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Predictors of Underreporting of Male Violence by Batterer Program Participants and Their Partners
Abstract
Self-reports on domestic violence inventories remain the basis of court and clinical decision-making and program outcome evaluations, but previous research questions their reliability and validity. Accurate prediction of underreporting would help practitioners and researchers adjust batterer and victim self-reports. We develop prediction equations of underreporting on the Conflict Tactics Scale, using a multi-site database of men admitted to batterer programs and their female partners (n = 840). First we use variables measured at program intake to predict female and male underreporting of male violence at program intake. Second, we use variables measured at program intake, as well as measures of program participation, to predict male-female disagreement (male underreporting) at 12-month follow-up. Several variables were predictive of underreporting, both at intake and follow-up, but overall prediction was marginally better than chance. The findings suggest that men and women underreport based on situational factors (such as relationship characteristics) and rational reasons, rather than based on personality traits or social desirability. However, the ability to predict underreporting is too weak for adjustment of self-reports by clinicians and program evaluators.
... Experiencing physical violence or threats of harm from an intimate partner may generate fear of that partner (Dichter & Gelles, 2012;Neill & Peterson, 2014). Some studies have shown that fear of her partner-or, specifically, of her partner's reprisal-discourages a woman from reporting IPV to police (Allen, 2007;Felson, Messner, Hoskin, & Deane, 2002;Felson & Pare, 2005;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000;Wolf, Ly, Hobart, & Kernic, 2003). Other reasons for not reporting IPV to police include embarrassment, stigma, emotional attachment to abuser, economic dependence on abuser, desire to protect one's children, worry that one's participation in illegal activities will be discovered, and potential expense of court actions (Allen, 2007;Felson et al., 2002;Felson & Pare, 2005;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000). ...
... Some studies have shown that fear of her partner-or, specifically, of her partner's reprisal-discourages a woman from reporting IPV to police (Allen, 2007;Felson, Messner, Hoskin, & Deane, 2002;Felson & Pare, 2005;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000;Wolf, Ly, Hobart, & Kernic, 2003). Other reasons for not reporting IPV to police include embarrassment, stigma, emotional attachment to abuser, economic dependence on abuser, desire to protect one's children, worry that one's participation in illegal activities will be discovered, and potential expense of court actions (Allen, 2007;Felson et al., 2002;Felson & Pare, 2005;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000). In turn, researchers have reported that police contact concerning IPV becomes relatively likely when a woman fears for her life (Chen & Ullman, 2010;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000;Thompson & Kingree, 2006). ...
... Other reasons for not reporting IPV to police include embarrassment, stigma, emotional attachment to abuser, economic dependence on abuser, desire to protect one's children, worry that one's participation in illegal activities will be discovered, and potential expense of court actions (Allen, 2007;Felson et al., 2002;Felson & Pare, 2005;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000). In turn, researchers have reported that police contact concerning IPV becomes relatively likely when a woman fears for her life (Chen & Ullman, 2010;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000;Thompson & Kingree, 2006). A 2002 study noted that fear for one's personal safety fostered rather than inhibited police contacts by victimized women (Felson et al., 2002). ...
A study of 3,226 women asked if physical IPV (intimate partner violence), injury, concern for personal safety, and demographic characteristics affected their reporting of the IPV to police. Logistic regressions with data from the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey showed that likelihood of such reporting was associated in a positive direction with ( a) having been physically abused 31 or more times in the preceding year, ( b) injury, ( c) concern for personal safety, ( d) family income of 25,000–49,999, and ( e) education. Moreover, likelihood of women’s contact with police was associated in a negative direction with other minority ethnicity. In contrast, no associations were found between likelihood of police contact and ( a) having been physically abused 30 or fewer times in the preceding year, ( b) African-American ethnicity, ( c) Latina ethnicity, ( d) age, ( e) being married, and ( f) perpetration of violence by current, rather than former, partner. Implications for IPV awareness and education programs are noted.
... Researchers find that approximately 41% of batterers re-assault within the first six months and almost half of child sex offenders sexually re-offend within four years (Gondolf, 2000;Marshall & Barbaree, 1988). It may be important to assess the extent to which depression, anxiety and dysfunctional impulsivity are differentially contributing to recidivism in each offender group and tailor treatment strategies to offender specific psychological deficits. ...
... Generalizability is limited by the self-report nature of the instruments. Previous studies using self-report questionnaires indicate that offenders tend to underreport abusive behavior, although neither offender group scored particularly high in social desirability (Heckert & Gondolf, 2000). Structured interviews may increase the validity of responses, allowing clinicians to gain a more complete picture of violent offenders. ...
... There are several possible explanations for the findings on this issue. As suggested by Heckert and Gondolf (2000), most of the underreporting, minimization, and external attributions observed among court-ordered DV offenders may be attributable to situational rather than dispositional factors. Most people, under the threat of additional court-ordered treatments, more intensive supervision, probation revocation, and longer separation from one's family, would probably minimize and deny prior antisocial behavior. ...
... Why are some men willing to acknowledge responsibility for aggressive behavior whereas others minimize and deny? Only a few studies can be found in the literature addressing this topic (e.g., Cantos et al., 1993;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000). Similarly, researchers might be interested in exploring the effect of men's minimization, denial, and externalization of blame on their victims. ...
