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A Review of Resurgence and Replacement Causing Pest Outbreaks in IPM
Abstract
Insect and mite pest resurgence occurs when an insecticide or acaricide treatment destroys the pest population and kills,
repels, irritates or otherwise deters the natural enemies of the pest. The residual activity of the insecticide then expires
and the pest population is able to increase more rapidly and to a higher abundance when natural enemies are absent or in low
abundance. Replacement of a primary pest with a secondary pest occurs when an insecticide or acaricide treatment controls
the primary pest and also destroys natural enemies of an injurious insect or mite that was regulated below an economic injury
level by the natural enemies, thus, elevating the secondary pest to primary pest status. Disruption of natural controls is
not always the cause of resurgence or replacement events. A dose-response phenomenon called hormesis can occur in pest populations
exposed to sublethal doses of pesticides. This can cause an increase in fecundity (physiological hormoligosis) or oviposition
behaviour (behavioural hormoligosis of the pest leading to a significant increase in its abundance. Selective insecticides
and acaricides coupled with natural enemies and host plant resistance have become the alternative methods more commonly used
by growers that encounter these problems. The purpose of this chapter is to review pesticide-induced resurgence and replacement
in modern cropping systems and methods for measuring and resolving these problems.
... Thus, several insecticides are being used to control insect pests. The major problems with insecticides are resistance (Mehrotra, 1989;Tang et al., 2022), resurgence (Dutcher, 2007), and residues (Riyaz et al., 2022). To address these issues, several new eco-friendly pesticides, allelochemicals, insect growth regulators, and biopesticides (Kumar, 2015) have been introduced. ...
Insect pests play a critical role in sustainable food production. They cause damage to standing crops and infest grains during storage. Various chemicals are used to manage these insects and pests, which leads to insecticide resistance and residue development, resulting in environmental pollution. Therefore, innovations are essential in the present agricultural scenario for effectively managing insect pests. Nanotechnology and its advanced techniques in pesticide formulation are effective in providing better spread, deeper penetration, and efficient control over conventional methods of insect pest management. However, the toxicity of nano-pesticides to the environment and human health remains enigmatic. In this review, the present status of nanotechnology-based applications in managing insect pests for sustainable food production is discussed. Further, this review is useful for early career researchers and students to take up research in the field of Nanoscience.
... Because decreasing levels of biodiversity can reduce the supply and the stability of many ecosystem processes, the intensive use of pesticide is suspected to trigger negative feedback loops on crop productivity through major impacts on ecosystem services such as the natural pest control service Burian et al., 2024;Hautier et al., 2015;Perrot et al., 2023). In the long term, the intensive use of pesticides could lead to faster development of insecticide resistance (Denholm et al., 1998;Naqqash et al., 2016) and even promote pest outbreaks through its detrimental effects on top-down control exerted by natural enemies (Dutcher, 2007). In this context, implementing management options that enhance natural top-down control of pests and bottom-up effects limiting pest damage offer a sustainable perspective to pest management (Bianchi et al., 2006;Rusch et al., 2010). ...
Promoting natural pest control services through natural enemies in agricultural landscapes offers a sustainable perspective for pest management. Several management options across spatio‐temporal scales enhance natural pest control. However, most studies examining how pest control services respond to environmental changes focused on the magnitude of natural pest control across space and often neglect its temporal stability. Consequently, we lack information on the ecological drivers influencing interannual stability of pest control, which is especially important in perennial cropping systems threatened by multiple pests.
Here, we used a landscape‐scale experiment in southwest France to investigate how local management and landscape context affect the mean level and temporal stability of natural pest control. Our design included paired vineyards in 20 landscapes selected along two orthogonal gradients: organic farming proportion and semi‐natural habitat proportion in the landscape. We evaluated natural pest control services annually using eggs of the grape moth Lobesia botrana from 2018 to 2022 (excluding 2020). We predicted that low‐intensity farming, with reduced pesticide application and soil disturbance, would enhance predation rates and its stability by benefiting natural enemy communities. Finally, we expected that more complex landscapes, both in terms of composition and configuration, would benefit natural enemy activities and lead to higher levels of pest control.
Our analyses revealed that mean daily pest predation decreased with pesticide use and was lower in less complex landscapes, associated with larger patch sizes. However, farming practices and landscape context did not affect predation rate stability over time.
