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Effects of differential self-monitoring and level of mastery on sports performance: Brain power bowling
Abstract
On the basis of laboratory research on self-regulation, it was hypothesized that positive self-monitoring, more than negative self-monitoring or comparison and control procedures, would improve the bowling averages of unskilled league bowlers (N =60). Conversely, negative self-monitoring was expected to produce the best outcome for relatively skillful league bowlers (N =67). In partial support of these hypotheses, positive self-monitors significantly improved their bowling averages from the 90-game baseline to the 9- to 15-game postintervention assessment (Ximprovement = 11 pins) more than all other groups of low-skilled bowlers; higher skilled bowlers' groups did not change differentially. In conjunction with other findings in cognitive behavior therapy and sports psychology, the implications of these results for delineating the circumstances under which positive self-monitoring facilitates self-regulation are discussed.
... The criteria that present requirements for talent selection in the bowling discipline were determined through bilateral interviews with expert coaches affiliated with the Turkish Bocce, Bowling, and Dart Federation, as well as through studies conducted in the literature on the bowling discipline (Kirschenbaum et al. 1982;Tan et al., 2000;Crust, 2007;Hon et al., 2009;Fuss, 2009;Abdollahipour et al., 2017;Stefopoulos et al., 2020;Petrie, 2020). In this context, as seen in Table 3, four main criteria and their corresponding sub-criteria were identified as the criteria to be used for talent selection in the bowling discipline. ...
... According to our research findings, it is possible to say that cognitive characteristics such as self-control, focusing, and attention level are the most important characteristics according to the parameters that bowling coaches consider by considering cognitive characteristics in the talent process with the analytic hierarchy process. When the findings of researchers who studied various cognitive characteristics in bowling athletes were examined, data that overlapped with our results were found (Kirschenbaum et al., 1982;Crust, 2007;Abdollahipour et al., 2017). The first of these studies is Kirschenbaum et al. (1982). ...
... When the findings of researchers who studied various cognitive characteristics in bowling athletes were examined, data that overlapped with our results were found (Kirschenbaum et al., 1982;Crust, 2007;Abdollahipour et al., 2017). The first of these studies is Kirschenbaum et al. (1982). In this study, the researchers examined the relationship between various cognitive performances and bowling performances of 60 amateurs and 67 professional bowlers. ...
Bu araştırmanın temel amacı bowling disiplininde gerekli kriterleri ortaya koymak, Analitik Hiyerarşi Süreci (AHP) yöntemini kullanarak bu kriterlerin branşa yetenek seçimi açısından önemini belirleyerek, bowling için yetenek seçimine basit bir temel oluşturmaktır. Bu amaçla, 2022 Avrupa Gençler Bowling Şampiyonasına katılan çeşitli ülkelerin milli antrenörlerinin AHP yönteminin temelini oluşturan görüşlerinden yararlanılmıştır. Yapılan ikili karşılaştırmalar sonucunda bowling branşına yönelik yetenek seçiminde ihtiyaç duyulan dört ana kriter arasında bilişsel özellikler en önemli kriter olup, bunu sırasıyla psikososyal özellikler, motorik özellikler ve antropometrik ve fiziksel özellikler takip etmektedir. Ana ölçütlere ilişkin alt ölçütler incelenip bütünleştirildiğinde bilişsel özellikler arasında en yüksek yüzdesel ağırlığa sahip alt kriter öz denetimdir. Buna karşılık en düşük ağırlığa sahip alt kriter problem çözme yeteneğidir. Psikososyal özelliklere ilişkin ağırlık yüzdesi ile en önemli alt kriter özgüven yaklaşımı iken, en az önemli olan alt kriter ise dışa dönük kişilik özelliğidir. Motorik özelliklere ilişkin ağırlık yüzdesi en yüksek olan alt kriter denge ve koordinasyon iken, en düşük ağırlık yüzdesine sahip alt kriter ise anaerobik güçtür. Son olarak antropometrik ve fiziksel özellikler alt kriterlerinden en yüksek ağırlık yüzdesi vücut ağırlığı, en düşük alt kriterler ise deri kıvrımı ve çevre ölçümleridir. Bowling branşında genel olarak yetenek seçiminde en önemli kriterler otokontrol, odaklanma, denge ve koordinasyon olmuştur.
... Tenpin is a popular sport which has a relatively consistent and self-paced format and is considered a closed motor skill (Wang et al. 2013). Research suggests that positive self-monitoring, goal setting, mental imagery, management of emotion and incorporating relaxation in pre-performance and performance routines can have positive effects on performance demonstrated by tenpin bowlers (Gould and Finch 1990;Kirschenbaum et al. 1982;Thomas et al. 1996). For this reason, the purpose of the current study was to investigate the effect of using a MUSE-EEG headset as neurofeedback training device on anxiety and performance in tenpin bowlers'. ...
... Self-regulation via neuro-feedback training is one way of increasing performance by helping athletes in learning to regulate their brain activity and reducing anxiety (Ring et al. 2015). This can be very important for tenpin bowlers as suggested by the literature, that incorporating relaxation and positive self-monitoring can have positive effects on the performance of bowlers (Kirschenbaum et al. 1982;Gould and Finch 1990;Thomas et al. 1996). This study was aimed at investigating the effects of using the EEG-MUSE headset as a neuro-feedback training device on anxiety and performance in tenpin bowlers'. ...
Participation in a sports activity is highly competitive, and self-regulation via neuro-feedback training is one way of increasing performance by helping athletes to control focus and reducing anxiety. A cross-over design randomized, controlled trial was conducted at the tenpin bowling National Training Center, to determine whether the use of a EEG-MUSE neuro-feedback training enhances the performance and reduces the anxiety of tenpin bowlers. Eleven physically healthy tenpin bowlers, aged 15–21 years old were randomly allocated into the two conditions, the control and EEG-MUSE neuro-feedback training. Participants, when received the EEG-MUSE neuro-feedback intervention, obtained higher game score (358 ± 28) as compared to the control (344 ± 23). However, the difference was not significant (p > 0.05). The Revised competitive sport anxiety inventory (CSAI-2R) scores were also not significantly different between both conditions. Short-term neuro-feedback training did not improve bowling performance. A more extended period of neuro-feedback training may be warranted.
