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A Lifetime of Connections: Otto Herbert Schmitt, 1913-1998
Abstract
Otto H. Schmitt was born in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1913. As a youth, he displayed an affinity for electrical engineering
but also pursued a wide range of other interests. He applied his multi-disciplinary talents as an undergraduate and graduate
student at Washington University, where he worked in three departments: physics, zoology, and mathematics. For his doctoral
research, Schmitt designed and built an electronic device to mimic the propagation of action potentials along nerve fibers.
His most famous invention, now called the Schmitt trigger, arose from this early research. Schmitt spent most of his career
at the University of Minnesota, where he did pioneering work in biophysics and bioengineering. He also worked at national
and international levels to place biophysics and bioengineering on sound institutional footings. His years at Minnesota were
interrupted by World War II. During that conflict - and the initial months of the Cold War to follow - Schmitt carried out
defense-related research at the Airborne Instruments Laboratory in New York. Toward the end of his career at Minnesota, Schmitt
coined the term biomimetics. He died in 1998.
... In 1937, Otto H. Schmitt invented a trigger circuit, which was initially intended to emulate a synthetic nerve [133]. One year later, he invented a thermionic trigger [134], then renamed as Schmitt trigger (ST) [135]. Although the circuit was initially intended for biomedical applications, nowadays STs are employed in various electronic systems. ...
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs), due to their multidisciplinary applications, represent one of the main enabling technologies of the Internet-of-Things paradigm. These networks, consisting of sensor nodes characterized by processing and transmitting capabilities, are implemented in various fields such as oceanography, disaster prevention, the oil and gas industry, health, commercial, and military applications. A critical challenge in designing WSNs is optimizing the sensor node’s power consumption, which determines the network lifetime. One of the most efficient energy-saving approaches consists of integrating Wake-Up Receivers (WuRxs), which allow selective activation of the sensor nodes on demand. This thesis reports three novel WuRx architectures and six low power circuit implementations. Two of the implementations, one based on tunable current starved inverters and one on tunable NOR-based multivibrators, present the lowest power consumption reported for an underwater acoustic WuRx. Their performances have been experimentally validated through an ASIC (AMS-350nm CMOS process) by decoding an acoustic wake-up call transmitted underwater. Both circuits consume less than 500 nW. The tunable current starved inverter-based WuRx consumes 265 nW, it has an area of 0.058 mm^2, and a data rate of 250 bit/s. At simulation level, one of the circuit implementations (Single Transistor) presents the lowest power consumption reported for an acoustic WuRx (7.2 nW). In this thesis, also analytical models for the subthreshold operation of some Schmitt triggers (STs), which are extensively implemented in sensor node architectures, have been derived. The hysteresis voltages of a tunable ST and of a low power ST have been analytically modeled. The derived expressions provide physical insight into the behavior of the circuits, by relating the hysteresis voltages to the transistors’ geometrical parameters. Furthermore, the models can be used to predict the effect of supply voltage and temperature variations on the characteristics and to estimate the minimum supply voltage for which hysteresis occurs. The models have been experimentally validated, with a maximum error below 10 %, relative to the supply voltage. Overall, the proposed circuits and architectures can be used in implementation of low power sensor nodes.
... Additionally, it extends the mimetic approach to a new domain of physical geological systems. The method of "biomimetics" was first applied to the transfer of biological concepts to technology [9] and has since expanded to embrace social and technological challenges on multiple scales [2]. The goal of biomimicry is not replicating natural forms or processes perse, but instead deriving biologyinspired design principles for problem solving. ...
Digital technologies and Industry 4.0 hold the prospect of improving the sustainability performance of manufacturing, but the environmental implications of this transformation are uncertain. To contribute to resolving the environmental impacts of production, Industry 4.0 needs to be guided by sustainable manufacturing principles. This article asserts that we have access to only one functioning example of sustainable production on planet Earth, which is nature, and that Industry 4.0 guided by natural biomimetic principles can advance sustainable production goals. It first contends that industry to date has been guided geomimetic principles—which is the industrial mimicking of physical geologic processes—and that geomimicry is a source of many environmental externalities arising from industrial production. The paper then introduces a series of nature-inspired, biomimetic principles that can be facilitated by the unique capabilities inherent in emerging digital production technologies.
... Este término fue acuñado por el biofísico estadounidense Otto Schmitt en 1957 (Bhushan, 2009) con sus estudios sobre los impulsos eléctricos en los nervios, donde desarrolló un dispositivo físico que imitaba la acción eléctrica de un nervio teniendo así un rasgo similar con la biónica: la práctica precede a la teoría (Iouguina, et al. 2014) Él usó el término en 1969 pero hasta el año 1974 apareció en el diccionario Webster's como el estudio de la formación, la estructura, o función de las sustancias y materiales producidos por la biología (como enzimas o seda) y mecanismos biológicos y procesos (como síntesis de proteínas o la fotosíntesis) especialmente para el propósito de sintetizar productos similares mediante mecanismos artificiales que imitan los naturales. (Harkness, 2001) Al igual que la biónica, la biomimesis también tiene distintas definiciones hechas por diversos autores, uno de ellos, Bar-Cohen da la siguiente definición "la biomimética representa el estudio y la imitación de los métodos, diseños y procesos de la naturaleza" (Bar-Cohen, 2006) Por último, Julian Vincent, quien trabaja activamente en la biomimesis, en su artículo 'Biomimética: su práctica y teoría' (Vincent et al., 2006), la describe como "el uso práctico de los mecanismos y funciones de la ciencia biológica en ingeniería, diseño, química, electrónica, etcétera". (2006). ...
La presente investigación hace una descripción de la filosofía aristotélica acerca de la mímesis y cómo este concepto ha evolucionado hasta nuestros tiempos a la tecnología como techné que imita a la naturaleza. Así mismo se describen tres conceptos que imitan a la naturaleza para distintas aplicaciones tecnológicas: biónica, biomimesis y biomimicry, haciendo una comparación entre estos tres, así como con un principio aristotélico.
... The term "biomimetics" was originally coined by Otto Schmitt, an American neurophysiologist, in 1957. He invented the "Schmitt trigger," which is an electrical circuit that mimics signal processing in the nervous system and converts an input signal into a square wave, from which noise is removed [3]. "Biomimetics" was first defined in Webster's dictionary in 1974 [4]. ...