Male domestic violence (DV) offenders often minimize their aggression or attribute blame to their partner. These distortions make it difficult to obtain accurate self-report information and men who engage in significant denial are less compliant with treatment. It is also commonly believed that batterers who minimize, deny, and blame their victim are more dangerous than men who accept responsibility for their actions. Data to support this latter opinion remain limited, however, and the few studies that are available have produced mixed findings. In this study, measures of minimization, denial, attributions, and socially desirable responding were collected from a large sample of convicted DV offenders (N = 2,824). Analyses examined the association between these scales and new DV police reports. Little evidence was found to support the hypothesis that minimization, denial, and victim blaming are associated with increased recidivism. Explanations for these findings and suggestions for further study are discussed.
... While victim reports are extremely valuable in assessing program participant change, the feedback provided from victims in this study was minimal and mirrored that of prior research (Gregory & Erez, 2002;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000). The program included a "graduation celebration" where participants were encouraged to bring their families and significant others. ...
This study presents findings from a community-based organization (CBO) intimate partner abuser intervention pilot project. The project demonstrated outcomes for high program retention, low recidivism for new domestic-violence arrests, and discernible cognitive change in reductions of denial and increased acceptance of personal responsibility for acts of interpersonal abuse. Thirty-two participants of the cohort (N = 47) finished the 52-week program. Thirty-months post-intake revealed one program completer was arrested for new domestic violence charges. During that same time frame, five of the fifteen non-completers were rearrested for new domestic violence charges. The program used a 52-session multimodal curriculum designed with evidence-based clinical interventions, adult learning strategies, and Risk/Needs/Responsivity (RNR) principles. The CBO received funding from a private Christian foundation to provide the classes free of charge to all participants who were either voluntary (N = 2) or mandated (N = 45). A repeated measurement design evaluated participant’s cognitive changes and acceptance of personal responsibility at intake and 14-weeks after starting the program. Both victim and participant self-assessments of perceived cognitive change were obtained during and after program completion.
... As such, it may be the case that very high or very low scores on the modifying indices are not necessarily indicative of invalid profiles, but that, particularly in an IPV sample, this type of response set may be interpretable as clinically and forensically relevant information (Gibbons et al., 2011). Measures of minimization and malingering, particularly to an extreme level, are important sources of clinical information in IPV research and worthy of analysis (Heckert & Gondolf, 2000a, 2000b. ...
Self-report personality inventories may be useful in directing perpetrators of intimate partner violence (IPV) to appropriate intervention programs. They may also have predictive capabilities in assessing the likelihood of desistance or persistence of IPV. However, validity problems are inherent in self-report clinical tools, particularly in forensic settings. Scores of the modifying indices (subsections of the scale designed to detect biases in responding) of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III (MCMI-III) often are not reported in research. This study analyses the response sets of a sample of 492 IPV perpetrators at intake to a Danish perpetrator program. Profiles were grouped into levels of severity, and the proportion of exaggerated or minimized profiles at each severity level was analyzed. Findings suggested that 30% of the present sample were severely disturbed or exaggerating their symptoms. As expected, there were significant levels of exaggerated profiles present in the severe pathology group and significant levels of minimized profiles in the low pathology group. Self-referred participants were more likely to exaggerate their pathology, but minimization was not associated with referral status. Nor was there an association between gender and the modifying indices. It is suggested that so-called “fake good” or “fake bad” profiles should not necessarily be treated as invalid, but that elevations in the modifying indices can be interpreted as clinically and forensically relevant information in their own right and should be reported on in research.
... On an individual level, the perpetrators minimize the severity of the assault and deny the violence [34]. This silence is experienced by women as a "burden". ...
Gender-based violence is a widespread phenomenon and pandemic that affects women’s lives. Many interventions have been activated for perpetrators, but the dropout rate is still high. In order to draw up guidelines for responsibly and sustainably dealing with the phenomenon, this study is aimed at investigating the professionals’ perception of the perpetrator as a useful element in designing innovative intervention policies. Open interviews were carried out with welfare and health professionals and the Grounded Theory Methodology was used to analyze the collected data. These results detect attitudes of social health personnel and their feelings of impotence towards gender-based perpetrators because of the emergence of an inevitable repetitiveness of the violent behavior, as well as the “normality of violence” in a patriarchal culture and its “transversality”. This reflective knowledge allows for the opportunity to develop best transformative attitudes toward the phenomenon. According to the results, it is urgent to establish an active and convinced alliance with the healthy part of the man, through specific prevention paths, in order to activate an authentic motivation for change and its sustainability.
... La evaluación de la disminución (Edleson, 1995;Heckert y Gondolf, 2000) y reincidencia en los abusos (Echeburúa y Amor, 1998;Mullender, 2000) (Jackson et al., 2003;Laing, 2002). El Grading of Recommendation Assesment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) System of Rating Quality of Evidence and Grading Strenght of Recommendations in Systematic Reviews (Guyatt, Oxman, Akl, Kunz, Vist y Brozek, 2011) evalúa la calidad de las evidencias de los estudios incluidos en las revisiones sistemáticas y los metaanálisis, y considera el ensayo controlado aleatorizado (ECA) como el tipo de estudio ideal para la investigación científica en la materia. ...