... Η θετική αυτοκαταγραφή σε σχέση με την αρνητική έχει παρουσιάσει περισσότερο ευνοϊκά (Litrownik & Freitas, 1980) ή αντικρουόμενα αποτελέσματα (Kantorowitz, Walters & Pezdek, 1978) στις περισσότερες έρευνες. Όσον αφορά το επίπεδο δεξιότητας των αθλητών, οι χαμηλής δεξιότητας αθλητές φαίνεται να ωφελούνται με τη θετική αυτοκαταγραφή (Kirschenbaum et al., 1982;). Τα συμπεράσματα για τους αθλητές υψηλής δεξιότητας παρουσιάζονται αντιφατικά. ...
... Τα συμπεράσματα για τους αθλητές υψηλής δεξιότητας παρουσιάζονται αντιφατικά. Αυτοί μπορεί να ωφελούνται από την αρνητική αυτοκαταγραφή (), ή να μην επηρεάζονται καθόλου (Kirschenbaum et al., 1982). Σταμάτημα σκέψης Ένας σημαντικός τρόπος για να αντιπαρέλθει ο αθλητής τις αρνητικές σκέψεις είναι να προσπαθήσει να τις σταματήσει, πριν αυτές καταφέρουν να επηρεάσουν την απόδοσή του (Weinberg, 1988). ...
The purpose of this study is to present the “self-talk” technique and it’s various applications in sports. Reference is made to the comparison of the positive self-talk and the others cognitive strategies. The techniques that sport psychologists often use to control self-talk are also mentioned here. Finally, there is a brief reference to the studies related to the use of this technique for the rehabilitation from injuries and its combination with other psychological interventions for maximizing performance.
... Researchers examining the potential benefits have suggested that preshot routines have a positive effect on performance. In free throw shooting (Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;Gayton, et a/., 1989;Predebon & Docker, 1992;Lidor, Arnon, & Bronstein, 1999), golf (Crews & Boutcher, 1986a;Boutcher & Crews, 1987), bowling (Irschenbaum, Ordman, Tomarken, & Holtzbauer, 1982), and tennis (Moore, 1986), participants performed better when using preshot routines. ...
This study examined the effects of length and movements of preshot routines on free throw shooting in basketball. 17 members of an intercollegiate men's basketball team attempted 20 free throws in each of four different conditions: (1) normal routine and time, (2) normal routine with altered time, (3) altered routine with normal time, and (4) altered routine with altered time. Free throw performance was measured using an objective 5-poinr scoring system. A multivariate analysis of variance indicated a significant effect for routine. Neither time nor routine by time was significant. Results indicated that altering the movements in the routine had a significant effect on performance while lengthening the time did not.
... The Role Of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy In Improving Athletes' Performance: A Systematic Review With Adherence To Prisma Guidelines regulation has also been used to increase the bowling averages in cricket (Kirschenbaum et al, 1982) where positive self-monitoring was accounted to have more affect as compared to negative selfmonitoring techniques. The effects of CBT had not only been studied on the overall sporting performance but it has remarkable impact on other additional psychological factors that may be known to contribute towards the elevation of the athlete's performance. ...
This systematic review aimed to examine the role of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in enhancing athletes' performance. A comprehensive search was conducted in electronic databases of PubMed, Medline and ScienceDirect, and relevant studies were selected based on predefined inclusion criteria. A total of 10 studies were included in this review, which varied in terms of intervention type, outcome measures, and study design. The results of this review suggested that CBT interventions can be effective in improving athletes' performance by addressing negative thoughts and behaviors related to sports performance, managing stress and anxiety, eating disorders and other psychological conditions by enhancing motivation, self-efficacy and self-regulation. Moreover, CBT interventions can be tailored to target specific areas of cognitive and behavioral functioning that are relevant to individual athletes' needs and goals. It can be concluded that CBT-based interventions are effective in enhancing the athletic performance. Future research should focus on developing and evaluating tailored, athlete-centered CBT interventions with standardized outcome measures to enhance the effectiveness of CBT in improving athletes' performance.
... Lastly, "perceived capability" is used to derive pathways. Not only are character strengths, or activities that make us feel strong, where we are most capability and energy to grow (Kirschenbaum, Ordman, Tomarken, & Holtzbauer, 1982), but also how we can accurately assess the feasibility of pathways. Put simply, an individual may know they have some set of strengths, and manifest a unique pathway that leverages those abilities and exposes them to positive upside throughout the experience. ...
Throughout history, humans have found ways to recycle energy in ways that benefit them and would otherwise be wasted. Examples of this processing include learning to use fire for warmth, light, and cooking or identifying how to redirect the wind to navigate a ship in a preferred direction as opposed to a undetermined random route. Today, leaders can learn how to harvest uncertainty and randomness into tasks that utilize their strengths, as well as those on the team, to fuel optimal business outcomes and well-being for their employees. The author provides two workshop outlines. The first will help leaders correct cognitive distortions and view an uncertain world more objectively. The second workshop will use a validated framework to reframe uncertainty inherent in work tasks as opportunities to utilize strengths that to energize individuals and maximize resources within any organization.
... Athletes have been engaged in self-monitoring practices for a long period of time (Halson 2014), to increase their performances (Kirschenbaum et al. 1982;Saw et al. 2015a), and to support selfawareness and self-regulation in training (Oliver et al. 2010). Self-tracking allows coaches to better tune training loads (Saw et al. 2015b) and reduce the risk of overtraining (Coutts and Cormack 2014). ...