Synthesis and applications. Our results suggest that the magnitude of natural pest control services can be improved by reducing intensive management practices at the field scale and by promoting greater landscape heterogeneity, for example, by reducing the mean patch size. These findings highlight the potential for promoting ecosystem services and limit pesticide use, thereby supporting more sustainable farming systems. However, our results indicate that these management strategies may not necessarily contribute to the temporal stability of pest control across years. This suggests that complementary approaches, such as fostering specific functional groups, might be needed to ensure consistent pest control service over time.
... The indiscriminate use of broad-spectrum pesticides in agriculture significantly impacts biological control agents, which play a crucial role in pest management (Carmo et al., 2010). A key consequence of frequent pesticide application is the proliferation of secondary pest species that are not directly targeted by insecticides but thrive due to reduced competition or diminished predation pressure (Dutcher, 2007). In contemporary farming systems, the population of natural enemies has declined due to post-harvest plant removal and pesticide exposure. ...
Micraspis discolor F. is the most abundant ladybird beetle in rice crop ecosystems and an effective natural predator of several economically significant agricultural pests. However, the widespread use of non-selective insecticides has disrupted natural enemy populations, highlighting the need for safer alternatives to integrate into pest management strategies. Limited research exists on the toxicity of commercial and bio-rational insecticides on beneficial insects. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the toxicity of various insecticides and botanicals in a laboratory setting to determine which pesticide is safest for M. discolor and to assess its mortality. The experiment followed a completely randomized design with five treatments: Azadirachtin 0.03% EC, garlic extract, Dimethoate 30% EC, Chlorpyrifos 50% EC + Cypermethrin 5% EC, and a control, each replicated five times. Mortality rates were recorded at 24, 48, and 72 hours' post-exposure. The results showed that M. discolor was significantly affected by Chlorpyrifos 50% EC + Cypermethrin 5% EC, which caused the highest mortality (86%) after 72 hours, followed by Dimethoate (74%). Among the tested substances, garlic extract was the safest, with a mortality rate of 54%, although still higher than the control, which exhibited no mortality. These findings highlight the potential of botanical extracts as safer alternatives for pest management, aiding in the conservation of beneficial insect populations. Furthermore, in order to promote sustainable agriculture, future research should concentrate on developing safer substitutes that reduce damage to pollinators, parasitoids, and natural predators while preserving efficient pest control.
... Synthetic insecticide applications can signi cantly reduce aphid populations, but they also deter bene cial arthropods that contribute to pest control (Shaw and Wallis 2008). This disruption of natural ecological processes can lead to resistance, pest resurgence or outbreaks of non-target pests, which can signi cantly in uence the effectiveness of aphid management strategies in apple orchards (Dutcher 2007). ...
Apple is a major fruit crop worldwide and the most produced fruit in Germany. However, apple orchards face persistent threats from aphid infestations, which can severely compromise fruit yields. In this study we compared aphid infestation levels in commercial apple orchards under organic and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) at three stages of the apple growing season: fruit-setting, fruit-growing and post-harvest, and in two habitats. We sampled eight organic and eight IPM apple orchards in eastern Germany using standardised canopy beating of apple trees and suction sampling in the orchard alleys. Our results indicate no significant differences in canopy aphid infestation between organic and IPM orchards. However, aphid communities in the tree canopy of organic orchards exhibited greater evenness across species compared to IPM orchards. Eriosoma lanigerum consistently dominated the aphid community of the tree canopies in both management systems, highlighting the need for targeted management practices for this pest. Aphid community structure varied significantly across sampling periods in the canopy and orchard alleys. Differences between organic and IPM orchards were observed during the fruit-setting phase in orchard alleys, with higher levels of infestation in organic orchards. Species such as Macrosiphum euphorbiae , Dysaphis spp., Aphis spiraecola , and Rhopalosiphum insertum contributed to these differences. Our findings provide a better understanding of the temporal dynamics of aphid communities in commercial apple orchards and highlight the importance of pest management strategies that consider different habitats and periods.
... (Desneux et al. 2007) [8] . Secondary pest attacks resulted from pesticides eradicating natural enemies from the field (Dutcher 2007) [10] . Crop losses associated with pests have remained unchanged significantly over the last few decades, despite an increase in the use of pesticides. ...
The effect of pesticides on insect natural enemies of tea pest were carried out under field conditions. The insect population was studied before and after spraying of six different commonly using approved insecticides, two biopesticides and unsprayed control field in Tea. The study revealed that pesticide impact on natural enemies like predators and parasitoid populations varies depend up on the class and mode of action of the pesticides. The pesticides like synthetic pyrethroid class of chemicals causing the maximum damage on tea pest natural enemies followed by organophosphates. The study revealed that the minimum impact on natural enemies caused by the neonicotinoid group of chemicals.