Este texto revisa resultados de investigaciones en torno a los posibles problemas metodológicos en el estudio sobre la efectividad de las intervenciones basadas en la Terapia Cognitivo Conductual -TCC- para hombres que violentan a su pareja mujer. Se identifican evaluaciones desde una lógica experimental sobre el efecto del tratamiento, y trabajos multidisciplinarios que evalúan aspectos particulares del programa. Los estudios son escasos, con moderada o baja calidad en sus evidencias y no es posible elaborar conclusiones sobre su efectividad debido a retos teórico-metodológicos para estas intervenciones, que aumentan la probabilidad de resultados negativos cuando se evalúan con diseños experimentales. Los problemas teórico-metodológicos se originan en los estándares de programas con “visión restringida” y en criterios tradicionales sobre los diseños de estudio experimentales y su potencial para evaluar efectividad. Se expone una propuesta desde el campo de las neurociencias cognitivas para conocer de manera más eficaz la efectividad de estos tratamientos. Son necesarios los abordajes interdisciplinares para el diseño, implementación y evaluación de efectividad de estas intervenciones reeducativas.
... La evaluación de la disminución (Edleson, 1995;Heckert y Gondolf, 2000) y reincidencia en los abusos (Echeburúa y Amor, 1998;Mullender, 2000) es uno de los puntos débiles de estas intervenciones (Department of Justice and Community Safety, 2001;Híjar y Valdez-Santiago, 2008), ya que, por lo general, no existen evaluaciones rigurosas (Geldschläger, et al. 2010) ni suficiente evidencia acerca de su eficacia (Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, 2001;Feder y Wilson, 2005); esta carencia de datos puede impedir que se tomen decisiones políticas informadas (Jackson et al., 2003;Laing, 2002). El Grading of Recommendation Assesment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) System of Rating Quality of Evidence and Grading Strenght of Recommendations in Systematic Reviews (Guyatt, Oxman, Akl, Kunz, Vist y Brozek, 2011) evalúa la calidad de las evidencias de los estudios incluidos en las revisiones sistemáticas y los metaanálisis, y considera el ensayo controlado aleatorizado (ECA) como el tipo de estudio ideal para la investigación científica en la materia. ...
This article intends to identify methodological problems in studying the effectiveness of Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)-based interventions for men who abuse their female partners and who voluntarily attend treatment. Using the systematic review method, only one study was found that met the specified criteria but had significant methodological limitations. Subsequently, a comparison was made with two other assessments to identify explanations for such limitations and the poor conduct of these studies. We corroborated that studies are scarce, and their evidence is of moderate or low quality; thus, it is not possible to draw conclusions on their effectiveness. There are theoretical-methodological challenges in the design and implementation of these interventions that increase the probability of negative outcomes when evaluated based on experimental designs as an ideal parameter. We identified assessments of treatment effect from an experimental logic and multidisciplinary works that evaluate particular aspects of the program. There are theoretical-methodological problems in interventions and the assessment of effectiveness, arising from the standards of programs with a “restricted
view,” and in studies with experimental designs as an ideal parameter to know the impact of interventions. It is necessary to include these debates in the ethical discussion of public health.
... One of the risk factors for perpetrating physical aggression for both men and women was being physically victimized by a partner (O'Leary, Tintle, & Bromet, 2014). Also, physical aggression victimization and psychological aggression perpetration have been found to be significant predictors of physical aggression perpetration (Heckert & Gondolf, 2000), which was confirmed in our study as well. Although previous research showed psychological victimization was one of the strongest predictors of physical aggression perpetration for both men and women in relationships (Baker & Stith, 2008;Fernández-Fuertes & Fuertes, 2010), in our correlation analyses, for women, while statistically significant, psychological aggression victimization was less strongly correlated with physical aggression perpetration, than for men. ...
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is identified as a human rights abuse which happens everywhere regardless of the society and culture. This study addressed risk markers for physical IPV victimization and perpetration among men and women in Tehran, Iran. Data were collected from 250 participants (111 men and 139 women) in Tehran who reported perpetrating or experiencing IPV at least once in the past year. In this article, we sought to understand risk markers for both male and female physical IPV victimization and perpetration and whether these risk markers differed by gender. We used regression analyses to test two models with males and females separately. Results indicated that for males, physical aggression perpetration was a significant predictor of physical aggression victimization, and physical aggression victimization, psychological aggression victimization, and psychological aggression perpetration were significant predictors of physical aggression perpetration. For females, psychological aggression victimization and physical aggression perpetration were significant predictors of physical aggression victimization, and physical aggression victimization and psychological aggression perpetration were significant predictors of physical aggression perpetration. These results can be helpful in efforts to develop effective interventions for people at risk of IPV in Iran.
... While partner violence is an often-discussed and serious consequence of drinking, it is rarely reported in Swiss population surveys. Many individuals may be reluctant to accuse their partner or spouse of serious violence in a phone interview, even when anonymity has been guaranteed (Heckert & Gondolf, 2000). Serious harm, particularly from known people, may more often be related to alcohol use disorders within the family, and therefore be rarer than less serious harms, occurring due to heavy drinking occasions by many persons, including strangers, on weekends in the night-time economy, which is a more common situation of young adults drinking (Wilkinson, 2015). ...
