricing on international transport emissions is expected to motivate corporate leaders to include emissions from international transport as a factor in their sourcing decisions. Practical implications: Inclusion of international transport emissions along with the imposition of a carbon tax are designed to act as disincentives to generating emissions from supply chain activities. It is argued that the implementation of the model may provide long-term benefits associated with reduced emissions and a level playing field to organizations which use efficient technologies in manufacturing. Social implications: It is recognized that the implementation of a carbon tax on international transport emissions may face resistance from several stakeholders, including governments of exporting countries, corporations, and customers due to an increase in cost. Originality/value: This paper provides an original method to include emissions from international transport in supply chain decisions.
... Chang and Wang [19] conduct a thorough assessment of available operating strategies to identify the approach to speed reduction that is best able to minimize costs and reduce the impact of shipping on the environment. Heitmann and Khalilian [20] propose various options suggested by the subsidiary body for scientific and technological advice of the UNFCCC for allocating CO 2 emissions from international shipping to individual countries investigated. Lun et al. [21] propose and empirically validate an integrated model to study how various environmental governance mechanisms are enacted by shipping firms and their influence on shipping firms' environmental performance. ...
Article
Full-text available
The Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions due to transport operations have drastically increased in recent years. The sea transport in particular contributes 2.7 to 3 percent of CO 2 , a major component of GHG emissions globally. Numerous measures have been undertaken locally and internationally to alleviate the sea transport share of Greenhouse Gases. However, most of these measures will be fruitful if ship investors (e.g., ship owners and operators) would fully employ the GHG emission reduction strategies. Due to the scarcity of the statistical data in this respect, this study therefore presents a rough set synthetic assessment (RSSA) model to GHG emission abatement strategies in the Tanzanian shipping sector. The results of the assessment reveal that the Tanzanian shipping companies engaged in Cabotage trade are aware of the abatement strategies and moderately apply them.
... This places heavy challenges on the industry. The estimated share of CO 2 emissions from shipping in the total global anthropogenic CO 2 emissions was about 3.3% in the 2000s [1]. Taking into account the projected increase in the volume of shipping, the emissions from global shipping operations will rise by 20-60% by 2050. ...
Article
Full-text available
The rapid Arctic summer sea ice reduction in the last decade has lead to debates in the maritime industries on the possibility of an increase in cargo transportation in the region. Average sailing times on the North Sea Route along the Siberian Coast have fallen from 20 days in the 1990s to 11 days in 2012–2013, attributed to easing sea ice conditions along the Siberian coast. However, the economic risk of exploiting the Arctic shipping routes is substantial. Here a detailed high-resolution projection of ocean and sea ice to the end of the 21st century forced with the RCP8.5 IPCC emission scenario is used to examine navigability of the Arctic sea routes. In summer, opening of large areas of the Arctic Ocean previously covered by pack ice to the wind and surface waves leads to Arctic pack ice cover evolving into the Marginal Ice Zone. The emerging state of the Arctic Ocean features more fragmented thinner sea ice, stronger winds, ocean currents and waves. By the mid 21st century, summer season sailing times along the route via the North Pole are estimated to be 13–17 days, which could make this route as fast as the North Sea Route.
... The estimated CO 2 emissions caused by global shipping in 2007 is 943.5 million tons [10], and according to a report, the amount of CO 2 emissions are estimated around 1 billion tons; in the same report, it is calculated that shipping is responsible for 2-4 % of global CO 2 emissions [11]. It is predicted that the ratio will increase to 12-18 % in 2050 [12]. The amount of carbon dioxide is strongly dependent on fuel consumption. ...
Article
Ships have an indispensable role in trading and transportation. Due to the growth of population and the new demands of the growing economies, the need for shipping but also its harmful effects are increasing and emission problems will grow further in the future. The main harmful effects caused by shipping are carbon dioxide (Co2), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), oxides of sulfur (SOx), particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and black carbon (BC). The emissions have global effects on the health of a large number of people, especially those living in cities with a harbour. Although emissions caused by shipping are comparatively small, they must be in focus. With the increasing importance of global warming and social awareness, ship manufacturing industry should behave in parallel with the new rules. International organizations, such as International Maritime Organization (IMO), and several governments brought strict rules to reduce the emissions to an acceptable level. Besides, innovative and effective technologies are developed by some companies under the support of international organizations and national authorities. In this study, we aimed to investigate the current regulations and emission reduction technologies. Annual emission footprint estimation is calculated in order to remark the potential danger of shipping emissions. Two methodologies are used for calculations, namely, fuel consumption approach and engine power approach. Emission factors are taken from three different studies. In fuel consumption approach, the total emission amounts were 10115.7 and 9213.7 tons (according to Cooper and Gustafsson [35] as well as Eyring et al. [18] emission factors). For engine power approach, three different results are reached: 11503.1, 11191.2 and 11546.4 tons of Cooper and Gustafsson [35], Eyring et al. [18] and CALEPA [36] emission factors.
... International shipping accounts for more than 80% of world trade by volume (UNCTAD, 2009a,b) and approximately 3% of global CO 2 emissions from fuel combustion although CO 2 emissions are expected to increase two-to threefold by 2050 (Heitmann and Khalilian, 2010; WGIII AR5 Section 8.1). Changes in shipping routes (Borgerson, 2008) and variation in the transport network due to shifts in grain production and global markets, as well as new fuel and weather-monitoring technology, may alter these emission patterns (WGIII AR5 Sections 8.3, 8.5). ...
... In this part, we mainly discuss this value for different types of containers. In general, the containers can be divided into different types as shown in Table 4 (Hanjin 2014). The attributes of each container applied in the calculation are as follows: max gross weight (A1), size of the container in cube meters (A2), additional power requirement (A3), and the assumed freight rate on an Asia-Euro shipping line for a nonempty container which we use to represent the economic value of contain cargo (A4). ...