The spread of wearable technologies is paving the way for the mass-scale adoption of self-tracking instruments, which are progressively integrating into different social practices. Among these, sport seems to be a promising domain in which Personal Informatics tools can support individuals in performing their activities and in achieving their situated goals. In this article, we conducted semi-structured interviews with amateur and elite athletes to explore what they seek in their trackers, how such instruments may impact on their “mind”, by affecting their motivation and attention during workouts and races, and how sports data are intertwined with other information pertaining to their lifestyle. On the basis of these findings we discussed three themes that may be relevant for Personal Informatics, also proposing a series of implications for design that may help researchers in designing self-tracking tools for sport.
... Previous research has also shown that positive practices, such as inquiring into what already works and generative conversation, has the potential to enable learning cultures and transformational change (Barrett, 1995;Bushe & Kassam, 2005). The mechanisms for these findings might be explained by e.g. the cognitive psychology research by Kirschenbaum et al. (1982) on how the learning of new skills is accelerated by focusing on success factors rather than on problems, or by the neurology research by Rock & Schwartz (2005) showing that the learning of new habits is enhanced by explicit attention and mental focus. These research pieces add relevance to further investigation of whether positive practices can further accelerate cultural transformation. ...
With increasing pressure on creating more value with fewer resources, many organizations pursue continuous improvement culture and practices in daily operations. In operations management Lean and the Toyota Way have been continuous improvement role models for describing tools and culture. However, the cultural transformation has been reported difficult to achieve. This study investigates how practices in daily operations can be used to purposely support the cultural transformation. During an explorative case study 9 practices were identified and analysed. The study showed that positive practices based on appreciative inquiry and positive psychology were particularly effective in accelerating cultural transformation.
... Aiken 2011Zimmerman, 1986, 1989, 1990 2 Anshel and Porter, 1996;Clearly and Zimmerman, 2001;Jonker et al., 2010;Kirschenbaum et al., 1982;Kitsantas and Zimmerman, 2002;Toering et al., 2009Zimmerman, 2006 Clearly and Zimmerman, 2001;Kitsantas and Zimmerman, 2002;Zimmerman and Pons, 1986, 1990Anshel and Porter, 1996Walters and Hussain, 2014 Anshel 2011Zimmerman, 1986, 1989, 1990 ...
Adequately assessing not only the quantity but also the quality of practice is important for achieving high-level performance among sports athletes. We aimed to develop the Self-Regulation of Learning in Sports Scale based on the Self-Regulation of Learning Self-Report Scale (SRL-SRS; Toering et al., 2012) and to verify its predictive validity in measuring the quality of practice. Five hundred and eight university students belonging to physical activity clubs completed the questionnaire. Exploratory factor analysis showed five subscales with a factor structure similar to the original questionnaire (SRLSRS): planning, self-monitoring, effort, self-efficacy, and evaluation/reflection. Each subscale and fivefactor model was demonstrated to be reliable and valid on reliability and confirmatory factor analyses, respectively. Additionally, we examined the relationship between each subscale score and the actual competition level of students. As a result, international-, national-, and area-level students showed significantly higher scores than prefecture-level students on some subscales, which supports the predictive validity of this scale. Thus, the Self-Regulation of Learning in Sports Scale, incorporating five subscales (37 items), was developed for the measurement of the quality of practice.
... During the late 1970s and the early 1980s, publications in behavioral sport psychology included the following: (a) single-subject evaluations of strategies to improve performance of youth athletes in football, gymnastics, tennis, swimming, soccer, and figure skating, and college athletes in volleyball, baseball, basketball, and soccer (for a review of these studies, see Martin, Thompson, & Regehr, 2004); (b) an insightful book that offered a Skinnerian analysis of the contingencies that deter and promote participation in sports (Dickinson, 1977); (c) articles that described and examined behavioral strategies for coaches of young athletes (e.g., see Martin & Hrycaiko, 1983;Rushall & Smith, 1979;Smith, Smoll, & Curtis, 1979;Smoll, Smith, & Curtis, 1978); and (d) research on cognitive-behavioral strategies for improving athletic performance of adult athletes (e.g., Desiderato & Miller, 1979;Gravel, Lemieux, & Ladouceur, 1980;Kirchenbaum, Ordman, Tomarken, & Holtzbauer, 1982;and Weinberg, Seabourne, & Jackson, 1981). Many of the early studies were contained in a book of readings by Martin and Hrycaiko (1983). ...
The term behavior analysis refers to the scientific study of laws that govern the behavior of human beings and other animals (Pear, 2001). Behavioral sport psychology involves the use of behavior analysis principles and techniques to enhance the performance and satisfaction of athletes and others associated with sports (Martin & Tkachuk, 2000). In this chapter, we trace the early development of the field, highlight five characteristics that tend to be evident in research and current practice in behavioral sport psychology, and summarize nine major areas of application in this field to date.
... Penggunaan self-talk telah dikesan dalam pelbagai jenis sukan seperti bola keranjang (Perkos et al., 2002), kriket (Holt, 2003, hoki ais (Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002), bola sepak (Papaioannou et al., 2004), polo air (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2004), sukan papan luncur (Ming & Martin, 1996), golf (Kirschenbaum et al., 1998;Harvey et al., 2002), tenis (Mamassis & Doganis, 2004), sukan dart (Van Raalte et al., 1995) dan boling (Kirschenbaum et al., 1982). Namun, belum terdapat kajian yang mengkaji penggunaan self-talk dalam permainan futsal setakat ini. ...
... Self-monitoring also has advantages in motor skill acquisition, an area in which the teachers set goals for improving. Studies in several sporting contexts have illustrated the effectiveness of self-monitoring in learning a variety of sports skills, including throwing darts (Zimmerman, 1996), swimming (Bell & Patterson, 1978;Polasha et al., 2004) and bowling (Kirschenbaum et al., 1982). For example, Zimmerman studied the impact of goal-setting and self-monitoring on learning to throw darts. ...
... D) Variables independientes, son las alteradas por el tratamiento. Como se ha dicho el tratamiento consiste en la visión semanal del partido en vídeo donde los jugadores registran sus aciertos en el rendimiento, por los efectos facilitadores de la autoobservación positiva(Kirschenbaum, Ordmans, Romarken, Holtzbauer, 1982) y el entrenamiento de las habilidades psicológicas descritas a continuación. Una descripción detallada del tratamiento puede encontrarse enGil (1991 a,b). ...