The utilization of small unmanned aerial vehicles (SUAVs), commonly known as drones, has increased drastically in various industries in the past decade. Commercial drones face challenges in terms of safety, durability, flight performance, and environmental effects such as the risk of collision and damage. Biomimetics, which is inspired by the sophisticated flying mechanisms in aerial animals, characterized by robustness and intelligence in aerodynamic performance, flight stability, and low environmental impact, may provide feasible solutions and innovativeness to drone design. In this paper, we review the recent advances in biomimetic approaches for drone development. The studies were extracted from several databases and we categorized the challenges by their purposes—namely, flight stability, flight efficiency, collision avoidance, damage mitigation, and grasping during flight. Furthermore, for each category, we summarized the achievements of current biomimetic systems and then identified their limitations. We also discuss future tasks on the research and development associated with biomimetic drones in terms of innovative design, flight control technologies, and biodiversity conservation. This paper can be used to explore new possibilities for developing biomimetic drones in industry and as a reference for necessary policy making.
... In this Review, we follow the spirit of Otto Schmitt, who is credited with coining the term "biomimetics" in the 1950s and argued that biomimetics was simply the "transfer of ideas and analogues from biology to technology" (2,61). A similar instinct for simplification was articulated by Vincent and co-authors, who suggested that biomimetics could be used synonymously with '"biomimesis," "biomimicry," "bionics," "biognosis," "biologically inspired design," and similar words and phrases implying copying or adaptation or derivation from biology' (2). ...
The morphology, physiology and behavior of marine organisms have been a valuable source of inspiration for solving conceptual and design problems. Here, we introduce this rich and rapidly expanding field of marine biomimetics, and identify it as a poorly articulated and often overlooked element of the ocean economy associated with substantial monetary benefits. We showcase innovations across seven broad categories of marine biomimetic design (adhesion, antifouling, armor, buoyancy, movement, sensory, stealth), and use this framing as context for a closer consideration of the increasingly frequent focus on deep-sea life as an inspiration for biomimetic design. We contend that marine biomimetics is not only a “forgotten” sector of the ocean economy, but has the potential to drive appreciation of non-monetary values, conservation and stewardship, making it well-aligned with notions of a sustainable blue economy. We note, however, that the highest ambitions for a blue economy are that it not only drives sustainability, but also greater equity and inclusivity, and conclude by articulating challenges and considerations for bringing marine biomimetics onto this trajectory.
... A mesma etimologia também é encontrada, por exemplo, em palavras como "mecânica" (relativo à máquina), "matemática" (relativo ao aprendizado), "dinâmica" (relativo ao poder), "estética" (relativo à percepção dos sentidos); além, é claro, do termo similar "biomimética", que pode ser interpretado como aquilo que é "relativo à imitação da vida", o qual foi proposto pelo polímata Otto Herbert Schmitt, também no final dos anos 1950 (VINCENT et al., 2006). Schmitt afirmou que tanto biônica quanto biomimética possui como "interesse comum examinar a fenomenologia biológica na esperança de se obter insights e inspirações para o desenvolvimento de sistemas físicos ou biofísicos compostos à imagem da vida" (HARKNESS, 2002). Desse modo, tem-se que apesar de duas nomenclaturas mais popularizadas, ambas tendem a representar os mesmos objetivos de unir análises técnicas de elementos naturais para a sua aplicação por meio de múltiplas tecnologias para resultados inovadores (PALOMBINI et al., 2017(PALOMBINI et al., , 2018a. ...
A biônica é uma atividade de pesquisa e desenvolvimento que consiste na aplicação de uma característica de um elemento da natureza em um projeto, podendo ser desde estrutural, funcional até estético. Essencialmente, é baseada na interpretação do atributo natural, na análise de como ele produz o efeito desejado, e na aplicação do mesmo na resolução de um problema. Para isso são necessárias equipes com diferentes formações, além de técnicas para investigação. Contudo, não necessariamente são requeridos equipamentos sofisticados, o que poderia limitar a implementação em centros de ensino. Este artigo pretende apresentar uma metodologia simplificada para o ensino de biônica, mostrando que uma infraestrutura mais simplificada também pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento de projetos bioinspirados. Além da descrição da metodologia são apresentados estudos de caso desenvolvidos sem a necessidade de técnicas avançadas de observação e análise, evidenciando que práticas projetuais inovadoras podem ser seguidas por meio de processos criativos e da união de diferentes áreas de formação.
... Segundo Wilson (1984), o homem possui uma relação inata com a natureza e, por isso, deve manter-se conectado a ela. De acordo com Harkness (2002), o conceito de Biomimética foi definido por Otto H. Schmidt (1913Schmidt ( -1998, como uma nova ciência cujo objetivo era estudar e replicar os métodos, projetos e processos da natureza. Ao incorporar esse conceito na arquitetura de interiores, ele se converte na possibilidade de edificações utilizarem essa ciência para promover uma integração da natureza, de forma não intrusiva ao local, e para possibilitar uma relação harmônica do ser humano com o ambiente ao conectá-lo com a natureza. ...
... In later years, with the growth of industrialization and manufacturing techniques, there was a brisk development in rapid manufacturing techniques for bio-inspired design. The concept of biomimicry demands a scientific and engineering based approach, rather than to just be implemented in the form of a concept [5]. The application of bio-inspired concepts in the aerospace sector implements different inspired features, such as morphing and flapping methodologies [6]. ...
The field of bio-inspired design has tremendously transitioned into newer automated methods, yet there are methods being discovered which can elucidate underlying principles in design, materials, and manufacturing. Bio-inspired design aims to translate knowledge from the natural world to the current trends in industry. The recent growth in additive manufacturing (AM)methods has fueled the tremendous growth of bio-inspired products. It has enabled the production of intricate and complicated features notably used in the aerospace industry. Numerous methodologies were adopted to analyse the process of bio-inspired material selection, manufacturing methods, design, and applications. In the current review, different approaches are implemented to utilize bio-inspired designs that have revolutionized the aerospace industry, focusing on AM methods.
... Il « est une proportion sur laquelle s'appuient différents artistes pour la création de leurs oeuvres que ce soit sous forme d'art, de peinture, de photographie, de musique et d'architecture, disciplines dans lesquelles on retrouve la botanique, l'arithmétique et la géométrie » (Ibid.). d'un nerf pour sa recherche doctorale (Harkness, 2002). Le terme biomimétique a fait sa première apparition dans le Webster Dictionnaire en 1974 (Appio et al., 2017), avec la définition suivante : « L'étude de la formation, structure ou fonction de substances et matériaux produits biologiquement (sous forme d'enzymes ou de soie) ainsi que mécanismes et processus biologiques (sous forme de synthèse de protéines ou photosynthèse), dans le but de synthétiser des produits similaires par de processus artificiels qui imitent les mécanismes naturels » (Harkness, 2002, p. 481). ...