Article
Full-text available
The purpose of emission allocation is to distribute emissions from a transport network level to different cargo levels. This task can be challenging in a complex network with various players, multiple legs, different cargo types, etc. One example is container shipping involving multiple ports, containers with different characteristics, and empty containers for repositioning. In this paper, we propose and evaluate alternative allocation schemes for assigning emissions in container shipping at different cargo aggregation levels, such as sailing legs, individual containers, or specific cargo types as part of a container. A case study illustrates how these schemes can be applied to a real container shipping line. The proposed approach provides insight that shipping companies and their customers can use to improve their environmental performance.
... Because of concerns for the air quality in harbors and port cities, the emissions from ships have recently received more attention. For details on CO 2 emissions from shipping activities and their mitigation, see Fitzgerald et al. (2011), Villalba and Gemechu (2011), Cadarso et al. (2010), Geerlings and van Duin (2011), Heitmann and Khalilian (2011), Schrooten et al. (2009. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Transportation of people and of goods plays an important role in modern life. It is a major source of anthropogenic CO2. This chapter, after introducing some fundamentals of natural climate fluctuations as caused by Milankovitch cycles, describes the causes and consequences of manmade climate change and the motivation for increased fuel efficiency in transportation systems. To this end, contemporary and future ground-based and air-based transportation technologies are discussed. It is shown that concepts that were already given up, such as turbine-driven cars, might be worthwhile for further studies. Alternative fuels such as hydrogen, ethanol and biofuels and alternative power sources, e.g. compressed air engines and fuel cells, are presented from various perspectives. The chapter also addresses the contribution of CO2 emissions of the supply chain and over the entire life cycle for different transportation technologies.
Article
The transportation of freight by land, sea and air underpins the complex network of global trade in physical commodities. Greenhouse gas emissions from freight transportation are a significant component of global emissions and are predicted to grow in coming decades. However, the inclusion of freight transport in emissions accounts and environmental impact studies is often incomplete. Both data availability and difficulties in allocating freight emissions to specific commodity trades contributes to this. In this study, international freight movements by transport mode are estimated from the bottom-up by imputing global freight transport routes. Emissions are estimated from these freight movements and integrated with a global multiregional input–output model. This enables the calculation of carbon footprints that are complete with respect to freight emissions. We estimate that global freight transport emissions contributed 2.8 Gt CO2-equiv in 2012, or about 41% of total transport emissions. In general, freight footprints contribute about 9% to national emissions footprints. While trade in physical commodities (such as construction materials, food and fossil fuels) are associated with the largest embodied freight emissions, services (such as public administration, education and health) also require significant freight transport. Using a consumption-based allocation of freight transport emissions allows the decarbonisation of other sectors to be complementary to the decarbonisation of transport through reduction in demand, for example through material efficiency strategies. To drive decarbonisation in maritime transport it is critical to include bunker emissions in national emissions inventories, thereby completing the system boundary.
Article
Deep-sea mining (DSM) will be highly energy-intensive and produce myriad emissions, including greenhouse gases (GHG). By and large, the emissions arising from DSM activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction (‘The Area’) do not yet fall within the remit of any international agreement and are thus unregulated. To close this gap, two incisive steps need to be taken. First, States must decide under which international regime(s) they want to regulate GHG-emissions from DSM operations (forum choice). Second, they must select the means to mitigate emissions (instrument choice). Forum and instrument choice should be decided in tandem as forum choice tends to influence instrument choice and vice versa. We explore the various possibilities and argue that the International Seabed Authority (ISA) is the most suitable forum, as it could implement a harmonized and targeted approach for this unique sector. We recommend that the ISA commission a technical study to assess the amount of GHG emissions expected to arise from DSM activities in the Area and evaluate the costs and benefits of implementing and enforcing various policy instruments. Such an exercise is both urgently needed and timely, particularly as the ISA is currently formulating the rules for mineral exploitation.
Chapter
The central issue of the ‘commons’ is considered and how its characteristics manifested in the maritime and outer space contexts impact their governance in similar ways. Central are the issues of nation-states and property, the definition of boundaries, the indistinction of ownership and the consequential Tragedy of the Commons. The importance of privatisation, commercialisation and consequential exploitation of maritime and outer space is considered. This raises issues of extra-terrestrialism, the environment, aliens and colonialisation. The role of global institutions such as the UN is discussed as are those of major nation-states involved in the seas and outer space including the USA, Russia, the UK and a range of newly involved countries including India and China. The highly significant contribution of Ostrom to the consideration of governance and the commons is reviewed in the light of fishing, climate, clean air, satellite debris, warfare, disaster relief, mineral resource exploitation and over-population. Other issues related to the governance of the commons include jurisdiction, territory and enclosure and all of these placed in a polycentric context. Floating cities the World Lakes Concept, freedom of the seas, free-riding, adaptive governance, regime theory, framing and floating states also feature.
Article
In the global effort to reduce Green House Gases and carbon emissions, there is great importance for the shipping industry to decarbonise and move forward into a greener future. However, there is a lack of academic commentary on how attempts at various decarbonisation methods reported in research articles have developed over the 21st century, particularly in line with the relevant policy and regulatory developments. This paper analyses how the shipping industry has decarbonised by utilising 294 papers from 2000 to 2020. By analysing 20 years’ worth of research, this paper delivers a comprehensive review of shipping decarbonisation research and analyses the evolution of its themes as a function of time. It therefore aids to develop a greater understanding and comparison of governmental, economic and academic perspectives (and their potential alignment) for the industry to decarbonise. For 2017–20 the key shipping decarbonisation technologies were summarised and their advantages, disadvantages and current academic literature applications are revealed. Furthermore, the analysis of the evolution of shipping decarbonisation research themes reveals clear research gaps in the current literature and guides the development of a future research agenda with the prediction of future opportunities and potential for shipping decarbonisation research developments for the shipping industry.