Background and Aims: Alcohol consumption not only causes harm to the drinker, but also affects other people around the drinker. The prevalence of being affected by others’ drinking was estimated in Switzerland for the year 2011/2012. Methods: Data were collected in the context of the Addiction Monitoring in Switzerland (AMIS). Two thousand four hundred and seventy four subjects participated in computer assisted telephone interviews in a representative survey of the Swiss adult (15+ years) population. Results: In the past 12 months, 52.2% of the Swiss population was affected by others’ drinking in some way. Young adults were affected more often than older persons (p < 0.001) and men were more often affected than women (OR = 0.84; p < 0.05). Compared to abstainers, low risk drinkers (OR = 1.46; p < 0.05), risky single occasion drinkers (RSOD) (OR = 1.95; p < 0.001), and heavy drinkers (OR = 1.88; p < 0.01) were more often affected. The dominant type of harm was harm in public space (like harassment or being afraid because of others’ drinking) which was reported by 45.7% of the sample. Conclusion: More than half of the Swiss population was affected by others’ drinking in at least one way. Alcohol use is associated with psychological and physiological burden for persons other than the drinkers themselves.
... Our study does not explore whether the discrepancies are caused by underreporting by clients or overreporting by partners. However, other studies suggest that men using IPV tend to underreport their violent behavior (Dutton & Hemphill, 1992;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000b). ...
Most studies examining couple agreement on intimate partner violence (IPV) have found low agreement on levels of violence. This study explored agreement on male-perpetrated IPV in a sample of 93 couples where the man was voluntarily seeking IPV treatment. Five different types of violence were assessed: physical, physically controlling, psychological, property, and sexual. The results were mixed. When disagreement was found, this resulted from men attending IPV treatment reporting less violence than their partners. However, only psychological violence was consistently reported differently. Reliability estimates ranged from poor to moderate. Couples reported on sexual violence with less reliability than physical or physically controlling violence when referring to a typical month last year. Measurement of different types of violence among both partners in a couple is recommended in clinical and research settings as well as thorough discussions with clients voluntarily enrolled in treatment for IPV on what constitutes violence.
... However, women are often reluctant to involve the police; in Canada, the percentage of female victims who reported or had the incident reported to police dropped from 36% to 30% from 2009 to 2010 (Brennan & Dauvergne, 2011). This reluctance may reflect fears of the consequences to their partners, such as lost wages, or being threatened by their partners about what would happen to them or their children if they were to contact the authorities (Feder & Wilson, 2006;Heckert &Gondolf, 2000). ...
Both specialized domestic violence (DV) courts and batterer intervention programs were developed to more adequately address intimate partner abuse and recidivism; however, little research has studied them concurrently. The current research examined clinical outcomes and police-reported recidivism in 382 men mandated to attend the Calgary Counselling Centre’s Responsible Choices for Men’s (RCM) groups between 1998 and 2009, before and after a specialized DV court was established in 2001. The study examines associations between categorical demographic and criminal justice variables, most of which were not correlated with post-group recidivism. Before the specialized court was implemented, 45 RCM members reported significantly more clinical issues at pretest than the 282 RCM members after court implementation (all scores adjusted by social desirability), although the effect sizes were negligible. Regarding group outcomes, depression, anxiety, and self-esteem (adjusted for social desirability) significantly improved on average for all RCM members irrespective of court implementation. Before the specialized DV court was developed, recidivism occurred after RCM program completion for a large proportion of men (41.2%), compared with only 8.2% after court implementation, a significant difference with a moderate effect size. The recidivism results are interpreted in the context of the significant justice and community collaborations entailed in creating the specialized DV court.
... Our study does not explore whether the discrepancies are caused by underreporting by clients or overreporting by partners. However, other studies suggest that men using IPV tend to underreport their violent behavior (Dutton & Hemphill, 1992;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000b). ...
Most studies examining couple agreement on intimate partner violence (IPV) have found low agreement on levels of violence. This study explored agreement on male-perpetrated IPV in a sample of 93 couples where the man was voluntarily seeking IPV treatment. Five different types of violence were assessed: physical, physically controlling, psychological, property, and sexual. The results were mixed. When disagreement was found, this resulted from men attending IPV treatment reporting less violence than their partners. However, only psychological violence was consistently reported differently. Reliability estimates ranged from poor to moderate. Couples reported on sexual violence with less reliability than physical or physically controlling violence when referring to a typical month last year. Measurement of different types of violence among both partners in a couple is recommended in clinical and research settings as well as thorough discussions with clients voluntarily enrolled in treatment for IPV on what constitutes violence.
... At present, however, there are no empirically validated methods for predicting who will complete IPV treatment and who is at risk for committing post-IPV treatment recidivism. Furthermore, the validity of IPV perpetrator self-reports has been called into question because of the general lack of acceptance of violence against women and the perpetrators' interest in minimizing or denying their violent behaviors (Catlett, Toews, & Walilko, 2010;Cunradi, Bersamin, & Ames, 2009;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000;Helfritz et al., 2006;Henning, Jones, & Holdford, 2005;Schafer, Caetano, & Clark, 2002;Smith, 2001;Wallach & Sela, 2008). A screening instrument that uses both indirect (criterion keyed) and direct (face valid) methods of assessment and that could accurately predict the likelihood of treatment completion and recidivism would be beneficial for counselors, perpetrators, and victims. ...