The product designer is a key player in the operationalization of sustainable development (Ahmad et al., 2018a). Through its design and manufacturing activities, it now has an ethical responsibility to put on the market products with a lower environmental, social and ethical impact. Nevertheless, the approaches currently available to it to create products with a lower environmental impact have certain limitations and it doesn't allow it to respond, in a global and systemic way, to the challenges of sustainable development (Van Den Abeele, 2011; Cucuzzella, 2011). Ecodesign, the main approach taught and used in product design, which aims to reduce the environmental impacts of products throughout their life cycle offers solutions that generally work in the short and medium-term (Cucuzzella, 2011), taking less account of social, ethical and economic issues, which are intrinsic to sustainable development. Biomimicry, which draws its inspiration from nature to solve human problems (Benyus, 2019), represents a relevant approach to be explored in order to help product designers respond more systemically to the challenges of sustainable development. In this context, the main objective of this study is to analyze the potential of integrating biomimicry in the product design process. A qualitative descriptive research design was used in this study to meet the objective of the study. Initially, three semi-directed interviews with renowned experts in biomimicry, one in France, one in Brazil and one in Canada were conducted in order to understand their vision of the use of biomimicry and the limits they perceive. In a second step, a critical analysis of the terms biomimicry, biomimetics, bionics and bio-inspired design, the main terms used in the literature to qualify an approach inspired by nature was carried out in order to propose recommendations leading to a new, more complete and complex definition of biomimicry. In a third step, based on the data from the interviews combined with a brief analysis of the main biomimicry methods used in product design, several avenues leading to the identification of exploratory steps for a new conceptual methodological approach called Bio-DNA are presented.
... Segundo Wilson (1984), o homem possui uma relação inata com a natureza e, por isso, deve manter-se conectado a ela. De acordo com Harkness (2002), o conceito de Biomimética foi definido por Otto H. Schmidt (1913Schmidt ( -1998, como uma nova ciência cujo objetivo era estudar e replicar os métodos, projetos e processos da natureza. Ao incorporar esse conceito na arquitetura de interiores, ele se converte na possibilidade de edificações utilizarem essa ciência para promover uma integração da natureza, de forma não intrusiva ao local, e para possibilitar uma relação harmônica do ser humano com o ambiente ao conectá-lo com a natureza. ...
... Bionics is a broad field whose common interests include the examination of biological phenomena with the goal of "developing physical or composite bio-physical systems in the image of life" or that reproduce natural systems (Harkness 2001, cited in Vincent et al. 2006. The term, "bionics," was coined in 1960 by military physician Jack Steele and brought together the concepts of "life" ("bio-") and "like" or "having the nature of" ("-ic") (Halacy 1965, 3;Shu et al. 2011, 673). ...
When the artificial is natural: reconsidering what bionics and sensoria do.
Videos of cochlear implant (CI) activation are common on online platforms such as YouTube, presenting activation as a “magical” moment when people receive “the gift of hearing.” We argue that these videos present a distorted understanding of what bionic devices, specifically CIs, do. Our research focuses on the scientific understandings of what the implants do within a user's sensorium and, consequently, what people do with CIs.
The case of CIs calls us to analyze and subvert notions of sensory deficits and the bionic devices that are thought to repair them. In doing so, we delve into the forms of embodiment and processes associated with “hearing,” in its multiple forms. We examine the categories of artificial and natural, and how they relate to researchers' and clinicians' conceptualizations of the sensoria of people with CIs. This approach turns attention back to the people living with CIs themselves and is positioned antithetically to the “inspiration porn” of viral CI activation videos, compelling us to consider how people who use CIs create and inhabit new 'natures' with the devices.
Quand l'artificiel est naturel: repenser la relation entre appareils “bioniques” et sensorium.
Les vidéos d'activation d'implants cochléaires (ICs) sont devenus du contenu courant, voire viral, sur des plateformes en ligne comme YouTube. L'activation y est très souvent présentée comme un moment « magique », qui permet à la personne de recevoir l'audition comme un « don ». Mais dans quelle mesure cette représentation correspond‐elle vraiment aux expériences présentées dans, et au‐delà de ces vidéos ? Cet article explore ce que font les ICs, en tant qu'appareils « bioniques » une fois intégrés dans le sensorium d'une personne et, conséquemment, quelle part prennent les personnes utilisant des ICs à ce processus.
À travers ces questionnements, nous proposons d'analyser et subvertir les notions de déficit sensoriel et l'idée selon laquelle des appareils bioniques seraient capables de les réparer. En se tournant vers les formes d'incorporation (embodiment) et les processus associés à l’ « audition » dans ses formes multiples, nous examinons comment les notions d'artificiel et de naturel induisent une conceptualisation spécifique et réductrice du sensorium.
Cette approche vise à valoriser l'expérience des personnes vivant avec des ICs et se positionne ainsi en opposition à l’ « inspiration porn » sous‐jacente aux vidéos virales d'activation d'ICs. Notre objectif est de considérer comment la diversité des expériences des personnes vivant avec des ICs renseigne les 'natures' multiples de l'audition, et plus spécifiquement celles produites au sein d'assemblages qui comprennent des appareils technologiques.
... The word implies mimicking a biological and ecological system that adapts and evolves according to biological and ecological characteristics and environmental conditions. The term biomimetics, which was proposed by Otto H. Schmitt in the 1950s (Harkness 2002), refers to an academic field that studies the characteristics and processes of biologically produced materials in order to produce products by mimicking nature (Bhushan 2009). Biomimetics is officially used by the International Organization of Standardization to encompass the interdisciplinary collaboration of disciplines and technologies that study the form, structure, function, mechanisms, and processes of biologically produced materials (ISO 2015). ...
Biomimicry refers to a cooperative process that develops a sustainable world by taking inspiration from the structure, function, process, and mechanism of an organism adapted to the environment through the evolution of nature. A classification system of biomimicry from a biological and ecological point of view (biology push) can provide a framework for the sustainable development of society, the environment, and the economy. Thus, the purpose of this study was to categorize biological and ecological functions and to present a collaborative biomimicry system that suggests engineering and industrial sectors where biomimicry functions can be applied. Based on biology push, the biological and ecological functions were divided into six groups with subgroups of specific features, related to the fields of technology and industry. Through the formulation of the new biological functional framework, the biomimicry system can be used as a simple classification tool to determine the expected value of the final product as well as provide the knowledge data required in engineering and industry.