Preprint
Full-text available
Supply chain management plays an important role in ensuring an efficient merchandise trade. Freight transportation is an integral part of supply chain management. A significant part of freight transportation is covered by maritime transportation, as the largest portion of the global merchandise trade, in terms of volume, is carried out by maritime transportation. Liner shipping, which runs on fixed routes and schedules, plays a colossal role for the global seaborne trade. Liner shipping companies deal with three decision levels, namely strategic level, tactical level, and operational level. The strategic-level decisions are taken for more than six months to several years. The tactical-level decisions are effective for three months to six months. Moreover, the operational level decisions are taken for a couple of weeks to less than three months.This dissertation involves the tactical-level decisions in liner shipping, which include: (1) service frequency determination; (2) fleet deployment; (3) sailing speed optimization; and (4) vessel scheduling. The service frequency determination problem deals with determining the time headway between consecutive vessels along a liner shipping route. The fleet deployment problem assigns vessels from the liner shipping company’s fleet (and sometimes, from other liner shipping companies’ fleets) to liner shipping routes. The sailing speed optimization problem deals with selecting sailing speeds along different voyage legs of a given port rotation. The vessel scheduling problem lists the schedules (e.g., arrival time, handling time, departure time) at different ports.A comprehensive review of the liner shipping literature revealed that the existing literature on the tactical-level decisions focused on these problems individually. Solutions from different solution methodologies for the separate problems may have compatibility problems. Moreover, they are not attractive to the liner shipping companies, who look for integrated solutions. Hence, this research aimed to develop a combined mathematical model that comprises the four tactical-level decisions in liner shipping (i.e., service frequency determination, fleet deployment, sailing speed optimization, and vessel scheduling). This mathematical model is named the Holistic Optimization Model for Tactical-Level Planning in Liner Shipping (HOMTLP).The objective of the HOMTLP mathematical model is to maximize of the total profit from transport of cargo. The major route service cost components, found from the literature, are covered by the model, which include: (I) total late arrival cost; (II) total port handling cost; (III) total fuel consumption cost; (IV) total vessel operational cost; (V) total vessel chartering cost; (VI) total container inventory cost in sea; (VII) total container inventory cost at ports of call; (VIII) total emission cost in sea; and (IX) total emission cost at ports of call. Along with the integration of all four tactical-level decisions, the mathematical model has a number of key advantages. First, the model provides flexibility to both the liner shipping company and the marine container terminal operators, as it offers multiple time windows and handling rates at each port of call. Second, the payload carried by the vessels is considered while estimating fuel consumption. Third, the preference of customers is reflected by modification of the container demand at different sailing speeds. Fourth, container inventory is accounted for at ports of call and in sea. Fifth, emissions of different harmful substances are captured in order to preserve the environment.This dissertation carried out a set of numerical experiments to test the performance of the HOMTLP model, where BARON was used as the solution approach. It was revealed that when there was an increase in the unit fuel cost, the unit emission cost, vessel availability, the unit late arrival cost, and the unit freight rate, the sailing speed was reduced. On the other hand, when there was an increase in the unit inventory cost, the unit operational cost, as well as the unit chartering cost, the sailing speed was increased. Moreover, the total required number of vessels was increased, when there as an increase in the unit fuel cost, the unit emission cost, vessel availability, the unit late arrival cost, and the unit freight rate. On the contrary, the total required number of vessels was decreased, when there was an increase in the unit inventory cost, the unit operational cost as well as the unit chartering cost. It was also revealed that the total profit was increased, when more choices were available for time windows and/or container handling rates. The numerical experiments highlighted several other findings. Most importantly, it was found that the HOMTLP model can provide effective tactical-level decisions. Hence, the mathematical model can assist liner shipping companies to take tactical-level decisions, which are effective and profitable.
Technical Report
Full-text available
The Port of Rotterdam is one of the pioneers in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. It is the largest port in Europe and extends over 40 kilometres to the North Sea coast. Its ambitious goal: the port wants to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from its industrial cluster as well as from freight traffic to a large extent. For the study "Deep Decarbonisation Pathways for Transport and Logistics Related to the Port of Rotterdam" the Wuppertal Institute analysed available options for the maritime as well was hinterland transports on behalf of the Rotterdam Port Authority. The 2050 scenarios by the Wuppertal Institute show that decarbonisation will significantly change both, volume and structure of the transported goods - which add to the on-going trend from bulk to container transport. This will have considerable structural effects on port operations and in particular on hinterland traffic. A comprehensive decarbonisation (>95 per cent) will require significant efficiency improvements through operational and technical measures and the switch to non-fossil fuels, as well as a strong shift of container transport from road transport to rail and inland navigation. For maritime shipping to and from Rotterdam two feasible pathways towards full decarbonisation by 2050 are presented. Both include a stepwise shift towards renewable electricity based energy carriers for ships (liquids and gaseous for long distances and hydrogen and electricity for shorter distances). Finally the report derives a set of recommendations for the Port Authority as well as the Dutch, German and European policymakers to support the transition towards a drastic reduction of greenhouse gase (GHG) emissions from in the transport sector and for using this as a strategy for a sustainable economic development.