This study explored the potential value of the Substance Abuse Subtle Screening Inventory–3 (SASSI-3; F. G. Miller & Lazowski, 1999) as a means of predicting program attrition and recidivism among perpetrators of intimate partner violence, concluding that the SASSI-3 is not an adequate predictor.
... Babcock, Green & Robie, 2004;Hamberger & Hastings, 1993;Rosenfeld, 1992;Silvergleid & Mankowski, 2006). Evaluation studies have mainly relied on the clients' and victims' self-reporting measures and various objective scales to indicate change (Heckert & Gondolf, 2000a;2000b). Some evaluation studies indicate that programs are at least modestly successful at preventing further abuse (Rothman, Butchart & Cerdá, 2003). ...
... Some researchers have found that females may be more inclined to report self-aggression toward a partner if used for self-defense (Cascardi & Vivian, 1995); however, how and why self-reports of IPV perpetration vary by sex and ethnicity is not yet well known. In a study of underreporting male violence, males who were younger, married, and had a higher occupational status were more likely to underreport acts of physical assault against an intimate partner (Heckert & Gondolf, 2000). In this study, White males had a tendency to underreport physical violence perpetration, compared to ethnic minority males; however, this difference was not statistically significant. ...
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a public health problem that reaches across age, sex, and ethnicity. In this study, we examined risk factors for physical IPV perpetration among young adult males and females from four ethnic groups. Data were taken from Waves 1–3 of the National
Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). The sample included 10,141 Wave 3 respondents (ages ranged from 18–27 years old) who reported being in a current romantic relationship. Physical IPV perpetration was reported by 14.10% of White, 23.28% of Black, 18.82% of Latino,
and 18.02% of Asian males. Physical IPV perpetration was reported by 19.01% of White, 24.80% of Black, 25.97% of Latina, and 19.21% of Asian females. Following an ecological framework, proximal risk factors at intrapersonal and interpersonal levels were included in the analyses. Despite finding
fairly consistent percentage of physical IPV perpetration across sample groups, the risk factors for physical IPV perpetration were rather uncommon across sex and ethnicity. Only 1 factor—psychological IPV perpetration toward a romantic partner—was consistently associated with
physical IPV perpetration across all groups. Our findings have implications for tailoring prevention and intervention efforts toward risk factors of physical IPV perpetration that are uniquely associated with biological sex and ethnicity.
... They stated that in addition to self-reports, other measures, such as truthfulness, coping abilities, and assertiveness must be used, because the group members' self-interest can lead to distortions in the information they give. Batterers are more likely than victims to deny their violence at program intake and are more likely to minimize the level of severity of the violence (Heckert & Gondolf, 2000;van Wormer & Bartollas, 2000), partly because they know that group leaders are making reports to their probation officers (Weisz et al., 2012). ...
This study reports group leaders’ assessment of group members’
risk for reassault and level of accountability during a
psychoeducational group intervention with male domestic violence
perpetrators. It also examines members’ assessment of their own
risk for reassault and level of accountability over the 18-week program.
Group leaders and group members completed surveys every
2 weeks. Bivariate analyses examining differences in accountability
rating and risk assessment between group leaders and group
members show little agreement between leaders and members and
few changes over time. Group leaders assessed group members as
showing some increases in level of accountability near the end of
the group. These findings suggest group leaders perceived increased
accountability among group members, but they were rarely able
to fulfill their goal of educating members about the connection
between accountability and risk of reassault
... A second explanation for the discrepancies among scholars' findings is that research indicates gender differences in honesty in reporting use of force by members of intimate couples. At the same time that many women victims of IPA minimize the abuse perpetrated against them, many of the male IPA abusers also minimize or underreport their own use of abuse (see Berns, 2000;Campbell,1995;Dobash, Dobash, Cavanagh, & Lewis, 1998;Goodrum, Umberson, & Applied Research Heckert & Gondolf, 2000;Morse, 1995;Stets & Straus,1990;Walker, 1979), particularly sexual abuse (Meyer, Vivian, & O'Leary, 1998). Moreover, studies of male intimate partner abusers find they typically use excuses and justifications to minimize their use of violence (Dutton, 1988;Ptacek, 1988). ...
