Content uploaded by Karl Grammer
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Karl Grammer
Content may be subject to copyright.
Strangers meet: Laughter and nonverbal signs of interest in opposite-sex encounters
Abstract
When strangers of the opposite-sex meet for the first time, both sexes are in a difficult situation. In this high risk situation, neither person knows the intention of the other, and consequently non-verbal signalling becomes the major channel for communication. Because of their higher biological risk, females should prefer less obvious tactics in order to communicate interest in a potential partner than males. The tactical task of signalling clearly, but at the same time subtly, is solved by the use of multifunctional or metacommunicative signals. In this study we propose that there is not one single meaning for any given signal. In laughing loudly we find a signal which consists of acoustical, mimical and postural information. In this way either laughter can send a this is play message or its meaning can be modified by other signals. Thus laughter, together with its accompanying body postures and movements, conveys messages that range from sexual solicitation to aversion, depending on which and how many different signals are present. Males seem to communicate interest for the female during laughter with only a few signals, such as body orientation and dominance signals. In contrast, females communicate interest via numerous signals which function as signals of bodily self-presentation and submission. In both sexes, a lack of interest is communicated through closed postures.
... Additionally, Vettin and Todt (2004) note no differences between genders in both casual conversations and experimental debriefings. On the other hand, Grammer (1990) finds that women usually produce more laughter than men as speakers, and Provine (1993Provine ( , 2001 finds that women also produce consistently high amounts of speaker laughter. More recently, McLachlan (2022) suggests that gendered laugh patterns may depend on the social context; men appear as likely to laugh as women in playful discussions, but women are more likely to laugh in more serious discussions often involving differences in status. ...
... Additionally, it is not solely the gender of the Frontiers in Communication 03 frontiersin.org speaker that determines the amount of laughter they produce, but the interaction between the gender of both interlocutors (Jefferson, 2004;Rieger, 2009) along with social functions such as expressing attraction or the desire to be attractive, among others (Grammer, 1990;Rathcke and Fuchs, 2022). In order to understand the social nature of laughter in these interactions, we analyze the acoustic characteristics of the laughter in conjunction with its conversational context in the current study. ...
... Whether or not there are actually differences in how often men and women generally laugh is somewhat debatable. Previous studies in human-human interaction find that there may be no gender differences in how much men and women laugh (Martin and Gray, 1996;Smoski and Bachorowski, 2003a,b;Vettin and Todt, 2004), or alternatively, that women laugh more than men (Grammer, 1990;Provine, 1993Provine, , 2001, though the gender of interlocutor is also important (Jefferson, 2004;Rieger, 2009). We expect to find similar gendered laugh dynamics on the grounds that gendered patterns persist in human-computer interaction (Habler et al., 2019). ...
Laughter is a social behavior that conveys a variety of emotional states and is also intricately intertwined with linguistic communication. As people increasingly engage with voice-activated artificially intelligent (voice-AI) systems, an open question is how laughter patterns during spoken language interactions with technology. In Experiment 1, we collected a corpus of recorded short conversations (~10 min in length) between users (n = 76) and Amazon Alexa socialbots (a voice-AI interface designed to mimic human conversational interactions) and analyzed the interactional and pragmatic contexts in which laughter occurred. Laughter was coded for placement in the interaction relative to various speech acts, as well as for phonetic patterning such as duration and voicing. Our analyses reveal that laughter is most commonly found when the content of Alexa's speech is considered inappropriate for the discourse context. Laughter in the corpus was also largely short in length and unvoiced-characteristics which are commonly associated with negative social valence. In Experiment 2, we found that a separate group of listeners did not distinguish between positive and negative laughter from our dataset, though we find that laughs rated as more positive are also rated as more excited and authentic. Overall, we discuss our findings for models of human-computer interaction and applications for the use of laughter in socialbot conversations.
... The positional relationship between different key points also enables the study of the relationship between the distances from different parts of the body to the painting. In studies about nonverbal behavior, a forward-leaning body posture is a signal related to interest (Grammer, 1990). Similarly, the degree of forward-leaning during free viewing should have a positive correlation with the degree of interest by the viewer. ...
... Not envisioned in the assumptions is that the degree of forward-leaning correlated with aesthetic preferences; both pleasantness and goodness are considered significant at the 5% level. This implies that body language, including posture, can serve as a communication signal for mental states not only in interpersonal interactions (Grammer, 1990) but also in individual activities. It also suggests the experimental setup utilized in this study enables the investigation of posture, thereby facilitating the exploration of its significance. ...