In this study we apply a psychological programe to improve the output of handball players, cadet category, during the attack. The results show that just as we had predicted the improvement is produced, by supposing that the control of psychic energy and the direction of the stress, the establishment of aims, the control of the attention and concentration, and the training in mental imagery, improve their execution.
... Preshot routines have been shown to be an effective concentration cue in many different sports such as golf, bowling, basketball, tennis, and skiing. (Cohn, Rotella, & Loyd, 1990;Kirschenbaum, Ordman, Tomarken, & Holtzbauer, 1982;Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986;McCann, Lavallee, & Lavallee, 2001;Moore, 1986;Orlick, 1986;Weisberg & Pein, 1992). Wrisberg and Pein (1992) postulated that closed skills (e.g., free throw shooting in basketball, serving in tennis and volleyball, punting and place kicking in football) are often the types of skills in which athletes utilize preperformance routines to prepare for the best performance. ...
... This feeling of experiencing and demonstrating mastery will aid the engagement process and sense of self-efficacy. It would also be expected that students in this state will be less likely to be anxious (Kirschenbaum et al. 1982; Kivimäki 1995). ...
This practice paper explores the intersection of school studio-music pedagogy and positive psychology in order to enhance students' learning and engagement. The paper has a practitioner focus and puts forward a new model of studio teaching, the Positive Instruction in Music Studios (PIMS) model that guides teachers through four key positive psychology processes that can be used in a music lesson: positive priming, strengths spotting, positive pause, and process praise. The model provides a new, positively oriented approach to studio-music pedagogy that can be integrated into specific methods-based programs to enhance student learning and engagement.
... Self-monitoring can be defined as a fundamental behavioural self-control skill related to monitoring positively valued behaviours that one is encouraged to increase, and negatively valued behaviours that one is encouraged to decrease (Mcfall and Hammen, 1971;Kirschenbaum et al., 1982). The use of self-monitoring solutions for personal health and fitness (e.g. ...
Abstract Self-monitoring has been shown to be one of the most efficient behaviour change techniques to promote physical activity. However, there has been no research on the exact nature and impact of using various self-monitoring solutions (e.g. cycle computer, cadence monitor, smartphone’ physical activity apps) amongst cyclists. Initially, an online survey was conducted with 227 adults who did or did not use self-monitoring solutions with their cycling. We found that the most important features for cyclists who use self-monitoring are: time it takes to travel, cycling speed, and distance covered. In contrast, cyclists who do not use self-monitoring perceived features related to location (e.g. directions with maps) as the most important ones. In a subsequent study we included self-monitoring solutions as a part of mixed-design, small-scale, longitudinal intervention aimed at changing transportation patterns. We found that self-monitoring is mainly suitable for performance oriented cyclists rather then recreational cyclists. We discuss the implications of those results for designing interventions to promote cycling.
... D) Variables independientes, son las alteradas por el tratamiento. Como se ha dicho el tratamiento consiste en la visión semanal del partido en vídeo donde los jugadores registran sus aciertos en el rendimiento, por los efectos facilitadores de la autoobservación positiva(Kirschenbaum, Ordmans, Romarken, Holtzbauer, 1982) y el entrenamiento de las habilidades psicológicas descritas a continuación. Una descripción detallada del tratamiento puede encontrarse enGil (1991 a,b). ...
En este estudio se aplica un programa psicológico para mejorar el rendimiento, durante el ataque de jugadores de balonmano, categoría cadetes. Los resultados muestran que se produce dicha mejora, tal y como se había predicho, al suponer que el control de la energía psicológica y la dirección del estrés, el establecimiento de objetivos, el control del estilo de atención y concentración, y el entrenamiento de imágenes mejoran la ejecución
... To this end, one could ask clients to adopt self-recording techniques to objectively evaluate treatment effects. Such recording has been used for many years by athletes in their attempts to improve performance (Kirschenbaum et al. 1982). The feedback from the self-recording strategies can also serve to motivate people (therapists, clients, athletes) to adopt new approaches and refine schemas. ...
The term schema is often used to describe core beliefs, both functional and dysfunctional, developed in childhood. We believe that this view is rather mono-dimensional, and that by taking a broader perspective lessons can be learned from other fields. In this paper we examine the various theories of schema with a particular focus on the memory perspective to examine the acquisition of skills in sports. In terms of memory theory, performance of a set of actions (running a race, jumping a hurdle, playing chess) creates neural activity in the body across numerous domains (motor, visual, psychological), and repetition lays down a neural network that can be built upon and altered over time. We believe that the examples discussed in the context of sport can be used to help clinicians reflect on the concept of schema, and thereby re-examine assessment and treatment options.
... In [6], on the basis of laboratory research on self-regulation, it was hypothesized that positive self-monitoring, more than negative self-monitoring or comparison and control procedures, would improve the bowling averages of unskilled league bowlers (N=60). Conversely, negative self-monitoring was expected to produce the best outcome for relatively skillful league bowlers (N=67). ...
... Self-monitoring also has advantages in motor skill acquisition, an area in which the teachers set goals for improving. Studies in several sporting contexts have illustrated the effectiveness of self-monitoring in learning a variety of sports skills, including throwing darts (Zimmerman, 1996), swimming (Bell & Patterson, 1978; Polasha et al., 2004) and bowling (Kirschenbaum et al., 1982). For example, Zimmerman studied the impact of goal-setting and self-monitoring on learning to throw darts. ...
The purpose of this study was to analyse the self-monitoring strategies that 31 expert golf instructors used to improve their teaching. Specifically, criteria characteristic of both instructional strengths and weaknesses were identified, as were the strategies these teachers used to continue to develop their strengths and improve their areas of weakness. Data were collected at Golf Magazine's Top 100 Teacher Summit held at Pinehurst, NC. Teachers were asked to complete a written survey, which asked them to list aspects of their teaching they considered strengths and aspects they considered weaknesses. Subsequently, the teachers were requested to identify strategies they used to maintain their strengths and improve their weaknesses. Data were analysed by identifying themes in the teachers' responses. Results of the analysis indicated that the teachers identified both goals and actions in their self-monitoring strategies. Self-monitoring goals included improving communication, adjustments to personal lifestyle, examining teaching perspectives and increasing learning. Self-monitoring actions incorporated seeking help from others, reading, using technology, developing business strategies and adapting teaching practices.