... This phenomenon creates a vicious cycle of escalating pesticide use and ultimately exacerbates the problem. Furthermore, these chemicals wreak havoc on natural enemies and beneficial insects, leaving the door open for secondary pest outbreaks and further ecological damage [7][8][9][10]. The long-term consequences of this disruption are far-reaching, impacting soil health, biodiversity, and overall sustainability. ...
Global warming fuels pest infestations, causing massive crop losses and economic damage. Chemical insecticides, though initially effective, come with a heavy toll: environmental harm, health risks, and resistance development. Their overuse creates a vicious cycle, leading to even more pesticide use and devastating consequences for beneficial insects, soil, water, and human health making our current agricultural practices unsustainable. Phyto-insecticides derived from plants are safer and more sustainable alternatives that boast a long history of use and diverse modes of action, making it harder for pests to develop resistance. They pose lower risks to human health and the environment and can be produced sustainably from renewable plant sources. While promising, phyto-insecticides face hurdles. Limited plant biomass, variable effectiveness, and unstable formulations hinder their commercialization. However, innovative solutions are emerging: (1) callus culture: this technique offers a sustainable way to mass-produce valuable secondary metabolites like Azadirachtin and Pyrethrin; (2) understanding insect interactions: Deciphering how these compounds interact with insects paves the way for effective utilization and formulation design; (3) nanotechnology: nanoparticles enhance stability, bioavailability, and targeted delivery, boosting efficacy and reducing environmental impact. Excitingly, trace amounts of phyto-insecticide residues may offer additional benefits. Some compounds, like Azadirachtin, Piperine etc., possess potential nutraceutical properties, promoting bone health, managing diabetes, and even fighting cancer. This opens the door to “nutraresidiceuticals,” where food treated with phyto-insecticides might enhance consumer health. Phyto-insecticides hold immense potential as a sustainable and effective pest management strategy. By addressing challenges related to biomass, formulation, and understanding their modes of action, we can unlock their full potential for a healthier and more sustainable future. Additionally, exploring the potential “nutraresidiceutical” benefits opens up exciting new avenues for research and development.
... However, soon after this introduction, serious trade-offs became apparent. Insecticides hit non-target predatory arthropods, which weakened the natural regulation of herbivore populations and caused outbreaks of primary and secondary insect pests, i.e., surges of previously harmless herbivores (Settle et al. 1996;Dutcher 2007). Pesticides have welldocumented negative impacts on water quality (e.g., Mahai et al. 2021;Tröger et al. 2021;Stehle & Schulz 2015) and on human health (Kim et al. 2017). ...
To attain food security, we must minimize crop losses caused by weed growth, animal herbivores, and pathogens (or “pests”). Today, crop production depends heavily on the use of chemical pesticides (or “pesticides”) to protect the crops. However, pesticides are phased out as they lose efficiency due to pest resistance, and few new pesticides are appearing on the market. In addition, policies and national action programs are implemented with the aim of reducing pesticide risks. We must redesign our cropping systems to successfully protect our crops against pests using fewer or no pesticides. In this review, I focus on the principles for redesigning the crop ecosystem. Ecological redesign aims to enhance ecological functions in order to regulate pest populations and diminish crop losses. Exploring ecology and ecosystems plays an important role in this transition. Guiding principles for redesigning the cropping system can be drawn from understanding its ecology. Ecosystem and community ecologists have identified four principal ecological characteristics that enhance the biotic regulation of ecological processes across ecosystems: (i) advanced ecosystem succession through introducing and conserving perennial crops and landscape habitats; (ii) reduced disturbance frequency and intensity; (iii) an increase in both managed and wild functional biological diversity, above and below ground; and (iv) matched spatial extent of land use (e.g., crop field size) with that of ecological processes (e.g., dispersal capacity of predators). I review the practices that link these ecosystem characteristics to crop protection in grain commodity cropping in both the crop field and the agricultural landscape. The review brings forth how basic understandings drawn from ecosystem and community ecology can guide agricultural research in the redesign of cropping systems, ensuring that technologies, breeding, innovation, and policy are adapted to and support the reshaped crop ecosystem.
... Fungicides, however, can negatively impact EPF by killing these beneficial fungi and contributing to pest outbreaks and resurgence. For instance, fungicides used to treat pecan scab have been shown to kill EPF that control pecan aphids, necessitating additional insecticide applications to prevent secondary outbreaks (Dutcher, 2007;Pickering et al., 1990). ...