Applied Research Applied Research papers synthesize and interpret current research on violence against women, offering a review of the literature and implications for policy and practice. The Applied Research initiative represents a collaboration between the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence, the National Sexual Violence Resource Center, and the Minnesota Center Against Violence and Abuse. VAWnet is a project of the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence. "The research review reported in this paper concludes that IPA is gendered: Men and boys are more likely (than women and girls) to be the perpetrators, and women and girls are more likely (than men and boys) to be the victims of IPA. At the same time, it is necessary to recognize that there are some women and girls who are abusive and violent to their intimate male partners. This is estimated to be in five percent or fewer of the cases. Research indicates that women's and girls' IPA needs to be understood in the context of learn-ing abuse/violence, the opportu-nity to use abuse/violence, and choosing to use abuse/ violence." P erpetration of intimate partner abuse (IPA) by women against men has received widespread attention from both practitioners and researchers. Some research suggests that contrary to popular belief, women are just as likely as men to be perpe-trators of IPA (Brush, 1990; Madgol, Moffit, Caspi, Fagan, & Silva, 1997; Moffit & Caspi, 1999; Morse, 1995; O'Leary, Barling, Arias, Rosenbaum, Malone, & Tyree, 1989; Straus & Gelles, 1990). Others argue that IPA continues to be perpetrated largely by males against their female partners and ex-partners (Dasgupta, 2001; Dobash & Dobash,1984-1988 in References; Dobash, Dobash, Wilson, & Daly, 1992; McLeod, 1984; Melton & Belknap, 2003; Saunders, 1986; Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000; Vivian & Langhinrichsen-Rohling,1994). While the debate continues regarding women's use of violence against intimate and former intimate male partners, several issues have emerged regarding research on woman-perpetrated IPA. The purpose of this essay is to critically review the existing research on the question of gender symmetry in IPA. Gender symmetry is the terminology often used to indicate that men and women are equally likely to be IPA offenders. This paper presents and discusses the varied findings on women's roles as perpetrators of IPA. The reasons for these varied findings are examined and the implications of the research finding gender symmetry in the perpetration of IPA are discussed. This paper documents the importance of the ap-proach taken by the researcher regarding whether IPA is found to be gendered. This overview of scientific research concludes that IPA is indeed gendered, that the perpetrators are more commonly men and the victims are more commonly women. This review also emphasizes the importance of not simply examining types of abuse reported, but the consequences of the abuse. We hope to clarify women's use of violence in IPA as having typically different intentions than men's abuse of intimate partners.
... Results from the logistic regression model also provide insight to the influence of one of the partner-related variables, namely prior treatment interventions for the partner's abusive behaviour. While several studies have examined the usefulness of batterer intervention programs, little is known about the role of these interventions in relation to victims' subsequent help-seeking decisions (Gondolf 2005;Heckert & Gondolf 2000;Labriola, Rempel & Davis 2008). Findings presented in this paper indicate an increased likelihood of seeking formal support if the abusive partner had previously received counselling for his violent behaviour. ...
Approximately one in four women in most Western nations are at risk of becoming a victim of intimate partner violence (IPV). Interventions for IPV victims have shown to be significant in preventing negative outcomes. Using data from the International Violence Against Women Survey, this paper examines predictors of help-seeking by IPV victims and considers whether such responses are influenced by the severity of abuse experienced. Many IPV victims seek assistance informally from family and friends in the first instance and that experience may affect subsequent attempts to seek help from more formal sources. This study found that victims of IPV are more likely to explore formal avenues of support when married to the abusive partner, have children who have witnessed incidents of abuse, have used drugs or alcohol to cope with abuse and where the abusive partner has previously received counselling for his behaviour. It was found that in cases where the victim had experienced more severe types of abuse, and/or if they felt their life had been threatened during the most recent incident, there was a significantly increased likelihood of formal help-seeking. Collectively, these findings can inform the enhancement of current responses made by formal sources of support to better accommodate the needs of IPV victims and their children.
... To minimize the problem of underreporting of aggression (e.g., Heyman & Schlee, 1997), the higher of the two partners' reports were used to calculate each individual's levels of psychological and physical aggression when possible. This is the standard procedure that is used in other studies of IPV (e.g., Heckert & Gondolf, 2000), because it corrects for possible underreporting of violence by either partner. While the procedures used in this study minimize underreporting, participants may still underreport their own aggression. ...
The first year of parenthood can be a stressful time, especially for high-risk couples. Symptoms of posttraumatic stress (PTS) have been associated with decreased intimacy, communication, and relationship adjustment, yet there is a lack of research on how PTS symptoms might affect couples in early parenthood. Furthermore, there is little evidence regarding the way in which PTS symptoms may affect couples above and beyond known risk factors such as intimate partner violence (IPV) and harmful alcohol use. The current study investigated how PTS symptoms were related to new parents’ relationship satisfaction in the context of IPV and harmful drinking. Ninety-eight heterosexual couples filled out questionnaires 1 year after the birth of their first child. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that, for men, PTS symptoms predicted lower relationship satisfaction over and above IPV victimization and harmful drinking. However, for women, psychological IPV victimization was the only significant multivariate predictor. In addition, for men, PTS symptoms interacted with harmful drinking to predict poorer relationship satisfaction. The results suggest that women’s relationship satisfaction is particularly linked to psychological IPV victimization during early parenthood, whereas men’s relationship satisfaction is particularly associated with their own harmful drinking and PTS symptoms. Implications are discussed.
... Buttell and Carney (2004) asserted that, since batterer self-report is often used to measure the level of violence at program completion, other measures, such as truthfulness, coping abilities, and assertiveness should also be used, because the group members' self-interest can lead to distortions in the information they give. According to Heckert and Gondolf (2000), batterers are more likely than victims to deny their violence at program intake. They are also more likely to minimize the severity. ...
Leaders of intervention groups for batterers must continuously assess how well they are meeting their goal of reducing violence. This article reports on survey and qualitative interview data from group leaders about their risk assessments. The practitioners were aware that their information about the risk levels of members was limited. They usually chose the middle of risk scales and reported moderate confidence in their predictions. Group leaders became increasingly confident in their risk predictions over an 8-week period, while they also predicted greater likelihood of physical abuse. This research supports the need for collaboration between practitioners and researchers to increase group leaders' skills and confidence in risk assessment, especially in the early stages of group interventions.