... Biomimetic 1969 Otto Schmidt Engineer, Biophysicist "The study of the formation, structure, or function of biologically produced substances and materials (as enzymes or silk) and biological mechanisms and processes (as protein synthesis or photosynthesis) especially for the purpose of synthesizing similar products by artificial mechanisms which mimic natural ones." (Harkness, 2002) Materials science, robotics, engineering. ...
This chapter proposes that bioinspired management and innovation, with foundations in life science and systems thinking, engenders an insightful and bioinclusive approach to the practice of responsible management. Responsible management is grounded in three main tenants: Responsibility, Sustainability, and Ethics. In parallel, biomimicry positions nature as "Model, Measure, and Mentor". This chapter analyzes how responsibility relates to nature as model, sustainability relies on nature as measure, and ethics calls on nature as mentor. It includes a general overview of biomimicry, some current case studies, and common critiques. It closes with future directions for the study of biomimicry in the context of responsible management.
... Etymologically, the term biomimetics comes from the Greek words bios, meaning life, and mimesis, meaning imitation. The name was coined in the 1950s by the polymath Otto Schmitt (Harkness, 2002), whose doctoral research focused on the development of a physical device that explicitly mimicked the electrical action of a nerve. Few years later, Jack E. Steele of the US Air Force coined the word bionics to indicate the science of systems which have some functions copied from nature (Vincent et al., 2006). ...
In the last decades, the field of structural health monitoring (SHM) has grown exponentially. Yet, several technical constraints persist, which are preventing full realization of its potential. To upgrade current state-of-the-art technologies, researchers have started to look at nature’s creations giving rise to a new field called ‘biomimetics’, which operates across the border between living and non-living systems. The highly optimised and time-tested performance of biological assemblies keeps on inspiring the development of bio-inspired artificial counterparts that can potentially outperform conventional systems. After a critical appraisal on the current status of SHM, this paper presents a review of selected works related to neural, cochlea and immune-inspired algorithms implemented in the field of SHM, including a brief survey of the advancements of bio-inspired sensor technology for the purpose of SHM. In parallel to this engineering progress, a more in-depth understanding of the most suitable biological patterns to be transferred into multimodal SHM systems is fundamental to foster new scientific breakthroughs. Hence, grounded in the dissection of three selected human biological systems, a framework for new bio-inspired sensing paradigms aimed at guiding the identification of tailored attributes to transplant from nature to SHM is outlined.
... The concept of biomimetics was proposed by Otto Schmitt. [1] Following the pioneering work of Barthlott, the researchers studying biomimetics in the surface sciences have made impressive advances over the past two decades. [2] Many scientists clarified the biomimetic mechanism and fabricated related surface structures to reproduce their properties. ...
Photoresponsive crystalline systems mimicking bio-functions are prepared using photochromic diarylethenes. Upon UV irradiation to a diarylethene crystal, the self-aggregated and needle-shaped crystals of photogenerated colored closed-ring isomer were generated on the surface. The rough surface showed the superhydrophobic lotus effect. By controlling the heating procedures, UV irradiation processes, and molecular structural modification, rose-petal effects of wetting, anti-reflective moth eye effect, and double-roughness structure mimicking the surface of lotus leaf were observed. By changing the molecular structure, superhydrophilic surface mimicking snail shell was photogenerated. We also found a derivative to form hollow crystals by sublimation. The crystals showed photosalient effect and the photo-response similar to impatiens was observed after small beads were packed in the hollow. These photoresponsive functions are unique, and they demonstrate a macroscopic response by assembling microscopic molecular movement of light. In the future, such a molecular assembly system will be a promising candidate for fabricating photoresponsive architectures and soft robots.
... From an etymological viewpoint, the term biomimetics comes from the Greek words bios, meaning life, and mimesis, meaning imitation . The name was coined in the 1950s by the polymath Otto Schmitt [6], whose doctoral research focused on the development of a physical device that explicitly mimicked the electrical action of a nerve. The chief idea of biomimetics is that Nature has already engineered superior, ingenious and sustainable systems which have benefited from millions of years of evolution and optimization and whose capabilities far surpass many of currently available technologies. ...
Civil engineering structures are continuously exposed to the risk of damage whether due to ageing effects, excessive live loads or extreme events, such as earthquakes, blasts and cyclones. If not readily identified, damage will inevitably compromise the structural integrity, leading the system to stop operating and undergo in-depth interventions. The economic and social impacts associated with such an adverse condition can be significant, therefore effective methods able to early identify structural vulnerabilities are needed for these systems to keep meeting the required life-safety standards and avoid the impairment of their normal function. In this context, vibration-based analysis approaches play a leading role as they allow to detect structural faults which lie beneath the surface of the structure by identifying and quantifying anomalous changes in the system’s inherent vibration characteristics. However, although the considerable degree of maturity attained within the fields of experimental vibration analysis (EVA) and structural health monitoring (SHM), several technical issues still need to be addressed in order to ensure the successful implementation of these powerful tools for damage identification purposes.
... Biomimicry is a relatively new science that observes and studies greatest ideas from nature and then imitates these designs and processes to offer innovative and sustainable solutions for future developments in industry, design, architecture, research, etc. It was Otto Schmitt , American biophysicist, who fIrst used the term Biomimetics in 1950s to describe the transfer of ideas and analogues from biology to technology [1] . ...
A fablab, with its set of different tools and machines for digital fabrication, as well as with the people with various expertise who work in there, is a perfect environment for inter- and multidisciplinary connections and research. More and more fablabs are including the biology i.e. wet-lab components giving opportunity for various phenomena to be investigated from different perspectives, one from the biological point of view and the other from e.g. architectural. Biomimicry in architecture is an innovative concept of using organic forms found in nature as architectural solutions. Taking into account that such forms are difficult to produce in 3D without the tools of digital fabrication, present in a fablab, the authors postulate that the fablab (or more precisely a biofablab) can be efficiently utilized as a lab for biomimicry architecture research.
... According to Harkness (2001), the field of study that would be later labeled as biomimetics was first approached in 1957 by Otto Schmitt who was a polymath, whose doctoral research was an attempt to produce a physical device that explicitly mimicked the electrical action of a nerve (Schmitt, 1969) but the word "Biomimetics" had its first public appearance in Webster's Dictionary in 1974, with the definition that it is "The study of the formation, structure, or function of biologically produced substances and materials (as enzymes or silk) and biological mechanisms and processes (as protein synthesis or photosynthesis) especially for the purpose of synthesizing similar products by artificial mechanisms which mimic natural ones." ...