... 2001; Kirschenbaum, Ordman, Tomarken, & Holtzbauer, 1982;Kitsantas & Zimmerman, 2002;Nielsen, 2001;Nota, Soresi, & Zimmerman, 2004;Pintrich & De Groot, 1990;Schunk, 2005). ...
Self-regulation of learning has been suggested to refer to self-directed processes that help individuals learn more effectively. No instrument is available to date examining self-regulation of learning as a relatively stable individual attribute. Therefore, based on Zimmerman's self-regulated learning theory, we composed the Self-Regulation of Learning Self-Report Scale (SRL-SRS), which comprises six subscales: planning, self-monitoring, evaluation, reflection, effort and self-efficacy. This study examined the reliability and validity of the SRL-SRS. Two confirmatory factor analyses were conducted involving 601 and 600 adolescents aged 11 to 17 years (Mage = 13.9, SD = 1.3). The first confirmatory factor analysis revealed that an adjusted six-factor model described the observed data and content of factors best, which was cross-validated in the second sample of adolescents. The relative and absolute test-retest reliability was satisfactory. In conclusion, this study showed that the SRL-SRS is a reliable instrument, and supported its content and construct validity.
... Chen and Singer (1992) suggested that successful athletes self-monitor; they detect discrepancies between their current and potential level of achievement and selfregulate their efforts to improve performance. Additionally, it has been found that selfregulation failure harms athletic performance (e.g., Anshel & Porter, 1996;Jordet, 2009aJordet, , 2009bKirschenbaum, Ordman, Tomarken, & Holtzbauer, 1982). Therefore, athletes who self-regulate well could be more likely to reach the elite status than others (Anshel & Porter, 1996). ...
This study aimed to measure behavioral correlates of self-regulation in elite youth soccer players. Behaviors regarded as indicative of self-regulated learning were identified by interviewing six expert youth soccer coaches. These behaviors were observed during practice of eight elite youth soccer players aged 15–17 years, and linked with self-reported self-regulated learning scores to describe behavioral correlates of self-regulation. Results indicated that self-regulated learning is reflected in taking responsibility for learning and that players’ practice environment plays a significant role. This study highlights the importance of measuring overt behavior to gain a complete impression of youth soccer players’ self-regulated learning skills.
... Self-regulation is a sequential process prompted by personal goal setting that involves self-monitoring, then self-evaluation, and finally self-reinforcement [2]. The impetus for psychological skills training in sport stems from research findings asserting that athletes who do not self-regulate effectively are less likely to compete at their best [1,2,5,6,7,8,9]. The use of self-regulatory skills by athletes to control arousal level or attentional focus during competition has been the subject of some research. ...
Athletes who fail to self-regulate are less disciplined and motivated, show less initiative, and fail to maximize opportunities for acquisition during training. This investigation attempted to identify a short list of behaviors that swim coaches recognized as indicators of non-regulation by their swimmers during training. In Study 1, five coaches described the behavior of swimmers in various contexts during interviews. Qualitative analysis of interviews resulted in two lists of 28 activities that characterized self-regulation and non-regulation, respectively. In Study 2, two different samples of coaches (n=18; n=16) rated the items identified in Study 1 for how well they represented self-regulated and non-regulated training behaviors among swimmers. Based on inclusion criteria, two lists of 28 items were shortened to one list of seven non-regulated training habits, including: poor attendance; off-task in warm-up; incomplete volume in warm-up; incomplete volume for the entire workout; inaccurate recall of pace times; last to arrive on deck; and lack of focus during kick sets. The authors discuss the relevance of an observational checklist for helping coaches identify athletes in need of remedial self-regulatory strategies, as well as how measures for these items may be employed in intervention research.
The Australian ABC television series Making Australia Happy followed eight individuals as they completed an intensive eight-week positive psychology coaching programme using scientifically-validated positive psychology interventions. The show generated the largest ever web-based response to an ABC programme with over 1,000,000 hits on the ABC website (initially crashing the ABC servers) and over 45,000 registered individuals taking online assessments and doing positive psychology exercises. Over the eight weeks participants’ levels of stress, anxiety and depression reduced remarkably, levels of subjective wellbeing and psychological well-being increased and there were significant improvements in a range of biochemical markers including blood pressure, cortisol and melatonin. Participants’ mean performance on a cold presser task (a measure of physical resilience) increased from 57 seconds to 131 seconds post-programme. In addition, pre-post Magnetoencephalography (MEG) brain scans showed significant positive changes in brain functioning. A 24-week follow-up indicated that the gains in positive psychological functioning were maintained. This reflective article, written by the psychologist presenter of the show outlines these findings and discusses some of the challenges for psychologists working at the intersection of science and commercialism, particularly in areas such as positive psychology.
Technological advances in wearable computing are changing the sports domain. A variety of Personal Informatics (PI) tools are starting to provide support and improve athletes’ performance in many sports. In this article, we interviewed 20 amateur and elite athletes of different disciplines, using an array of PI devices, to explore how sports, as well as athletes’ experience, are affected by such instruments. We discovered that amateur athletes present different patterns of usage compared to elite ones. Moreover, we found that elite athletes make sense of their data by exploiting the knowledge they have about their own body and sports practice. We then proposed four considerations for design that we believe should be explored in the future, to reflect on how self-tracking is changing our perspective on sports, and, by and large, on our everyday life.