... Because abusers tend to minimize, deny, or distort events of harmful behavior in self-reports, victims offer a valuable perspective on the extent and forms of their partner's abuse during and after program participation (Gondolf, 1997a). In light of research that emphasizes the value of battered women's assessment of their partner's abusive behavior (e.g., Dobash, Dobash, Wilson, & Daly, 1992;Edleson & Brygger, 1988;Lindquist et al., 1997;Roberts, 1987; but see Heckert & Gondolf, 2000), program evaluation efforts should solicit victims' input and include their insights in their overall assessment of program impact. ...
This article presents the perspectives of battered women, whose partners have been court-ordered to participate in a batterer intervention program, on the program's effects on their partners, themselves, and their families. Through in-depth interviews, 33 women described their experiences, expectations, and feelings before, during, and after their partner participated in the program. The interviewees also discussed the impact of the program on their batterers'behavior and on their own lives. The study sheds light on the effects of program participation on batterers' behavior and the way in which referral and programparticipation affect their female partners. The results underscore the value of incorporating battered women's perspectives and experiences in evaluating the effects of battererintervention programs and designing their service delivery.
... Because of their prevalence, denial, minimization and excuse-making are typically assumed to be part of the pathology of sexual offending. However, given that these post-hoc accounts occur after an offense, they are likely to be situational rather than dispositional and related to a particular context or circumstance (Heckert & Goldolf, 2000). Maruna and Mann (2006) noted that the fact that denial and minimizations occur after the offending is an important point that has often largely been ignored. ...
Sexual offenders in treatment programs are usually expected to take responsibility for their offending—which we define, on the basis of a literature review, as giving a detailed and precise disclosure of events which avoids external attributions of cause and matches the official/victim's account of the offense. However, research has not established that a failure to take responsibility for offending is a risk factor for future recidivism. In this paper, we critically review and evaluate the literature on taking responsibility for offending, to determine the rationale for the popularity of this treatment target. We consider the reasons why sex offenders fail to take responsibility for their offending and examine some potential problems with focusing on this goal in treatment programs. We also describe alternative treatment strategies for taking responsibility and conclude that there is less need for offenders to take responsibility for their past offending than there is for them to take responsibility for their future actions.
... Finally, we examined whether perpetrators meeting cutoff scores for probable diagnostic classification perpetrated more aggression than men not meeting diagnostic classification. Because previous research has shown social desirability impacts reports of aggression perpetration (Heckert and Gondolf 2000; Sugarman and Hotaling 1997), we controlled for the effects of social desirability when examining differences between individuals meeting probable diagnostic classification and individuals not meeting diagnostic classification. ...
The problem of male perpetrated intimate partner violence (IPV) is widespread. In an effort to identify risk factors for perpetrating IPV, researchers have examined mental health problems among perpetrators. However, the majority of research in this area has examined personality psychopathology and/or limited their investigation to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or depression. Thus, the present study examined self-reported Axis I psychopathology among men arrested for domestic violence (N = 308). Results replicated past research showing high rates of PTSD and depression. In addition, the prevalence of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, social phobia, and alcohol and drug disorders were very high. All types of mental health problems were positively associated with aggression perpetration. Males meeting probable diagnostic classification reported significantly more frequent aggression than males not meeting diagnostic classification, even after controlling for social desirability. Directions for future research and implications of these findings are discussed.
... The most common form of violence is slaps, with women rating the most aggressive event over the past two years as slight. These results are very similar to those reported in other studies where it is generally found that men are less likely to notify the authorities of any violence inflicted on them, either in terms of frequency or severity (Anderson, 2002;Babcock et al ., 2003;Busch & Rosenberg, 2004;Gangopadhyay et al ., 2001;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000;Henning & Feder, 2004;Martin, 1997;Torres & Han, 2003). ...
The purpose of this article is to determine the degree of physical violence received and inflicted over the past two years by a sample of women in prison in their relationships with their partners ( N =213). Over half of the women report having suffered some form of violence at the hands of their partners at some time in their lives. As for physical violence experienced over the past two years, one out of every four women has experienced violence at the hands of her partner. The women in this study rated the act of physical violence they had experienced in the past two years as severe, a term they also used to describe the degree of disturbance, anger and fear they felt after the violent incident. As for the violence the women inflicted on their partners, one out of every four women has inflicted violence on her partner (26.8%) although they rate the most aggressive event during these past two years as slight. After the event, over half the women felt severely disturbed as well as slightly angry and scared.
... An important limitation of the present study relates to the potential for self-report bias with respect to male-perpetrated aggression. Research has demonstrated that participants tend to underreport their own aggressive behavior due to social desirability effects when asked to retrospectively self-report on such behavior (Coccaro, 2003;Gregoski, Malone, & Richardson, 2005;Heckert & Gondolf, 2000), and, more specifically, that perpetrators report less intimate partner aggression than their victimized partners (Moffitt et al., 1997). Panuzio et al. (2006) demonstrated that women and men's reporting biases also may differ. ...