Thesis
Full-text available
Over 80% of the global trade tonnage and 70% of global trade value are carried by oceangoing vessels around the world. However, vessel routing and scheduling is a challenging exercise in liner shipping because of uncertainties that may affect the planned operations. Delays caused by uncertainties, such as weather, natural hazards, labor strikes, and others, increase the complexity of liner shipping, related to schedule adherence and reliability of service. In the event of a delay, liner shipping companies take decisions to recover the schedule, aiming to deliver cargoes in a timely manner. Vessel operators may decide to increase the sailing speed of the ship, which will further increase bunker fuel consumption and the total operational cost of liner shipping operations. The vessel schedule recovery problem becomes even more difficult if the delay is large. The contributions of this dissertation to the state-of-the-art are as follows: 1) a set of operational-level vessel schedule recovery models in liner shipping; 2) the vessel schedule recovery models for the liner shipping routes that pass through Emission Control Areas; 3) consideration of multiple vessel schedule recovery alternatives (e.g., port skipping with and without cargo diversion, speed adjustment, handling rate adjustment); 4) application of the appropriate solution approaches for solving the vessel schedule recovery problem; 5) identification of the key factors that may influence vessel schedule recovery; and 6) presentation of the managerial insights and benefits of the developed vessel schedule recovery optimization models.
Article
Full-text available
Global shipping activity emits 938 million tonnes of carbon dioxide annually, surpassing the eighth highest emitting country. Although the impacts from the shipping industry have been investigated over the past three decades, allocating responsibilities remains a difficult issue. Numerous parties should share the responsibility and quantitative analysis is therefore required when considering the interaction between the global economy, shipping and ecological connectivity. Here, beginning with our shipping emission inventory model based on satellite-observed vessel activities, we evaluated trade-embodied shipping emissions and their impacts on human health. Combined with international trade databases, we traced shipping impacts back to responsible bilateral trade and proposed an integrated trade–shipping–air quality–health impact nexus. Quantitative analysis shows that the US–China bilateral trade is responsible for 2.5% of the global shipping carbon dioxide emissions and 4.8% of ship-related global premature deaths caused by air pollution. Our research provides the methodology to allocate intercontinental responsibilities to trade pairs and ships.
Chapter
Seeing the black smoke coming out of the funnel of a manoeuvring ship makes it easy to understand that the ship’s propulsion contributes to the emission of air pollutants. However, there is more than meets the eye going up in smoke. A vast majority of ships use fossil fuels, increasing a positive net contribution of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere when they are combusted. Because the fuels that are used are often of low quality and possess a high sulphur content, a number of other air pollutants are also emitted. Emissions to the air from ships include greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide), sulphur and nitrogen oxides, with both acidifying and eutrophication effects, and different forms of particles, with impacts on health and climate. However, not all emissions to the atmosphere from ships originate from the combustion of fuels for propulsion and energy production. The handling of crude oil as cargo and compounds used in refrigeration systems cause emissions of volatile organic compounds and ozone-depleting substances. The sources of the most important emissions and relevant regulations are described in this chapter.
Chapter
Full-text available
This study is focused on the natural gas production in the pre-salt area, in Brazil, where much of the expansion of the Brazilian oil industry is projected to occur. The oil production is based on a previous study, which indicates that in 2050 the pre-salt oil production can reach up to 3,160,000 bpd, and the total Brazilian oil production can be up to 3,765,000 bpd. Simulations were made to try to estimate the natural gas production for the period between 2015 and 2050. One great challenge of the petroleum production in this area is to deal with the large amount of CO2 present in these fields. This study considered Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) as a mitigating option for the CO2 that would be emitted during the petroleum extraction. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is recognised as a technology capable of reducing the large-scale emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), which is an important part of the portfolio of alternatives necessary to achieve significant reductions in the global emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG). This study identified that the most suitable carbon capture method for the platforms (Floating Production, Storage, and Offloading (FPSOs)) that will operate in Brazil’s pre-salt fields is the use of membranes. Based on this capture method (membranes), the UOP Separex™ module system is selected as the standard to be tested. It is a compact module that can be installed on FPSOs. Because there remains considerable uncertainty over the precise amount of CO2 present in the natural gas from the pre-salt fields, a wide range, between 10 and 45 %mol of CO2 content was considered. The membrane area for each module was considered to be equal for both 10 %mol and for 45 %mol of CO2. The results show that in 2050, the gas production in the pre-salt region can be around 35,000 Mm3 per year, considering that the amount of CO2 in the natural gas is 10 %mol. However, it can be up to 20,000 Mm3 when considering that the amount of CO2 present in the natural gas is around 45 % mol.
Chapter
Transportation of people and of goods plays an important role in modern life. It is a major source of anthropogenic CO2. This chapter, after introducing some fundamentals of natural climate fluctuations as caused by Milankovitch cycles, describes the causes and consequences of manmade climate change and the motivation for increased fuel efficiency in transportation systems. To this end, contemporary and future ground-based and air-based transportation technologies are discussed. It is shown that concepts that were already given up, such as turbine-driven cars, might be worthwhile for further studies. Alternative fuels such as hydrogen, ethanol and biofuels and alternative power sources, e.g., compressed air engines and fuel cells, are presented from various perspectives. The chapter also addresses the contribution of CO2 emissions of the supply chain and over the entire life cycle for different transportation technologies.
Article
Full-text available
This work investigates the carbonation of KOH-dissolved methanol and ethanol solution systems carried out for CO_2 fixation. Potassium methyl carbonate (PMC) and potassium ethyl carbonate (PEC) were synthesized during the reaction in each solution as the solid powder, and they were characterized in detail. The amount of CO_2 chemically absorbed to produce the PMC and PEC precipitates were calculated to be 97.90% and 99.58% of their theoretical values, respectively. In addition, a substantial amount of CO_2 was physically absorbed in the solution during the carbonation. PMC precipitates were consisted of the pure PMC and KHCO_3 with the weight ratio of 5:5, respectively. PEC precipitates were also mixture of the pure PEC and KHCO_3 with the weight ratio of 8:2, respectively. When these two precipitates were dissolved in excess water, methanol and ethanol were regenerated remaining solid KHCO_3 in the solutions. Therefore, the process has the potential to be one of the efficient options of CCS and CCU technologies.