Researchers have found that we live in a world our questions create because what we ask people determines what they discover and shapes their ability to imagine plan and create their future reality. So are you asking questions that help people to discover the true, the good and the possible in their situations in ways that fuel their confidence, courage and commitment? In this article we’ll begin by understanding the growth of strengths-based coaching, explore the potential benefits of a strengths approach and see how coaches are putting a strengths focus into practice, the tools they are using, the questions they are asking and the emerging research that is guiding their work.
Explored the effects of a 14-wk cognitive-behavioral teaching program (CBP) vs a physical skills intervention vs no training on the motivation, preparation, and putting performance of 65 adult novice golfers. The Sport Motivation Scale was used to measure intrinsic vs introjected forms of self-regulation. Pre-putt routines and actual putting performance were measured by observer ratings. Ss completed all dependent measures prior to training and at 3 additional times over 4-wk intervals. Ss in the CBP displayed enhanced intrinsic motivation, more consistent use of pre-putt routines, and improved putting performance relative to Ss in the other 2 groups. CBP Ss also showed a significantly reduced use of introjection, which reflects a harsh, self-evaluative form of self-regulation similar to ego involvement. Cognitive-behavioral approaches seem to be effective for performance enhancement and can produce positive motivational effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter is about children’s use of strategies. Although the emphasis is on memory, the discussion includes strategies applied in a number of domains. Almost 20 years have passed since Flavell’s seminal studies of children’s strategies (e.g., Keeney, Cannizzo, & Flavell, 1967), and an enormous amount of research has been reported since then. The present chapter does not survey that work exhaustively, but summarizes current thinking about strategic functioning in children. In doing so, we present a revised definition of strategy, discuss a model of strategy functioning that is more precise than some of its historical predecessors, review recent research relevant to that model, compare two differing tactics to strategy instruction and strategy instructional research, as well as consider alternatives to strategy instruction for children who cannot execute cognitive strategies.
Competitive sport at the highest level demands consistency and precision in the transfer of skill across various environments, on multiple occasions, in order to produce optimal performance (Singer, 2002). Pre-performance routines (PPR) are sequences of motor, emotional, and cognitive behaviours performed immediately in advance of the execution of self-paced tasks (Cohn, 1990). The purpose of this study was to explore both content and variation of preperformance routines (PPR) between the four apparatus within Women's Artistic Gymnastics. Participants were purposely selected from former Great Britain international, female elite artistic gymnasts (n=9). This study employed a mixed-method, phased design. All participants completed the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas et al., 1999) in phase one. A purposeful sampling mechanism using descriptive statistics from questionnaire results generated five profiles for further qualitative exploration as to the application and effectiveness of PPR's via semi structured interviews. Pen-profiling was used to compare and contrast common themes amongst the preparations for the apparatus. Results indicated differences between vault and beam exercise with regard to pre-performance state and preparation strategies linked to arousal/activation control and cognitive rehearsal. Gymnasts reported prior use of individualised and highly refined routines dominated by imagery and arousal/activation control. Specific PPR strategies were reported for each apparatus with some robust, consistent psychological skills training (PST) components within them. The results from this study demonstrate that each apparatus requires unique preparation strategies with regards to the achievement of an optimal psychological state for performance.
Sport psychology interventions generally derive from strategies developed in clinical contexts. This paper describes the use of a graded hierarchy, with fading of response induction aids at each step, in treating avoidance behaviour arising in a sporting context. A twelve-year-old gymnast was treated for a simple phobia following a fall.
The present study investigated the effectiveness of a centering breath on the free throw shooting percentage of young athletes age 10-11 years. A convenience sample was used involving young representative basketball players (juniors who were trialed, selected, and identified as the most talented basketball players in their age group). They consisted of 2 females and 3 males (M = 10 years and 7 months. SD = 6months), from a basketball stadium located in Sydney, Australia. The participants trained at least twice a week and played representative games against other metropolitan associations on the weekends. A single subject multiple-baseline design was used, and through the use of visual inspection the centering breath was shown to be a useful tool for improving all participants' performance to varying degrees. The findings indicate that it may be advantageous to explore the effectiveness of centering or other psychological skills in a variety of sport skills (closed versus open), and for children of different age groups.
Although self-regulation has been advanced as a construct in sport psychology, little attention has been paid to the relationship between motor expertise and the actual self-regulation of a motor task. The present text examines the theoretical notions of self-regulation (on-line supervision and control), expertise, and performance, in the light of certain particularities implicated in motor skills, such as the nature of practical and conceptual knowledge and the relationship between them.
We present a sport skill data analysis with time series image data retrieved from motion pictures, focused on table tennis. We do not use body nor skeleton model, but use only hi-speed motion pictures, from which time series data are obtained and analyzed using data mining methods such as C4.5 and so on. We identify internal models for technical skills as evaluation skillfulness for forehand stroke of table tennis, and discuss mono and meta-functional skills for improving skills.
In the field of sports and athletics, it is important for athletes to recognize their own performance by themselves to gain skills effectively. Although swimming is a popular life-long sport all around the world, it is difficult for non-professional swimmers to understand how they swim. In other sports such as baseball, golf and dancing, mirrors are utilized to examine the players' form. However, it is difficult to use the mirror for this purpose when it comes to continuous sports such as swimming, running and cycling. To solve this problem, we propose a buddy robot that has an ability to recognize, follow, and present information to the swimmer. We developed a swim support system called "Swimoid". The buddy robot can swim directly under the user, and present information through the display mounted over the main body. To follow the user, we utilized image processing techniques on the footages captured by two cameras mounted on the front and rear of the robot. Swimoid can augment the user's ability underwater environments in two different ways. First of all, Swimoid enables swimmers to recognize their swimming form in real time. Secondly, Swimoid could allow coaches on the pool side to give instructions to swimmers. These two functions are for improving swimming techniques. However, we also believe we can use the buddy robot for a different purposes, such as entertaining novice swimmers and we implemented a game function to get familiar with water using the touch interaction with a swimmer. As a result of user tests, we confirmed this system works properly. Finally, we measured our contribution in the research field by comparison with related works.