This paper presents some results of an ongoing interdisciplinary research about models and prototypes of biomimetic devices via installations and the focus of this paper is to outline this research role in architectural purposes as it perpasses the cultural and heritage contexts by being a way of understanding and living in the world as well as taking place in the world as devices or environments that pass on to future generations to use, learn from and be inspired by. Both the theoretical and the experimental work done so far point out that installations built with association of laser cutting and rapid prototyping techniques might be on the best feasible ways for developing and testing new technologies involved in biomimetic devices to architectural purposes that put both tectonics and nature as their central theme.
... Otto Schmitt once said: 'Biophysics is not so much a subject matter as it is a point of view. It is an approach to problems of biological science utilizing the theory and technology of the physical sciences' (Harkness, 2002). By embracing this philosophy in our scientifi c endeavors, the future of PSi applications has the potential to revolutionize the fi elds of medicine and biotechnology. ...
Advances in biomedical engineering have paved the way for medical innovation and expansion. Many diseases now have hope of a cure through technology brought to reality by the vision and creativity of basic researchers, translational scientists, and doctors. Cancer, in its various manifestations, has plagued the health of millions of people around the world, but still lacks effective therapeutic treatments. By exploiting aberrant native vasculature and unique tissue markers, it is possible today to target the delivery of a given drug to the disease site. In many instances, the body’s natural barriers, and those constructed in the malignant microenvironment, still pose an insurmountable obstacle for the accumulation of efficacious drug levels at the tumor. The nanoporous silicon technology developed by our team in the past 10 years has offered a new and exciting tool for the delivery of drugs. A new paradigm of therapeutics, named multistage vectors, has emerged, with the ability to preferentially target tumors while protecting and delivering payload to the site of action. The boundaries of the utility of such a system are not limited to cancer but hold the potential to extend to all avenues of medicine. This chapter describes the principles of tumorigenesis and the biological barriers as they pertain to the uses and functions of multistage mesoporous silicon. We will discuss the current state of the art in the fabrication, modification, and assembly processes, and provide an overview of the application of this innovative technology in the field of cancer therapy.
... [42] No Biomimetics (1969) Otto Schmidt Engineer/ Biophysicist "The study of the formation, structure, or function of biologically produced substances and materials (as enzymes or silk) and biological mechanisms and processes (as protein synthesis or photosynthesis) especially for the purpose of synthesizing similar products by artificial mechanisms which mimic natural ones." [43] No As is evident from previous research, there is no common definition for these terms and yet, they are frequently used interchangeably. These various disciplines are often clustered together and consequently, the validity of BID as a tool for SOI is called into question [36,45,46], and rightly so. ...
The use of Biologically-Inspired Design (BID) has become increasingly prominent as an innovation tool for sustainability in large corporations. This research, from the perspective of innovation management and organizational development, explores the use of BID as a tool for corporate sustainability at multiple levels and reflects on the implications for corporate sustainability agendas. The review of the literature analyses the history of BID in a broad sense, both with and without sustainability objectives, and disambiguates several aspects of the field that have been largely overlooked in the popular media. Many corporate managers are utilizing the methods and tools of BID with little understanding of how they may or may not connect to corporate sustainability objectives of the organization. This research aims to bring this to light and create a much-needed critical dialogue around the use of BID for sustainability-oriented innovation (SOI). A four-tiered model is used to frame the use of BID in this setting and existing case studies are used to test the model. Research outcomes include creating a fr amework for understanding how BID can be used to inform innovative solutions within the product, process, organizational and systems-levels by embedding sustainability criteria at each level using various biological models. The aim of this research is not to simply deconstruct BID, but rather to create a dialogue amongst sustainability practitioners, corporate professionals and academics that increases the robustness of the tool for use in achieving sustainability goals and objectives.
Inspired by the rich tapestry of nature, biomimicry encourages designers, engineers, and researchers to draw inspiration from the natural world to create technological solutions. However, little is known about the usage of biomimicry in participatory research involving local people without technical expertise. In this paper, we present two case studies to explore how performative biomimicry is when applied in a participatory research process with local people of different ages. To this end, we conducted two different case studies and asked our participants to analyze the characteristics of different animal species to design an interactive prototype that addresses a specific task. Both case studies demonstrated promising potential for biomimicry, as the participants drew inspiration from animal species to develop functional prototypes and narratives that resonate on an emotional level. Finally, we discuss the benefits of integrating biomimicry in participatory research and how this method could be used to promote social change and transformation in the society, for example, in STEM education, digital literacy, and environmental awareness.
Although several buildings of cultural and commercial significance have emerged in different parts of the world, imbibing the structural and functional features of floral anatomy, floristry is still at an evolutionary stage as a new dimension of biomimetic architecture. In response to the worldwide adoption of flower-oriented architectural designs, this paper proposes a framework to follow in developing a floristry-based model that could be used while forming structural and functional architectural objects to suit buildings constructed under multi-dimensional urban development projects. A detailed presentation of the exercise is created, encompassing all the essential biomimetic principles based on floristry. When constructing this framework, the primary focus is on integrating sustainable and environmentally conscious architectural concepts, which are paramount to the proposal. During the development of the model, techniques for drawing inspiration from floral morphology and behavioral patterns are examined, along with guidance on how to integrate them into architectural designs. In that respect, the paper strives to identify a set of fundamental elements in a building focused on its usage, sustainability, and maintenance in an environment-friendly mode. In addition, to present an appropriate set of floristic sources to assist the design of objects of the boundary field of "biology", laying the foundation for a comprehensive understanding of floristry in contemporary architectural activity. The focus of this paper is on public multifunctional buildings
The field of wind energy stands at the forefront of sustainable and renewable energy solutions, playing a pivotal role in mitigating environmental concerns and addressing global energy demands. For many years, the convergence of nature-inspired solutions and wind energy has emerged as a promising avenue for advancing the efficiency and sustainability of wind energy systems. While several research endeavors have explored biomimetic principles in the context of wind turbine design and optimization, a comprehensive review encompassing this interdisciplinary field is notably absent. This review paper seeks to rectify this gap by cataloging and analyzing the multifaceted body of research that has harnessed biomimetic approaches within the realm of wind energy technology. By conducting an extensive survey of the existing literature, we consolidate and scrutinize the insights garnered from diverse biomimetic strategies into design and optimization in the wind energy domain.