Thesis
Full-text available
• In this work an energy efficient and technically feasible propulsion system, capable of satisfying IMO's EEDI (CO2 emission) regulation for ships, was investigated in Star-CCM+, as demonstrated in a R&D project, initiated by the seventh frame work of European commission. • Increasing the propeller diameter together with low rotational speed reduces axial and rotational losses, thereby propulsive efficiency can be improved. Apart from improved propulsive efficiency, if it is axially moved aft wards, improvement of other factors such as hull efficiency, suction on the hull and wake profile can been gained. The increased clearance reduces the pressure pulses transferred to the hull. These concepts have been successfully demonstrated in this work. • An extensive analysis is made in the CFD code Star-CCM+, with a series of self propulsion tests, for the chosen locations and propellers by moving it systematically aft.
Article
Full-text available
Emission generated by the international merchant fleet has been suggested to represent a significant contribution to the global anthropogenic emissions. To analyze the impacts of these emissions, we present detailed model studies of the changes in atmospheric composition of pollutants and greenhouse compounds due to emissions from cargo and passenger ships in international trade. Global emission inventories of NOx, SO2, CO, CO2, and volatile organic compounds (VOC) are developed by a bottom-up approach combining ship-type specific engine emission modeling, oil cargo VOC vapor modeling, alternative global distribution methods, and ship operation data. Calculated bunker fuel consumption is found in agreement with international sales statistics. The Automated Mutual-assistance Vessel Rescue system (AMVER) data set is found to best reflect the distributions of cargo ships in international trade. A method based on the relative reporting frequency weighted by the ship size for each vessel type is recommended. We have exploited this modeled ship emissions inventory to estimate perturbations of the global distribution of ozone, methane, sulfate, and nitrogen compounds using a global 3-D chemical transport model with interactive ozone and sulfate chemistry. Ozone perturbations are highly nonlinear, being most efficient in regions of low background pollution. Different data sets (e.g., AMVER, The Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (COADS)) lead to highly different regional perturbations. A maximum ozone perturbation of approximately 12 ppbv is obtained in the North Atlantic and in the North Pacific during summer months. Global average sulfate loading increases with 2.9%, while the increase is significantly larger over parts of western Europe (up to 8%). In contrast to the AMVER data, the COADS data give particularly large enhancements over the North Atlantic. Ship emissions reduce methane lifetime by approximately 5%. CO2 and O3 give positive radiative forcing (RF), and CH4 and sulfate give negative forcing. The total RF is small (0.01–0.02 W/m2) and connected with large uncertainties. Increase in acidification is 3–10% in certain coastal areas. The approach presented here is clearly useful for characterizing the present impact of ship emission and will be valuable for assessing the potential effect of various emission-control options.
Article
Full-text available
International shipping is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and is under mounting pressure to contribute to overall GHG emission reductions. There is an ongoing debate regarding how much the sector could be expected to reduce emissions and how the reduction could be achieved. This paper details a methodology for assessing the cost-effectiveness of technical and operational measures for reducing CO2 emissions from shipping, through the development of an evaluation parameter called the Cost of Averting a Tonne of CO2-eq Heating, CATCH, and decision criterion, against which the evaluation parameter should be evaluated. The methodology is in line with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and with regulatory work on safety and environmental protection issues at the International Maritime Organization (IMO).The results of this study suggest that CATCH
Article
Full-text available
In 1997, the 3rd conference of parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change adopted the Kyoto Protocol as a consequence of increasing evidence of a manmade global warming of the atmosphere. Binding greenhouse gas emission reduction targets for industrialised countries were agreed upon. However, bunker fuel emissions from international shipping have so far been excluded from any commitment in the protocol. After looking at the magnitude of emissions from international shipping and likely trends, we make suggestions how shipping can be integrated into policies to control greenhouse gas emissions. The objective of policy instruments has to be the introduction of an effective and efficient stimulus for environmentally sound operational and technical improvements on existing and new ships. Consequently, the best solution would be for IMO to agree on a global shipping emissions target that would be comparable to targets of industrialised countries. However, for the time being, the introduction of a CDM type mechanism would be a promising step into the right direction.International Journal of Maritime Economics (2002) 4, 164–184 doi:10.1057/palgrave.ijme.9100038
Article
Full-text available
1] Marine vessel inventories demonstrate that ship emissions cannot be neglected in assessing environmental impacts of air pollution, although significant uncertainty in these inventories remains. We address this uncertainty by employing a bottom-up estimate of fuel consumption and vessel activity for internationally registered fleets, including cargo vessels, other commercial vessels, and military vessels. We identify model bias in previous work, which assumed internationally registered ships primarily consume international marine fuels. Updated results suggest fuel consumption is 289millionmetrictonsperyear,morethantwicethequantityreportedasinternationalfuel.Accordingtoouranalysis,fuelusedbyinternationallyregisteredfleetsisapparentlyallocatedtobothinternationalanddomesticfuelstatistics;thisimplieseitherthatshipsoperatealongdomesticroutesmuchofthetimeorthatmarinefuelsalestotheseshipsmaybemisassigned.Iftheformeristrue,thenallocationofemissionstointernationalshippingroutesmayunderestimatenearcoastalemissionsfromships.Ourupdatedinventoriesincreasespreviousshipemissionsinventoriesforallpollutants;forexample,globalNOxemissions(289 million metric tons per year, more than twice the quantity reported as international fuel. According to our analysis, fuel used by internationally registered fleets is apparently allocated to both international and domestic fuel statistics; this implies either that ships operate along domestic routes much of the time or that marine fuel sales to these ships may be misassigned. If the former is true, then allocation of emissions to international shipping routes may underestimate near-coastal emissions from ships. Our updated inventories increases previous ship emissions inventories for all pollutants; for example, global NO x emissions (6.87 Tg N) are more than doubled. This work also produces detailed sensitivity analyses of inputs to these estimates, identifying uncertainty in vessel duty-cycle as critical to overall emissions estimates. We discuss implications for assessing ship emissions impacts.