We present a time series data analysis for sport skill using data mining methods from motion pictures, focused on table tennis. We do not use body model, but use only hi-speed motion pictures, from which time series data are obtained and analyzed using data mining methods such as C4.5 and so on. We identify internal models for technical skills as evaluation skillfulness for forehand stroke of table tennis, and discuss mono and meta-functional skills for improving skills.
ABSTRACT In order to answer the following,questions: 1),What is the nature of the mental,images,visualised by the students within their spontaneous,mental,imagery,training process? 2),Is there any relationship between,the components,of the mental
Although the use of task‐appropriate strategies facilitate memory, newly acquired strategies often have two negative characteristics: They are neither durable nor generalizable. The present article considers an alternative approach to strategy instructions that leads to skills that are more general and better maintained after instruction has ceased. This approach focuses on the role of knowledge about strategies (metamemory) as a precursor of effective strategy deployment. Three perspectives on the role of metamemory in improving strategy use are considered: (a) occasions when metamemory develops simply as a function of using a strategy (the Laissez‐Faire approach); (b) situations in which Explicit Provision of metamemorial information increases strategy use; and (c) the production of higher‐level strategies that operate on other strategies, thus enhancing metamemorial knowledge about them (Metamemory Acquisition Procedures). Future research directions and educational implications associated with each approach are discussed.
Over the years, sport science has mainly been viewed by coaches as inaccessible, too technical, or in many cases, non-applicable to the actual sport setting. With the renewed focus on prevention of injuries, on enhancing performance at the younger levels of competition, and on the extensive amount of time and financial commitment toward training and conditioning, taking a more comprehensive approach through science provides the coach, as well as the athlete, greater control, preparation, accountability and, most importantly, measurable progress. It is the merging of ‘science and sweat’ that will allow today's athletes to not only excel and compete at much higher levels, but minimize predisposition to injury and enhance career longevity. This article describes and revisits some scientific areas and tools to add to a coach's present arsenal of assessments, and discusses the advantages, complexities, and concerns in the continually evolving area of sport science.
Through the years, positive feedback has been accepted as an effective method of improving employee performance. However, recent research reviews question across individual consistency of this effect. This inconsistency may arise from the interaction of feedback type (positive and negative) with individual differences. A Contingency Model of Feedback is proposed. This model integrates previous theory and research. It has implications which would allow service sector managers to select the most appropriate feedback type for each employee.
The effects of goal setting and self-monitoring during self-regulated practice on the acquisition of a novel motoric skill were studied with 50 high school girls. It was hypothesized that process goals would improve not only the development of dart throwing skill more than product goals but also self-efficacy perceptions, self-reactions and intrinsic interest. It was also expected that self-recording, a formal form of self-monitoring, would similarly enhance dart throwing skill, self-efficacy and self-reactive beliefs. Support for both hypotheses was found. Path analyses revealed that goal setting had a larger impact than self-recording on dart throwing skill, however, self-recording influenced self-efficacy beliefs and positive self-reactions as well as skill acquisition. The girls' self-reactions to dart throwing outcomes were highly correlated with their intrinsic interest in the task. The results an discussed in terms of a social cognitive view of self-regulatory processes in the acquisition and optimal performance of an athletic skill.
Motor skills are among the most basic and prevalent types of knowledge that individuals must acquire over the life span, and observational learning is one of the primary ways in which individuals acquire new knowledge and skills. Observational learning of a motor skill involves: (1) observation of the model, which allows one to imitate and understand a modeled demonstration, and (2) self-observation, which allows one to actively regulate one's own learning and performance of a motor skill. Few, if any, theoretical treatments of observational learning examine how self-regulation influences observational learning of motor skill. The text examines observation of the modeled performance, including three moderators of observational learning: The properties of the model, the nature of the task, and observer determinants. Observer determinants are examined at length, especially self-regulation of learning (including the effects of perceived self-efficacy, goal setting, and expertise).
Facing intense price competition and societal pressures, health care provider organizations have focused increasingly on the cost-effectiveness of medical services. In instances when there is insufficient evidence that a more expensive treatment course generates improved outcomes, the lower cost option is often encouraged. Yet, with resource utilization still determined principally by individual physicians, large practice variations often persist. This paper reviews the literature and explores the impact of sharing cost information on physicians' practice patterns utilizing management theory concepts. More research should be conducted to determine long-term benefits of educational interventions, physicians' fundamental views on the relationship between cost and quality and its effect on their responsiveness to cost information, and the role of leadership in changing clinical behavior.