This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the classification, biology, and management of Drosophila species (Diptera: Drosophilidae) with a focus on entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) as a biocontrol strategy. Drosophila species, particularly Drosophila suzukii, and Drosophila melanogaster have emerged as significant pests in various agricultural systems, causing extensive damage to fruit crops. Understanding their taxonomic classification and biological traits is crucial for developing effective management strategies. This review delves into the life cycle, behavior, and ecological interactions of Drosophila species, highlighting the challenges posed by their rapid reproduction and adaptability. The review further explores the potential of EPF as an eco-friendly alternative to chemical pesticides. The mode of action of EPF against Drosophila species is examined, including spore adhesion, germination, and penetration of the insect cuticle, leading to host death. Factors influencing the efficacy of EPF, such as environmental conditions, fungal virulence, and host specificity, are discussed in detail. By synthesizing current research, this review aims to provide valuable insights into the application of EPF and to identify future research directions for enhancing the effectiveness of EPF-based control measures against Drosophila species.
Plasma is considered as the fourth state of matter, and atmospheric cold plasma (cold plasma) is a type of plasma consisting of ionized gases containing excited species of atoms, molecules, ions, and free radicals at near room temperature. Cold plasma is generated by applying high voltage to gases, causing it to ionize thus forming plasma. Although cold plasma has been found to break seed dormancy and improve germination rate, only a few studies have explored the potential of cold plasma against insect herbivory. Given that cold plasma produces reactive oxygen and nitrogen species that can activate plant signalling molecules, it is plausible that cold plasma can have differential effects against insect herbivores. To test this, we evaluated the effectiveness of cold plasma on a polyphagous lepidopteran pest, Fall armyworm (FAW) [Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)] on rice (Oryza sativa L.) using an atmospheric plasma jet reactor that generated cold plasma using ambient air as the source gas. We treated rice seeds from two commonly grown Arkansas cultivars (Jewel and Diamond) with cold plasma, followed by irrigation with Cold Plasma-Activated Water (PAW). We then independently tested FAW growth on an artificial diet partially made with PAW. Our results show that cold plasma significantly affected the feeding, growth, and development of FAW, irrespective of the rice varieties. The effects of cold plasma treatment resulted in reduced damage by FAW, lower mass gain and longer pupation period on FAW compared to the untreated control. However, the effects of cold plasma on rice growth and development were dependent on the rice varieties. Cold plasma treatment also induced detrimental effects on FAW leading to ~ 25% mortality on cold plasma-treated plants when compared to untreated controls. Collectively, these findings offer significant evidence of the potential of cold plasma as a novel component for sustainable pest management.
Release of the predatory mites, Galendromus occidentalis (Nesbitt) and Phytoseuilis persimilis Athias-Henhot, suppressed or controlled populations of pecan leaf scorch mite (Eotetranychus hicoriae McGregor [Acari:Tetranychidae]) in an 18-yr-old 'Desirable' pecan orchard. Predators controlled a low population (4.4 pecan leaf scorch mites and eggs per leaf in untreated trees) of pecan leaf scorch mites in the 2002 season at 28 days after the release date. In 2003, both species of predatory mites were released at 500 and 1000 mites per tree in the center tree of a 25-tree, square plot (0.41 ha). Untreated trees had 63, 240, and 38 pecan leaf scorch mites and eggs per leaf at 6, 10, and 24 d postrelease, respectively. Pecan leaf scorch mites were controlled at this high population density in the release area 24 d after the release. Release of the mites at 500 and 1000 G. occidentalis mites per tree reduced the pecan leaf scorch mite infestation by 67 and 91%, respectively. Release of 500 and 1000 P. persimilis mites per tree reduced the pecan leaf scorch mite infestation by 90 and 98%, respectively. Predatory mite releases appear to provide an effective management tactic for pecan leaf scorch mite for pecan producers in Georgia.