Art viewing in laboratory settings is commonly used to study aesthetic experiences, but has limitations in terms of ecological validity. This experiment is the first of its kind to design an experimental procedure for higher ecological validity regarding free art viewing under laboratory conditions, and investigate the characteristics of moving and viewing while observing paintings in a free-form setting. A previous study found a strong positive correlation between canvas size and viewing distance. As the horizontal human visual field was larger than the vertical, we hypothesized and verified that a longer height requires a greater distance than a longer width for the same canvas area. Further, the relationship between the degree of leaning forward and the observer’s attitude toward the painting was positively correlated. Based on eye-tracking device data, for both large- and small-size paintings, the high entropy areas in the center of the painting attract more attention.
... Small changes in a person's body posture can convey information about a person's internal states, such as their thoughts, feelings, and attitudes, through nonverbal communication (Cazzato et al., 2012;Grammer et al., 2000;Mehrabian, 1969). Previous research has examined how these perceptions of a variety of psychological traits are influenced by changes in body posture such as dominance (Carney et al., 2005(Carney et al., , 2010Pazhoohi, Grammer, et al., 2020;Rule et al., 2012;Vacharkulksemsuk et al., 2016), confidence (Briñol et al., 2009), openness (Latu et al., 2017;Vacharkulksemsuk et al., 2016), and sexual interest (Grammer, 1990;Moore, 1985;Pazhoohi et al., 2018Pazhoohi et al., , 2023Wade et al., 2021). ...
Contrapposto, an asymmetrical twisting of the hips and shoulders, has historically been associated with beauty and aesthetics in art. While the impact of a female con-trapposto posture on perception of attractiveness and visual attention has been studied , its effects on males remain understudied. The current research aims to explore whether contrapposto postures in men influence perceptions of attractiveness, dominance , masculinity, dynamism, and naturalness, as well as visual attention. Two eye-tracking studies were conducted, utilizing images of male models in contrapposto and upright poses. Despite differences in attributions, no significant differences were found in visual attention between the two poses in both initial fixation and prolonged gaze behaviors. Contrapposto was consistently perceived as less dominant, masculine, and natural. These findings suggest a feminizing effect of contrapposto on male body posture, aligning with previous research on female contrapposto. The current research provides insights into the historical and artistic significance of contrapposto while contributing to the understanding of nonverbal communication through body posture.
... Moreover, in natural conversations men initiate humor more than women, while women smile and laugh more, especially in response to men's humor (Mehu & Dunbar, 2008;Provine, 2000;Robinson & Smith-Lovin, 2001). A woman's laughter is an indicator of her romantic interest in the man, while men's laughter does not produce this effect (Grammer, 1990;Grammer & Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1990). Additional evidence from dating ads and dating sites show that women are twice as likely as men to seek a date with a sense of humor and search for a date who will make them laugh, while men are more likely than women to use humor in their ads (or at least try to be funny), and proclaim they will make their date laugh (Smith et al., 1990;Wilbur & Campbell, 2011). ...
This chapter summarizes the theories and research on the evolutionary bases of humor. We aim to explain the potential adaptive value of humor, what functions humor serves, and how a sense of humor can help increase fitness. We will focus our explanations on the two central mechanisms, natural selection and sexual selection, that are deeply rooted in our evolutionary history. Using these mechanisms, we will explore how production and appreciation of humor can contribute to survival and enhance mating success.
Several evolutionary explanations have been offered over the years, starting with Charles Darwin’s view of humor as “tickling of the mind”. The theories vary in scope, with some focusing on a specific aspect of humor or laughter, while others are more comprehensive. Each theory illuminates important tenets of humor, but not all. We will critically review and evaluate the various evolutionary theories, highlighting the strengths and weakness of each, and suggest directions for future research – including exploring humor’s links to other uniquely human capacities like intelligence, creativity, and artistry. Humor is a multifaceted phenomenon, and understanding it requires insights from disparate academic fields. Only a multidisciplinary approach could provide a complete understanding of such a unique human experience.
... Shared laughter creates a positive atmosphere, breaks down barriers, and promotes individual bonding (Romero & Cruthirds, 2006;Bippus et al., 2020). Also, laughter serves as a powerful nonverbal cue, conveying messages such as joy, camaraderie, and agreement, thus enhancing communication and understanding among individuals (Grammer, 1990). The use of humor, particularly among romantic partners, has been linked to increased attraction, relationship satisfaction, and intimacy (Hall et al., 2019). ...