In a laboratory study designed to investigate variables that affect self-regulatory dysfunctioning, 96 college students volunteered to practice solving mathematics problems similar to those found on graduate school admissions tests. They were assigned to groups in which they either self-recorded inaccurate problem solving (negative self-monitoring, NSM), self-recorded accurate problem solving (positive self-monitoring, PSM), did not self-record but received immediate performance feedback, or did not self-record or receive immediate feedback (control). Groups were matched on ability and received either easy or difficult problems. Ss also completed Byrne's Repression-Sensitization Scale. Predictions derived from the closed loop model of self-regulation were supported in that NSM, relative to other conditions, led to lowered self-evaluations, decreased favorableness of self-consequations (self-reinforcement/punishment), and somewhat increased association of anxiety with performance. NSM also led to decreased accuracy in performance, but in comparison to PSM, it facilitated sustained self-monitoring (self-initiated viewing of a videotape of Ss' own problem-solving activity) when the task was relatively simple. All groups decreased sustained self-monitoring when the task was relatively difficult. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed, and attention is drawn to the role of affect in self-regulation. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Performed 5 experiments with 232 4-yr-olds to test the hypothesis that the evaluations and affective responses which accompany ongoing behavior may operate as reinforcers and punishers, thus exercising control over the persistence of those behaviors. Results show that (a) children persisted longer when they labeled work at a motor task as fun rather than no fun, easy rather than difficult, or when they expressed pride in their ongoing work as opposed to being self-critical; (b) when children contingently reminded themselves of pleasant events unrelated to the task itself, they persisted longer than when they reminded themselves of unpleasant events; and (c) when children labeled a problem-solving task as easy, they persisted longer when they rendered this evaluation with neutral or negative affective intonation ("disparagement"), but under positive intonation ("enthusiasm"), children persisted longer when they contingently labeled the task as difficult. Results are discussed in terms of the effectiveness of self-evaluation and affective-responses for regulating ongoing behavior and the degree to which the contingency of such responses is truly necessary for their effectiveness. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Compared the effects of 2 kinds of self-instructional plans (temptation-inhibiting and task-facilitating) on the performance of 48 3-5 yr olds in a resistance to temptation paradigm. In the experimental situation, Ss were motivated to work on a repetitive task in the face of tempting distractions. Presence and absence of the 2 plans were varied in a 2 * 2 design. Both plans were task relevant, but one suggested that the S direct his or her attention away from the temptation (temptation-inhibiting plan), while the other suggested that the S direct his or her attention toward the task (task-facilitating plan). Dependent measures assessed time spent working and amount of work completed by Ss in each condition. Results show that Ss' performance was significantly improved in temptation-inhibiting but not in task-facilitating self-instructional plan conditions. Implications for the nature of cognitive processes which mediate successful resistance to temptation are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Compared smoking treatment programs using negative (recording number of cigarettes smoked) vs positive (recording number of urges resisted) self-monitoring. Nine Ss each, mean age 36.7 yrs, participated in 1 of 2 similar broad-spectrum treatment programs, within which they either used positive or negative self-monitoring. Over treatment, Ss in both self-monitoring groups demonstrated similarly significant reductions in smoking frequency as compared to the control group. These findings were generally maintained at follow-up. It is suggested that clinical findings question the accuracy of the "positive" and "negative" labels used to designate the 2 self-monitoring modes. (6 ref)
Reports that a comparison of the outcomes of major stop-smoking studies reveals an intriguing similarity of data across a variety of different procedures, populations, and theoretical orientations. The elements of motivated volunteering, structure, and self-monitoring are regarded as nonspecific factors common to all these stop-smoking studies. A stop-smoking clinic was designed which offered no "treatment" but encouraged motivated volunteers to employ self-control and required them to monitor their smoking and report progress at regular intervals. The outcome of the nontreatment clinic program was comparable to others reviewed and suggests that the nonspecific factors studied may account for the temporary behavior change found in most smoking treatments. (23 ref.)
A 2 × 2 factorial design was used to analyze the effects of self-instruction and arousal strategies on 24 swimmers' performances in a 50 m and 100 m freestyle time-trial at posttraining and follow-up testing. There were no significant main effects at either testing session nor any interactions at post-testing. However, the self-instruction × arousal interaction approached significance on the 50 m follow-up trial (p = .06), but not the 100 m trial. Two factors may account for this phenomenon. First, the impact of cognitive factors may decrease as the influence of extraneous variables increases. Second, idiosyncratic rather than group-oriented cognitive strategies may be more effective, as they are likely to have been more pronounced at follow-up than at posttesting.
In an attempt to determine the effects of valence on the accuracy and reactivity of self-monitoring, 40 adolescent moderately retarded students were divided into four groups: (a) self-record a positive aspect of their performance (i.e., finish a bead-string task within the time limit), (b) self-record a negative aspect (i.e., not finish within the time allowed), (c) self-record a neutral aspect (i.e., when they strung the beads), and (d) string beads without self-recording. Acquisition of the self-monitoring skills was not differentially affected by the aspect of the behavior (i.e., positive, negative, or neutral) that cued recording, nor were there any differences in accuracy during postassessments. The results indicated: (a) the group monitoring when they finished significantly surpassed the group monitoring when they did not finish, and (b) the positive and neutral monitoring groups significantly outgained the negative and control groups. Based on these results it is suggested that the reactive effects of self-monitoring are determined, in part, by the aspect of performance that cues the self-recording response.
Investigated variables that affect self-regulatory dysfunctioning in a high-mastery context. 66 college students participated by voluntarily enrolling in a 3-wk program in preparation for mathematics portions of graduate admissions tests. Stratified random assignment resulted in 6 groups matched in math ability. Groups varied in frequency of self-monitoring (high and low) and valence of self-monitoring (positive, negative, and performance-feedback control). Positive self-monitors recorded instances of accurate problem solving, negative self-monitors recorded inaccurate problem solving, and performance-feedback Ss did not self-monitor. In accord with predictions, positive self-monitoring (relative to negative self-monitoring) led to decreased accuracy in performance, lower rates of written self-observation, less time spent self-observing performance, and lower rates of attendance at program sessions. In comparison to performance feedback, positive self-monitoring led to decreased time spent self-observing performance and to lower rates of persistence during an optional problem-solving period. Low-frequency self-monitoring did not lead to predicted decrements in self-regulation. Implications for the development of strategies designed to promote sustained self-regulated behavior change and for the study of self-regulatory failure are discussed. (65 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Use the same grip for every shot, check to ensure that the thumb and palm position is correct
- Grip
Grip. Use the same grip for every shot, check to ensure that the thumb and palm position is correct.
Walk in a straight line toward the spot
- Approach
Approach. Walk in a straight line toward the spot.
Pick a spot (e.g., one of the arrows) and watch the ball go over it when releasing it
- Spot
Spot. Pick a spot (e.g., one of the arrows) and watch the ball go over it when releasing it.
Keep shoulders squared, knees relaxed and bent, and elbow tucked in toward hip
- Stance
Stance. Keep shoulders squared, knees relaxed and bent, and elbow tucked in toward hip.
Cognitive skills and athletic performanceCognitive-behavioral interventions: Theory, research, and procedures
- M J Mahoney
Cognitive-behavioral skills in golf: Brain power golfPsychology in sports: Methods and applications
- D S Kirschenbaum
- R M Bale
Cognitive factors in athletic (swimming) performance: A failure to replicate. Manuscript under review
- J Barling
- I Bresgi
The many faces of self-control, or behavior modification changes its focusBehavioral self-management: Strategies, techniques, and outcomes
- F H Kanfer