Additive manufacturing has become an advanced processing method to fabricate highly customized devices with tailored functional properties, complex geometries, and architectural features. In this scenario, design strategies are currently leading to a wide range of possibilities to search for the optimal solution or a set of optimal solutions for the design of 3D additive manufactured structures with suitable functional properties according to the considered application. Topology optimization and generative design may be considered very powerful tools to create optimized designs. Furthermore, creative solutions to the design problems may be provided by the biological knowledge, which represents a source of inspiration for the designers. A creative bioinspired design method may allow the extraction of innovative wisdoms from biological prototypes and their integration into several technological domains, thus creating an innovative product. Accordingly, the present chapter first introduces some considerations on the role of CAD tools in providing a support for the ideation process through the generation of design alternatives in agreement with the designer’s criteria, and describes the state of the art of the generative design methods in different application fields. The terminology and the application of the biological knowledge in engineering innovation are reviewed, and the potential of biologically inspired design methods is stressed as they go beyond both biomimicry and biomimetics. The importance of combining additive manufacturing and reverse engineering is also briefly emphasized. Furthermore, focusing on a specific case study, the potential of topology optimization and generative design methods are reported, also evidencing technical features and differences.
Definition
The term “bioinspiration” defines a creative approach based on the observation of biological principles and transfer to design. Biomimicry is the recent approach, which describes a large field of scientific and technical activities dealing with an interdisciplinary cooperation between biology and other fields with the goal of solving practical problems addressing innovation or sustainable development. Architecture has been influenced by many aspects of natural and social sciences, among these, biology is currently blending into design activities. Bioinspiration has evolved and shifted architectural practices towards numerous innovative approaches through different bioarchitectural movements from the past until the present. However, there is a blur of biomimicry within bioinspiration in architecture between the direct copy of mere natural forms and the true understanding of biological principles, which is the pivot of sustainable development. The main challenge remains in the gap between the profound knowledge of biology, its related scientific fields and the creative process of architectural design, including cross-disciplinary collaboration between architects and biologists. This entry presents main bioarchitectural movements and how it leads to today’s biomimicry. It proposes to define biomimicry methodologies and how this approach applies to architectural design contexts through the study of existing case studies. The opportunities, challenges and the future outlook of the field will also be discussed.
Incorporating and drawing analogies from natural systems has always been an important consideration for designers, however owing to the complexity involved in the natural systems, mimicking natural systems and developing systems with conventional technologies is difficult. With the advent of additive manufacturing and its intrinsic nature, the technology of additive manufacturing can be employed for developing 3D-printed parts. The current paper is structured in a manner to focus on how biomimetics can be better augmented with the design of various engineering systems. A section will highlight the various types of natural systems which can help improve the design process. A special discussion on the various application areas of biomimetics such as architecture, biomedical, aerospace has also been included. A systematic literature review of the work carried out in the area of 3D printing and biomimetics is also presented in this chapter. Few applications namely biomimetic sniffing, biomimetic shark skin, and biomimetic lotus root are profoundly discussed.The paper ends with the challenges associated with the current technologies, economic aspects, and future recommendations.
If a group of engineers, mindful of our need to tap natural energy sources, were to embark on designing a machine that would pump water out of the ground over an area of 100 square meters continuously, and would boil off the water into steam, using only the energy directly from the sun for the whole process, it is possible that they might do it. But their finished machine would certainly never resemble a tree! Eric R. Laithwaite (1988)1
This chapter will provide a perspective on microbiology as a significant contributor for timely delivery of the Sustainable Development Goals defined by the United Nations, with examples stemming from the Pasteurian era during which the ‘prepared minds’ played a key role.
This research paper contributes to investigating the extent to which knowledge and mechanisms of biological water management can be explored to inspire new solutions for buildings and how biologically developed methods that can be used both to provide water and obtain it from the outer casings of buildings interacting with nature can be explored, and the research methodology is first carried out by examining various examples of organisms that have highlighted and demonstrated their natural success in the good management of For the water and work of a detailed analysis of the mechanisms of these organisms in the provision and management of water, ii detailed presentation and analysis of a set of global examples simulated to the environment, which has a precedent in the application of the concept (water management through an environmentally adapted outer shell), thirdly comes the applied study by proposing checklist models with proposed relative weights based on previous studies to measure the success of analytical examples in accomplishing the task of Namibia Hydrology Center ranked first with the highest percentage of use of naturally inspired water management functions, Namibia Hydrology Center ranked first with the highest percentage of use of naturally inspired water management functions, and the first (water collection) job was ranked first with the highest percentage of repetition in all study cases, while the job (water storage) was second with a percentage of 63% of repetition, and reached 100% of repetition in all study cases, while the job (water storage) was second with a percentage of 63% of repetition. The element (water collection) in the first place with the highest percentage reached 36% for the total size of all other elements of water functions, while the element (water storage) in the second place reached the highest percentage reached 23% relative to the total size of all elements of other aquatic functions, and the research reached many conclusions such as that the strategies of balance and biological water management in organisms in nature to provide innovative solutions for the design of the exterior of the building, especially in the third world countries new to this type of building where water management strategies are transferred from nature to the architectural design of the covers of external buildings, taking into account the choice of natural strategies suitable for each environment and place, as well as the research study reached that the strategies of living organisms in water management, whether synthetic or behavioral adaptation, boils down to a set of key biological functions, namely (acquisition of water - water transfer - storage of water- storage Water - preventing water loss - water purification).
This article describes biomimetic sensors, a class of chemical sensing and biosensing devices that adapt synthetic components that mimick the function of biomacromolecules such as antibodies and biological receptors. The biomimetic sensors offer unique advantages as they often exhibit higher stability and/or they can be manufactured with lower costs in comparison to their biological counterparts. This article aims to introduce the previously reported works on biomimetic sensors with a particular focus on the transducers being used for signal readout, types of biomimetic components being used, and how each biomimetic components are prepared and coupled with the transducers.
The term “biomimetics” has evolved from technical achievements based on principles found in nature. Some of its general features are found in the four areas of plastic and reconstructive surgery: reconstruction, burns, hand and aesthetic surgery. A plastic surgeon mimics concepts of nature by transplanting tissue from one to the other side or rerouting tendons or muscles to another side in order to treat local or functional defects. In contrast, with biomimetics we try to implement principles and solutions from nature in order to form or create devices, materials or technical achievements which some of them can also help to restore human tissues, body parts or body functions. This article aims to highlight interfaces between biomimetic research and principles and practice of plastic surgery.
As the existence of all life forms on our planet is currently in grave danger from the climate emergency
caused by Homo sapiens, the words “sustainability” and “eco-responsibility” have entered
the daily-use vocabularies of scientists, engineers, economists, business managers, industrialists,
capitalists, and policy makers. Normal activities undertaken for the design of products and systems
in industrialisms must be revamped. As the bioworld is a great resource for eco-responsible
design activities, an overview of biologically inspired design is presented in this book in simple
terms for anyone with even high-school education.