The CTV-BrCA complex represents a real threat to citrus production in the countries of the Caribbean Basin and Central and North America. The promptness in recognizing the situation by scientists, government officials, and citrus growers of this geographical area will pay dividends by delaying the occurrence of CTV epidemics. Immediate strategies should include preventing any further introduction of any severe CTV isolate into the region, and preventing any further dissemination of the virus via infected budwood. Continued education is essential to make prevention work as well and as long as possible. Eradication and suppression should be considered where the number of infected trees is small and they are restricted to well-defined locations. Largescale suppression should be guided by analysis of cost-benefit ratios and accurate survey information. Long-range movement of plant materials infested with the BrCA should be carefully avoided. Field evaluation of alternate rootstocks is essential in all areas where sour orange is threatened by CTV. Intermediate strategies include deployment of MSCP as other options fail, especially in the context of an integrated pest management scheme (61). Long-range strategies include development of immune scion varieties through genetic engineering and breeding. Several areas that need additional research have been identified by scientists and citrus growers at the various international workshops held in Costa Rica in 1991 and in Venezuela in 1992 (27,29). These areas are summarized as follows: 1) development of rapid methods to differentiate among mild, DI, and SP strains of CTV; 2) development of virus resistance in commercially desirable cultivars by either biotechnology methods, including somatic hybridization, production of transgenic plants, and genetic engineering approaches, or conventional breeding to transfer the CTV immunity present in some citrus relatives into acceptable cultivars; 3) gathering of data on distribution and spread of CTV, as affected by strains of CTV, vector type, and dynamics, hosts, and location effects; 4) developing a better understanding of virus-aphid relationships to determine how CTV is affected by aphid species, virus strain, and hosts; 5) developing biological control methods for the BrCA as part of an integrated pest management system to reduce spread of CTV; and 6) developing improved methods of MSCP
The interrelationship of an Iranian ecotype of Trioxys pallidas (Hal.) (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae) and the walnut aphid, Chromaphis juglandicola (Kale), (Homoptera: Callaphididae), was assessed over a 4-year period at two localities in California. Limited additional data were obtained from other localities. Trioxys pallidas, a highly efficient parasite, which is biologically adapted to and phenologically synchronized with C. juglandicola, has brought about substantial biological control of this pest. Trioxys pallidus substantially dampens the aphid’s vernal oscillation, and normally restrains the amplitude of the summer and autumnal oscillations. Major economic benefits have been realized by the elimination of the aphid as a pest in springtime. Trioxys pallidus is at times heavily attacked by non-specific hyperparasites, but these, at most, hinder it but slightly. Certain insecticides can disrupt T. pallidus activity, permitting aphid outbreaks. Prolonged aphid scarcity, possibly abetted by hyperparasitism, also may cause a breakdown in parasite activity and a temporary aphid resurgence in midseason. During the 4 years of investigation, this occurred on one occasion in one of the study plots. More than one-half million dollars have accrued annually to the California walnut industry as a result of the C. juglandicola biological control program.
Blackmargined aphid (Monellia caryella (Davis)) became problematic in pecan orchards after broad-spectrum insecticides destroyed populations of aphidophagous insects and aphids developed resistance to certain pyrethroid and carbamate insecticides. Pecan entomology research has found long-term solutions through inoculative release of aphid predators and enhancement techniques for aphidophagous insects. Effective enhancement techniques included: selective insecticides for control of direct kernel feeding pests; planting intercrops to provide alternate prey for predators; application of supplemental food sprays to the tree crown; reducing the frequency of fungicide applications to conserve entomopathogenic fungi; and, control of ants as secondary predators of aphidophaga. The recent use of biorational insecticides and the establishment of the multicolored Asian ladybeetle (Harmonia axyridis Pallas) in pecan orchards in the southeastern U.S. have greatly improved biological control of blackmargined aphid. Enhancement techniques developed prior to these two events are now outdated. Two ladybeetle enhancement techniques were tested in controlled field experiments in a pecan orchard with an established multicolored Asian ladybeetle population to determine the effects on the abundance of blackmargined aphid and associated aphidophagous insects on pecan leaves. A trunk spray of chlorpyrifos prevented red imported fire ants from foraging in the tree crown and interfering with ladybeetles and lacewings. In two of three seasons the trunk spray resulted in significant reductions in blackmargined aphid abundance in the pecan trees. Application of a dilute solution of molasses and baker's yeast to the pecan foliage was associated with significant changes in the abundance of aphids and aphidophaga in the tree crown.
The pecan serpentine leafminer, Stigmella juglandifoliella (Clemens), found on pecan in Georgia has a single life stage dominant in a commercial orchard at any given time. Sampling larvae and determining the time when pupation occurred was an effective forecasting tool for peak adult emergence. Single applications of carbaryl, dimethoate, diflubenzuron, or fenvalerate, timed to coincide with peak adult emergence, effectively controlled the following leafminer generation. However, carbonyl did not maintain a high degree of control. Larvicides applied to pecan foliage for control of S. juglandifoliella and Cameraria caryaefoliella (Clemens) did not effectively reduce these larval populations.