Laugh faces of humans play a key role in everyday social interactions as a pervasive tool of communication across contexts. Humans often vary the degree of mouth opening and teeth exposure when producing these facial expressions, which may depend on who their social partner is (e.g., their gender and age as well as their social relationship), serving this way different functions. Although it was found that laugh faces show evolutionary continuity across humans and non-human great apes according to the Principle of Maximum Parsimony, little is known about the function of laugh face variations from an evolutionary perspective. Hence, the present work examined the morphology of laugh faces in orangutan and chimpanzee dyadic play to test if they are modified with dependence on the playmate’s characteristics (sex, age and social relationship). In total, we analysed over 600 facial expressions of 14 orangutans and 17 chimpanzees by coding the specific muscle activations (Action Units, i.e. AUs) contributing to these expressions, using OrangFACS and ChimpFACS, respectively. Our results suggest that age difference and, to a lesser extent, playmate sex influence laugh face morphology in both taxa, but in opposite ways. While the orangutans of our study seem to expose their upper teeth (with AU10) and to pull the mouth corners (with AU12) more towards weaker partners (younger and female), possibly to communicate non-hostility, the chimpanzees showed both upper and lower teeth exposure (with AU10 and AU16) more often when interacting with the stronger partners (older individuals), possibly to communicate submissiveness. These findings suggest that the ability of humans to modify laugh faces with dependence on social partner characteristics has most likely evolved from pre-existing traits, going back at least to the last common ancestor of today’s great apes, including humans.
This chapter presents the complex concept of love as interpersonal attraction, including componential and phenomenological dimensions. It defines attraction as a constellation of psychological phenomena, including attitudes, emotions, moods, and attachments. The appraisal of an attractive person and a relationship triggers a variety of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes involved in interpersonal attraction.
The chapter also describes what motivates interpersonal attraction, as well as how men and women experience and express attraction to another person. It also presents varieties of interpersonal bonding that involve attraction and attachment between individuals that animals and humans experience, along with corresponding research data.
The last section of this chapter provides a review of the methodologies and methods that researchers have proposed in their studies to describe, explore, and measure love as an interindividual attraction.
How and where do individuals signal their desire to become romantically involved with another person, and who initiates this process? Although this is a theorized transitional stage in relationship-development models, answers to these questions do not currently exist because prior research has focused largely on the sexual-interest phase of human relationships (i.e., flirtation). Four independent samples of cisgender, heterosexual students at three universities (total N = 688) reported on who (man, woman, both) expressed romantic interest first, where it was expressed, and the cues (verbal, nonverbal) that were used. Men and women agreed on who signaled first, where, and the verbal and nonverbal cues that were used by each other. Our discussion focuses on how the expression of romantic interest is not only memorable to men and women, but also different from what has been documented in the literature about flirtation among cis-gender, heterosexual individuals.
There is a class of nonverbal facial expressions and gestures, exhibited by human females, that are commonly labeled “flirting behaviors.” I observed more than 200 randomly selected adult female subjects in order to construct a catalog of these nonverbal solicitation behaviors. Pertinent behaviors were operationally defined through the use of consequential data; these behaviors elicited male attention. Fifty-two behaviors were described using this method. Validation of the catalog was provided through the use of contextual data. Observations were conducted on 40 randomly selected female subjects in one of four contexts: a singles' bar, a university snack bar, a university library, and at university Women's Center meetings. The results indicated that women in “mate relevant” contexts exhibited higher average frequencies of nonverbal displays directed at males. Additionally, women who signaled often were also those who were most often approached by a man: and this relationship was not context specific.I suggest that the observation of women in field situations may provide clues to criteria used by females in the initial selection of male partners. As much of the work surrounding human attraction has involved laboratory studies or data collected from couples in established relationships, the observation of nonverbal behavior in field settings may provide a fruitful avenue for the exploration of human female choice in the preliminary stages of male-female interaction.
ZusammenfassungDer Vergleich von Grußformen, die in sehr verschiedenen Erdgebieten gefilmt wurden, ergibt eine Reihe von verblüffenden Gemeinsamkeiten, die auf eine gemeinsame angeborene Grundlage hinweisen. Als Verhaltensweisen des Distanzgrußes sind wohl das Lächeln, der Augengruß und das Nicken angeboren und als Grußweisen des Kontaktes die Umarmung und der Kuß. Letzterer kommt entgegen weit verbreiteter Ansicht auch bei Kulturen vor, die Nasenreiben als zärtliche Geste verwenden. Viele der Prinzip-Ähnlichkeiten lassen auf angeborene Lerndispositionen schließen.
In the current resurgence of interest in the biological basis of animal behavior and social organization, the ideas and questions pursued by Charles Darwin remain fresh and insightful. This is especially true of The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, Darwin's second most important work. This edition is a facsimile reprint of the first printing of the first edition (1871), not previously available in paperback. The work is divided into two parts. Part One marshals behavioral and morphological evidence to argue that humans evolved from other animals. Darwin shoes that human mental and emotional capacities, far from making human beings unique, are evidence of an animal origin and evolutionary development. Part Two is an extended discussion of the differences between the sexes of many species and how they arose as a result of selection. Here Darwin lays the foundation for much contemporary research by arguing that many characteristics of animals have evolved not in response to the selective pressures exerted by their physical and biological environment, but rather to confer an advantage in sexual competition. These two themes are drawn together in two final chapters on the role of sexual selection in humans. In their Introduction, Professors Bonner and May discuss the place of The Descent in its own time and relation to current work in biology and other disciplines.