Beginning with an introduction to the process of design in industry, the book presents the
bioworld as a design resource along with the rationale for biologically inspired design. Problemdriven
and solution-driven approaches for biologically inspired design
The main purpose of the building envelope is to protect us from the surrounding climate; the building envelope is not only a shelter but also an active component in the system of the building, which can also defined as an environmental filter. The development in building technology; building design is becoming an increasingly complex task, due to a growing demand to satisfy environmental performance requirements and reducing the energy consumption of buildings.
Material improvements present an opportunity to rethink architecture as part of its environment. The new design approach integrating parametric design and biomimicry for energy efficiency and interactive building expression.
In general, all materials change with changing temperature and moisture content, some more and some less; overall, their reaction to the temperature changes, depending on material properties. The present research is to establish the possibilities of adaptive materials used as building envelopes, which could be the solution to the over-heating problems and cool spaces without increasing the use of energy consuming. This phenomenon is inspired from the flower heads that open and close to acclimate to the environmental conditions in accordance with their needs and by means of their integrate thermo nastic material (biomimicry in architecture). The Results obtained using Timoshenko formula, for calculating the radius of curvature of a bimetallic strip, by means of parametric modeling (grasshopper). Revealed that biomimetic design approach is of great support to the sustainable design and contribute to the possibilities of reducing energy use through application of thermal behavior in bimetallic strip material as autonomous adaptive envelope solutions.
Biomimetics is a growing scientific field which is being more and more widely applied, from industrial production of normal devices to more modern applications such as robotics, electronic chips, nanotechnology as well as medicine and pharmaceuticals. An approach is to utilize biomimetics in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine to meet clinical as well as research and development demands. With past achievements and considering future prospects, this promises to be the key to solve existing problems in medicines.
We designate as paleo-inspiration, the process of mimicking properties of specific interest (mechanical, optical, structural, etc.) observed in ancient and historical systems. For instance, recovery in archaeology or paleontology identifies materials that are a posteriori extremely resilient to alteration. This is all the more enthusing that many ancient materials were synthesized in soft chemical ways, often using low energy resources, and sometimes rudimentary manufacturing equipment. In this review, we highlight ancient systems as a source of inspiration for innovative conception in the Anthropocene.
We designate as paleo-inspiration, the process of mimicking properties of specific interest (mechanical, optical, structural, etc.) observed in ancient and historical systems. For instance, recovery in archaeology or paleontology identifies materials that are a posteriori extremely resilient to alteration. This is all the more enthusing that many ancient materials were synthesized in soft chemical ways, often using low energy resources, and sometimes rudimentary manufacturing equipment. In this review, we highlight ancient systems as a source of inspiration for innovative conception in the Anthropocene.
Rethinking the relationship between Homo sapiens and Planet Earth in the Anthropocene is fundamental for a sustainable future for humankind. The complex Earth system and planetary boundaries demand new approaches to addressing our current challenges. Bionics, namely learning from the diversity of life for nature-based technical solutions, is an increasingly important component.
In this paper, we address the interrelated aspects of the uneven geographic distribution of biodiversity, the issue of the continued erosion of biodiversity translating into a loss of the “living prototypes” for bionics, the relationship between bionics and biodiversity and the North-south gradient in institutional capacity related to biodiversity and bionics-related areas. World maps illustrating these points are included. In particular, we discuss historical aspects and complex terminological issues within bionics or rather bionics-related disciplines, the role of evolution and biodiversity as contributors to the fabric of bionics and the contribution of bionics to the attainment of sustainable development.
The history of bionic ideas and the confusing terminologies associated with them (the term bionic was coined in 1901) are discussed with regard to research, design and marketing. Bionics or Biomimetics, as we understand it today, dates back to the period between 1800 and 1925 and its proponents Alessandro Volta (electric battery), Otto Lilienthal (flying machine), and Raoul Francé (concepts). It was virtually reinvented under the strong influence of cybernetics in the 1960s by H. v. Foerster and W. McCulloch. The term biomimetics arose simultaneously with a slightly different connotation. “Bioinspiration” is a convenient modern overarching term that embraces everything from bionics and biotechnology to bioinspired fashion design. Today, marketing strategies play a crucial role in product placement within an increasingly competitive economy. The majority of so-called “biomimetic” products, however, only pretend to have a bionic origin or function; we have introduced the term “parabionic” for such products.
Life arose almost four billion years ago. Today’s relevant living prototypes for bionics have a history of more than one billion years of evolution, in essence a process of “technical optimization” governed by mutation and selection. In one specific example, we provide evidence that superhydrophobicity, an important biomimetic feature, has been in existence since at least the Paleozoic period, the time when life conquered land.
Bionics might be a major contributor to future nature-based technological solutions and innovations, thus addressing some of humankind’s most pressing issues. Bionics and related fields may become a major component of the current “great transformation” that humanity is experiencing on its trajectory towards sustainable development.
As technological problems and societal challenges become increasingly complex, designers are urged to recombine knowledge from different sources in order to innovate. In this paper we question how nature may be the key source of inspiration. Precisely, the work presented in this paper focuses on the impact that bio-inspired design is having on the new product development (NPD) process. The overall aim of the study is to shed new light on how designers and researchers use biomimicry tools along the NPD process. We aim to understand whether designers are: first, familiar with biomimicry tools; second, aware of their characteristics; third, in favor of using biomimicry tools in the NPD process; fourth, able to assess the impact of biomimicry tools on the NPD performance. By modeling and analyzing survey data, counterintuitive results for designers emerged both concerning the awareness of the biomimetic tools and their impact on the NPD innovation outcomes.
Biomimetics is an established field in research and industry. Current approaches focus on the use of biological principles in product development, while large potentials have also been identified for transferring organisational principles from nature to production organisation. This study gives a comprehensive overview of existing literature and illustrates that only fragmented research is being conducted at present. In order to enable systematic translation into methods that are available to practitioners, a framework is developed which allows the body of literature to be structured and potential fields not being researched at present to be identified. It also points out that some biological principles receive more attention in research approaches and practical implementation in production organisation than others. Furthermore, correlations between biological principles and principles in production are identified that there have already been successful translations of biomimetic approaches to production organisation. On the other hand, it suggests that there are numerous promising approaches only described in an initial paper that need further research before they can be implemented in practice.