Article
Emission generated by the international merchant fleet has been suggested to represent a significant contribution to the global anthropogenic emissions. To analyze the impacts of these emissions, we present detailed model studies of the changes in atmospheric composition of pollutants and greenhouse compounds due to emissions from cargo and passenger ships in international trade. Global emission inventories of NOx, SO2, CO, CO2, and volatile organic compounds (VOC) are developed by a bottom-up approach combining ship-type specific engine emission modeling, oil cargo VOC vapor modeling, alternative global distribution methods, and ship operation data. Calculated bunker fuel consumption is found in agreement with international sales statistics. The Automated Mutual-assistance Vessel Rescue system (AMVER) data set is found to best reflect the distributions of cargo ships in international trade. A method based on the relative reporting frequency weighted by the ship size for each vessel type is recommended. We have exploited this modeled ship emissions inventory to estimate perturbations of the global distribution of ozone, methane, sulfate, and nitrogen compounds using a global 3-D chemical transport model with interactive ozone and sulfate chemistry. Ozone perturbations are highly nonlinear, being most efficient in regions of low background pollution. Different data sets (e.g., AMVER, The Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (COADS)) lead to highly different regional perturbations. A maximum ozone perturbation of approximately 12 ppbv is obtained in the North Atlantic and in the North Pacific during summer months. Global average sulfate loading increases with 2.9%, while the increase is significantly larger over parts of western Europe (up to 8%). In contrast to the AMVER data, the COADS data give particularly large enhancements over the North Atlantic. Ship emissions reduce methane lifetime by approximately 5%. CO2 and O3 give positive radiative forcing (RF), and CH4 and sulfate give negative forcing. The total RF is small (0.01-0.02 W/m2) and connected with large uncertainties. Increase in acidification is 3-10% in certain coastal areas. The approach presented here is clearly useful for characterizing the present impact of ship emission and will be valuable for assessing the potential effect of various emission-control options.
Article
Shipping activity has increased considerably over the last century and currently represents a significant contribution to the global emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases. Despite this, information about the historical development of fuel consumption and emissions is generally limited, with little data published pre-1950 and large deviations reported for estimates covering the last 3 decades. To better understand the historical development in ship emissions and the uncertainties associated with the estimates, we present fuel-based CO2 and SO2 emission inventories from 1925 up to 2002 and activity-based estimates from 1970 up to 2000. The global CO2 emissions from ships in 1925 have been estimated to 229 Tg (CO2), growing to about 634 Tg (CO2) in 2002. The corresponding SO2 emissions are about 2.5 Tg (SO2) and 8.5 Tg (SO2), respectively. Our activity-based estimates of fuel consumption from 1970 to 2000, covering all oceangoing civil ships above or equal to 100 gross tonnage (GT), are lower compared to previous activity-based studies. We have applied a more detailed model approach, which includes variation in the demand for sea transport, as well as operational and technological changes of the past. This study concludes that the main reason for the large deviations found in reported inventories is the applied number of days at sea. Moreover, our modeling indicates that the ship size and the degree of utilization of the fleet, combined with the shift to diesel engines, have been the major factors determining yearly fuel consumption. Interestingly, the model results from around 1973 suggest that the fleet growth is not necessarily followed by increased fuel consumption, as technical and operational characteristics have changed. Results from this study indicate that reported sales over the last 3 decades seems not to be significantly underreported as previous simplified activity-based studies have suggested. The results confirm our previously reported modeling estimates for year 2000. Previous activity-based studies have not considered ships less than 100 GT (e.g., today some 1.3 million fishing vessels), and we suggest that this fleet could account for an important part of the total fuel consumption (˜10%).
Article
THE ultimate goal of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change is to achieve "stabilization of greenhouse-gas concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system". With the concentration targets yet to be determined, Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change developed a set of illustrative pathways for stabilizing the atmospheric CO2 concentration at 350, 450, 550, 650 and 750 p.p.m.v. over the next few hundred years1,2. But no attempt was made to determine whether the implied emissions might constitute a realistic transition away from the current heavy dependence on fossil fuels. Here we devise new stabilization profiles that explicitly (albeit qualitatively) incorporate considerations of the global economic system, estimate the corresponding anthropogenic emissions requirements, and assess the significance of the profiles in terms of global-mean temperature and sea level changes. Our findings raise a number of important issues for those engaged in climate-change policy making, particularly with regard to the optimal timing of mitigation measures.