Introduction Biomimetics: Definition and Historical Background Developmental Biology in Dental and Craniofacial Tissue Engineering: Biomimetics in Development and Growth (e.g. model of wound healing) The Paradigm Shift in Tissue Engineering: Biomimetic Approaches to Stimulate Endogenous Repair and Regeneration Extracellular Matrix Nano-Biomimetics for Craniofacial Tissue Engineering Biomimetic Surfaces, Implications for Dental and Craniofacial Regeneration; Biomaterial as Instructive Microenvironments Angiogenesis, Vasculogenesis, and Inosculation for Life-Sustained Regenerative Therapy; The Platform for Biomimicry in Dental and Craniofacial Tissue Engineering Conclusion
The idea of taking inspiration from nature, and in particular from living systems, in the design of technological systems is fairly widespread and originated much research work. However, while in the field of materials this approach allowed the construction of systems of high complexity but at the same time inexpensive and able to be mass produced, the idea that, in a wider context, natural systems are necessarily optimized seems not to be justified. Optimization must not be confused with evolution: after Darwin we understand that there is no finalism in evolutionary processes, and that the mechanism producing the ‘design’ of living organisms cannot result in optimal designs to fulfil any given task, but can only cause a continuous adaptation to the environment. Similarly unfounded seems to be the idea that machines and devices, necessarily better that those obtained by using the traditional design approach, can be designed by taking inspiration from nature. The trial-and-error approach, supported by the principles of bionics, represents a setback with respect to the application of scientific principles to technology which so much contributed to the technological advancement in the modern world.
From Bionics and Biomimetics to Biomimicry, these terms have been used to describe the transfer of knowledge from biology to other disciplines. They have been poorly defi ned and inappropriate uses are becoming more frequent. In addition, the organization of the framework for describing biological innovations is being developed in such a way as to reduce access to biological innovation. A need for clarifi cation and the development of a rigorous method still exist. An analysis of the frequency of use of the terms associated with mimicking biological models reveals that biomimetics is more widely used than biomimicry, but it is unclear whether these terms are being used uniformly or accurately. The following defi nition of biomimetics is proposed: 'the study of biological functions, its forms, processes, and interactions for the purpose of solving analogous human problems', and it is suggested that biomimicry be reserved to describe sustainable biomimetics. Two case studies are presented on products widely claimed to be examples of biomimicry that do not meet the criteria for the defi nition of biomimetic presented here. They are discussed in the context of biological function. Biomimetic research activities are often organized into 'levels' - Shape, Process, and Ecosystem - suggesting a hierarchy. Here, it is proposed that these levels be referred to as 'types' nested within Function and be called: Form, Process, and Interaction. A classifi cation system based upon the number of types of biomimetics that are incorporated into the innovation is also described. This simple framework will permit the study of biomimetic activity 'in the wild' as it currently exists so that it will better inform the development of a more rigorous process.
Bionics provides a model for preparation of structural materials. Recently, the preparation of biomimetic materials has become an increasingly hot research topic. As an increasingly popular method for the fabricating micro/nano materials, electrospinning has been providing various products with controllable compositions and structures, therefore offering excellent prospects for construction of biomimetic structures. This review briefly described some artificial biomimetic structures, which mimic living organisms with multilevel hierarchical structures from macro to micro, including plant-based soft tissue bio-materials, animal-based soft tissue bio-materials and animal-based hard tissue bio-materials, such as lotus leaf, moth eye, and bone, and related special functional properties, especially those fabricated via electrospinning. Moreover, the challenges in this field in the future, such as accurately analyzing about the structures of biomimetic materials, and designing composite functional or function-integrated materials have also been proposed.
Biological organisms produce organic-inorganic nanocomposite composites that are hierarchically organized in composition and microstructure, containing both inorganic and organic components in complicated mixtures. The process related to the generation and regeneration of organic-inorganic complex in nature is called biomineralization process. Understanding how the process operates in a biological environment is a valuable guide to the synthesis of novel advanced material and developing important industrial processes. Like the mechanism of organisms, mollusks were also synthesized from interaction between organic matrices and minerals and their morphology was designed through biomineralization. In this study, shell formation has been studied as a bio-model and the application of biomimetics based on biomineralization is focused.
In order to utilize even 25 percent of the theoretical amplification factor of high mu tubes, it is necessary to use a plate load resistance and plate potential too high to be practical. By the use of a dummy tube in the plate circuit, however, one can obtain a resistance characteristic which makes it possible to attain the full amplification of 1500–2500 per stage for the ``57'' tube using only 300–600 volts plate supply. Output voltages as great as 450 volts are attainable with negligible distortion.
The author provides some facts about the early history of the Institute for Radio Engineers Professional Group on Medical Electronics, which later became today's IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, to supplement the information given in a 1959 article by L.H. Montgomery, which is reprinted in ibid., vol.12, no.3, p.30-3 (1993).< >
See also Judith R. Goodstein, ''Interviews with Lee DuBridge
- Young
- Otto Herbert
- Schmitt
Young, ''Otto Herbert Schmitt,'' p. 22. See also Judith R. Goodstein, ''Interviews with Lee DuBridge,'' Physics in Perspecti6e 5 (2003), forthcoming. 17 F. O. Schmitt, Ne6er-Ceasing Search, p.
A Vacuum Tube Method of Temperature Control The other seven publications wereThe Nature of the Nerve Impulse: The Effect of Cyanides upon Medullated Nerves
- Young
- O Otto Herbert Schmitt Francis
- Otto H A Schmitt
- Schmitt
Young, ''Otto Herbert Schmitt,'' p. 22. 18 F. O. Schmitt, Ne6er-Ceasing Search, p. 114. 19 Francis O. Schmitt and Otto H. A. Schmitt, ''A Vacuum Tube Method of Temperature Control,'' Science 73 (1931), 289 – 290. The other seven publications were Francis O. Schmitt and Otto H. A. Schmitt, ''The Nature of the Nerve Impulse: The Effect of Cyanides upon Medullated Nerves,'' American Journal of Physiology 97 (1931), 302–314;
Action of Beratrine on Medullated Nerve
- Francis O Schmitt
- Helen Graham
- Otto H A Schmitt
Francis O. Schmitt, Helen Tredway Graham, and Otto H. A. Schmitt, ''Action of Beratrine on Medullated Nerve,'' Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 31 (1934), 768 –770;
Ne6er-Ceasing Search, p. 96. 21 Ibid
- F O Schmitt
F. O. Schmitt, Ne6er-Ceasing Search, p. 96. 21 Ibid., pp. 114 – 115.