Article
Seagoing ships emit exhaust gases and particles into the marine boundary layer and significantly contribute to the total budget of anthropogenic emissions. We present an emission inventory for international shipping for the past five decades to be used in global modeling studies with detailed tropospheric chemistry. The inventory is a bottom-up analysis using fuel consumption and fleet numbers for the total civilian and military fleet including auxiliary engines at the end of 2001. Trend estimates for fuel mass, CO2, NOx, and other emissions for the time between 1950 and 2001 have been calculated using ship number statistics and average engine statistics. Our estimate for total fuel consumption and global emissions for the year 2001 is similar to previous activity-based studies. However, compared to earlier studies, a detailed speciation of nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) and particulate matter is given, and carbon monoxide emissions are calculated explicitly. Our results suggest a fuel consumption of approximately 280 million metric tons (Mt) for the year 2001 and 64.5 Mt in 1950. This corresponds to 187 (5.4) Tg CO2 (NOx) in 1950, and 813 (21.4) Tg CO2 (NOx) in 2001. From 1970 to 2001 the world-merchant fleet increased rapidly in terms of ship numbers, with a corresponding increase in total fuel consumption. The fuel consumption estimates are compared against historical marine bunker fuel statistics, and our emission estimates are related to emission budgets of other transport modes. Global ship emissions are distributed geographically according to global vessel traffic densities of the AMVER (Automated Mutual-assistance Vessel Rescue system) data set for the year 2000. This work also sets the basis to develop future emission scenarios based on average-fleet emission indices in part 2 of this study.
Article
The Kyoto Protocol envisage the setting-up of flexibility mechanisms allowing Annex B countries to fulfil their commitments to reducing greenhouse gases with respect for the principle of economic efficiency. The current negotiations relate in particular to the possibility of setting up a system of tradable emissions permits for Annex B countries and also of introducing “ceilings” to trade. This paper analyses the stakes and economic potential of adopting this instrument, both for those countries that made commitments in Kyoto and for developing countries. It is based on a formal approach that allows for a consistent framework of analysis. The emission permit market, is, in fact, simulated on the basis of a reference scenario and of marginal abatement cost curves and estimated by the POLES model; after analysing these marginal abatement cost curves and comparing them with those produced by other models, we explore two different configurations for a competitive market: a market limited to the Annex B countries and a world market. The results produced by the model show that widening the market to include developing countries is more effective than the Annex B market solution; it reduces the cost of implementing Kyoto for OECD countries and at the same time allows the countries of the South to benefit from selling the permits. This research also shows that introducing restrictions on exchanges for Annex B countries could have a counter-productive redistribution effect, with the ethical argument that underlies that particular measure.
Article
World Development Indicators, the World Bank's respected statistical publication presents the most current and accurate information on global development on both a national level and aggregated globally. This information allows readers to monitor the progress made toward meeting the goals endorsed by the United Nations and its member countries, the World Bank, and a host of partner organizations in September 2001 in their Millennium Development Goals. The print edition of World Development Indicators 2005 allows you to consult over 80 tables and over 800 indicators for 152 economies and 14 country groups, as well as basic indicators for a further 55 economies. There are key indicators for the latest year available, important regional data, and income group analysis. The report contains six thematic presentations of analytical commentary covering: World View, People, Environment, Economy, States and Markets, and Global Links.
Article
We present a global bottom-up ship emission algorithm that calculates fuel consumption, emissions, and vessel traffic densities for present-day (2006) and two future scenarios (2050) considering the opening of Arctic polar routes due to projected sea ice decline. Ship movements and actual ship engine power per individual ship from Lloyd's Marine Intelligence Unit (LMIU) ship statistics for six months in 2006 and further mean engine data from literature serve as input. The developed SeaKLIM algorithm automatically finds the most probable shipping route for each combination of start and destination port of a certain ship movement by calculating the shortest path on a predefined model grid while considering land masses, sea ice, shipping canal sizes, and climatological mean wave heights. The resulting present-day ship activity agrees well with observations. The global fuel consumption of 221 Mt in 2006 lies in the range of previously published inventories when undercounting of ship numbers in the LMIU movement database (40,055 vessels) is considered. Extrapolated to 2007 and ship numbers per ship type of the recent International Maritime Organization (IMO) estimate (100,214 vessels), a fuel consumption of 349 Mt is calculated which is in good agreement with the IMO total of 333 Mt. The future scenarios show Arctic polar routes with regional fuel consumption on the Northeast and Northwest Passage increasing by factors of up to 9 and 13 until 2050, respectively.
Article
The waterway network ship traffic, energy, and environment model (STEEM) is applied to geographically characterize energy use and emissions for interport ship movement for North America, including the United States, Canada, and Mexico. STEEM advances existing approaches by (i) estimating emissions for large regions on the basis of nearly complete data describing historical ship movements, attributes, and operating profiles of individual ships, (ii) solving distances on an empirical waterway network for each pair of ports considering ship draft and width constraints, and (iii) allocating emissions on the basis of the most probable routes. We estimate that the 172 000 ship voyages to and from North American ports in 2002 consumed about 47 million metric tonnes of heavy fuel oil and emitted about 2.4 million metric tonnes of SO2. Comparison with port and regional studies shows good agreement in total estimates and better spatial precision than current top-down methods. In quantifying limitations of top-down approaches that assume existing proxies for ship traffic density are spatially representative across larger domains, we find that International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (ICOADS) proxy data are spatially biased, especially at small scales. Emissions estimated by STEEM for ships within 200 nautical miles of the coastal areas of the United States are about 5 times the emissions estimated in previous studies using cargo as a proxy.
Article
Ship activity patterns depicted by the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (ICOADS), the Automated Mutual-Assistance Vessel Rescue System (AMVER) data set, and their combination demonstrate different spatial and statistical sampling biases. These differences could significantly affect the accuracy of ship emissions inventories and atmospheric modeling. We demonstrate (using ICOADS) a method to improve global-proxy representativeness by trimming over-reporting vessels that mitigates sampling bias, augment the sample data set, and account for ship heterogeneity. Apparent underreporting to ICOADS and AMVER by ships near coastlines, perhaps engaged in coastwise (short sea) shipping especially in Europe, indicates that bottom-up regional inventories may be more representative locally. Primarily due to the long time series available publicly for ICOADS data, the improved ICOADS data set may be the most appropriate global ship traffic proxy identified to date to be used for a top-down approach. More generally, these three spatial proxies can be used together to perform uncertainty analyses of ship air-emissions impacts on a global scale (http://coast.cms.udel.edu/GlobalShipEmissions/).
Source: Own calculations based on IEA
  • Buhaug
Source: Own calculations based on IEA [26], Buhaug et al.
Left on the High Seas: Global Climate Policies for International Transport
  • J Faber
Faber J., Rensma K., 2008. Left on the High Seas: Global Climate Policies for International Transport. October 2008 update. Delft: CE Delft. /http://www. ce.nl/publicatie/left_on_high_seas/846S. N. Heitmann, S. Khalilian / Marine Policy 35 (2011) 682–691
Pathways to Low Carbon Shipping: Abatement Potential Towards 2030. DNV (Det Norske Veritas)
  • S Alvik
  • Eide Ms
  • Ø Endresen
  • P Hoffmann
  • Longva
Alvik S, Eide MS, Endresen Ø, Hoffmann P, Longva T. Pathways to Low Carbon Shipping: Abatement Potential Towards 2030. DNV (Det Norske Veritas); 2010 /http://www.dnv.com/binaries/Pathways_to_low_carbon_shipping_tcm4;-420 472_tcm4-428628.pdfS.
Technical Support for European action to Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from International Maritime Transport
  • J Faber
  • A Markowska
  • Davidson D M Nelissen
  • V Eyring
  • I Cionni
  • K E P Selstad
  • D Lee
  • Ø Buhaug
  • Roche H P Lindtsad
  • Humpries E J Graichen
  • Cames M Schwarz
Faber J, Markowska A, Nelissen D, Davidson M, Eyring V, Cionni I, Selstad E, K ˚ ageson P, Lee D, Buhaug Ø, Lindtsad H, Roche P, Humpries E, Graichen J, Cames M, Schwarz W. Technical Support for European action to Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from International Maritime Transport. Delft: CE Delft; 2009 /http://www.ce.nl/publicatie/technical_support_for_europea n_action_to_reducing_greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_international__mari time_transport/1005S.
Data on Owner, Operator, and Flag State Registration
  • Isl
ISL. Data on Owner, Operator, and Flag State Registration. Bremen: Institute of Shipping Economics and Logistics (ISL); 2008.
Why international transport needs a sectoral approach Beyond Bali—Strategic Issues for the Post-2010 Climate Change Regime. Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies
  • ˚ Ahman
˚ Ahman M. Why international transport needs a sectoral approach. In: Egenhofer C, editor. Beyond Bali—Strategic Issues for the Post-2010 Climate Change Regime. Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies; 2008. p. 146–55.
Aviation and Maritime Transport in a Post 2012 Climate Policy Regime Bilthoven: Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency
  • J Faber
  • Berk B M Boon
  • M Elzen
  • J Olivier
  • Lee
Faber J, Boon B, Berk M, den Elzen M, Olivier J, Lee D. Aviation and Maritime Transport in a Post 2012 Climate Policy Regime. Report 500102 008. Bilthoven: Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency; 2007 /http:// www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/500102008.pdfS.
How to integrate international aviation and shipping into a global emissions trading system Beyond Bali—Strategic Issues for the Post-2010 Climate Change Regime. Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies
  • L Zetterberg
Zetterberg L. How to integrate international aviation and shipping into a global emissions trading system. In: Egenhofer C, editor. Beyond Bali—Strategic Issues for the Post-2010 Climate Change Regime. Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies; 2008. p. 156–62. (Chapter 12).
Maritime Transport and the Climate Change Challenge
  • E S Vagslid
Vagslid, E. S. (2009). Maritime Transport and the Climate Change Challenge (IMO), 2009, reproduced by UNCTAD secretariat 2009: http://www.unctad.org/sections/wcmu/docs/cimem1p04_en.pdf
CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion
IEA (2009). CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion, 2009 Edition. Paris: IEA.
Why International Transport Needs a Sectoral Approach Beyond Bali – Strategic Issues for the Post-2010 Climate Change Regime
  • M Åhman
Åhman, M. (2008). Why International Transport Needs a Sectoral Approach. In C. Egenhofer (ed.), Beyond Bali – Strategic Issues for the Post-2010 Climate Change Regime. Ch. 11, pp. 146-155. Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies.
Shipping Statistics Yearbook Bremen: Institute of Shipping Economics and Logistics (ISL)
ISL (2008): Shipping Statistics Yearbook 2008. Bremen: Institute of Shipping Economics and Logistics (ISL).
Review of maritime transport
UNCTAD (2009). Review of maritime transport. Geneva: UNCTAD.
National Communication of the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, FCCC/SBSTA
SBSTA (1996a): National Communication of the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, FCCC/SBSTA/1996/9/Add.1, 24 th October 1996
WTO Law and International Emissions Trading: Is there Potential for Conflict? Carbon and Climate Law Review
  • C Voigt
Voigt, C. (2008). WTO Law and International Emissions Trading: Is there Potential for Conflict? Carbon and Climate Law Review 2(1), 52-64.
Aviation and maritime transport in a post 2012 climate policy regime
  • J Faber
  • B Boon
  • M Berk
  • M Den Elzen
  • J Olivier
  • D Lee
Faber, J., Boon, B., Berk, M., den Elzen, M., Olivier, J., Lee, D. (2007). Aviation and maritime transport in a post 2012 climate policy regime. Report 500102 008. Bilthoven: Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/500102008.pdf