Little research to date has examined intimate partner aggression perpetration among female veterans, despite the increasing number of women veterans and a greater focus on women's aggression in civilian sample investigations. The present study examined rates and correlates of physical and psychological intimate partner aggression in a sample of 89 female Vietnam veterans. Variables examined included aggression perpetrated by both partners, combat exposure, psychiatric symptoms (posttraumatic stress disorder, depressive episodes, substance abuse disorders, and antisocial personality disorder), negative childhood experiences (childhood physical abuse and witness of parental aggression), and marital adjustment. Findings demonstrated that although women veterans were significantly more likely to perpetrate physical intimate partner aggression than were their male partners, there were no gender differences with respect to psychological aggression perpetration. Multiple regression analyses revealed male-perpetrated physical aggression to be the only unique significant predictor of female-perpetrated physical aggression, whereas male-perpetrated psychological aggression and depressive symptoms were significant predictors of female-perpetrated psychological aggression. Potential clinical implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Relatively little research has been conducted on this topic, despite the important implications for researchers and clinicians who are often forced to rely solely on offender-reported information. One study with male batterers (Heckert & Gondolf, 2000) suggests that situational factors (i.e., fear of legal consequences) have more influence on denial than personality characteristics of the offenders. Another study (Cantos et al., 1993) found that men were more likely to internalize blame for marital violence when the abuse was recurrent, when the men were using alcohol, and when the men were more satisfied with their relationship. ...
Women are increasingly being arrested and prosecuted for assaulting an intimate partner. Whereas extensive research has been conducted to identify the treatment needs of male domestic violence offenders, few studies have examined females convicted of the same charges. In the present study 1,267 men and 159 women convicted of intimate partner abuse were compared on scales assessing attributions of blame for their recent offense, minimization, denial, and socially desirable responding. Research with male offenders has identified these factors as important treatment targets, as they appear to influence an offenders risk for noncompliance and recidivism. The results of the study suggest that both male and female domestic violence offenders engage in socially desirable responding during court-ordered evaluations, that both attribute greater blame for the recent offense to their spouse/partner than they acknowledge for themselves, and that significant numbers of both genders deny the recent incident and/or minimize the severity of the offense. Areas for further research are highlighted along with a discussion of the implications of these findings for practitioners.
... In future work, reliability might be enhanced by comparative use of police reports since probation departments have ready access to such data. While the men in our sample may have underreported their level of abuse, Heckert and Gondolf (2000b) found that married white collar men were significantly more likely to under-report. Given the demographic makeup of our sample, the level of violence may be more reliable than previous typology studies. ...
This study explores the existence and predictive ability of a behavior-based typology of men who were adjudicated for a domestic
violence crime in an urban criminal justice system. Data from 671 men who completed a 2-hour biopsychosocial assessment were
analyzed using cluster analysis. Findings indicate a typology of low level criminality (25.6%), dysphoric volatile behavior
(42.2%), and dysphoric general violence (32.2%) similar to previous typologies, but with some unique characteristics. The
behavior-based typology predicted both program completion and subsequent rearrest. This study provides preliminary support
for the development of typological assessment in criminal justice and BIP settings for early identification of men who may
need additional interventions.
... The study is also limited by its reliance on self-reported information and survey data. Despite finding that over one-third of the Wave 3 sample reported experiencing at least one type of relationship violence, incidents of IPV have been found to be under-reported when using self-report inventories (Ellsberg et al. 2001;Heckert and Gondolf 2000) and are subject to social desirability. ...
Over the past few decades, research on symmetry in intimate partner violence (IPV) has continued to yield mixed results. This
article examines symmetry in the prevalence of four types of IPV perpetration and victimization based on socio-demographic
characteristics of gender, race, relationship status, sexual orientation, age, and socioeconomic status. Socio-demographic
characteristics are examined individually and in combination based on subgroups of unidirectional (perpetration-only and victimization-only)
and bidirectional IPV using a nationally representative sample of young adults. Results indicate nearly 40% of the study sample
reported at least one act of intimate partner violence and the majority of relationships involved bidirectional violence.
Study findings reveal a lack of symmetry on some types of IPV based on the individual and combined socio-demographic characteristics
of age, race, and gender. Overall findings show IPV to be prevalent in the relationships of young adults and implications
for primary prevention programs are discussed.
Family violence is a multifaceted issue encompassing various harmful behaviors within familial relationships. This paper explores the definitional problems presented in this special issue on family violence and its impact on parenting and coparenting. By examining the shifts and expansions of concepts related to family violence over time, we highlight the transformative turns in this special issue that have helped us to clarify our understanding of family violence. We explore the transformative expansions of family violence by situating this exploration within a “concept creep” analysis. We make a note of the underlying assumptions associated with these concepts. Through an analysis of concept creep, we elucidate how the expansions and redefinition of violence‐related terms have influenced our understanding of family violence. By differentiating family violence, intimate partner violence, and maltreatment, we emphasize the necessity of unpacking these terms to avoid oversimplification or overlooking certain forms of violence that may go unnoticed under narrow definitions. The authors further highlight the need for interdisciplinary collaboration to address the complexities of family violence and its impact on parenting and coparenting. By acknowledging and responding to expansions of concepts in family violence, we can strive to protect and support children in these challenging circumstances, ultimately promoting their well‐being and creating safer family environments.
Intimate partner abuse (IPA) is widespread, and denial, minimization, justifying, and blaming (DMJB) are common among people who have committed IPA. Views on the function of DMJB in IPA are mixed, often based on the theoretical standpoint of the authors. This systematic review brings together the knowledge of how distorted accounts operate in IPA committed by men. A systematic review of primary research related to DMJB in heterosexual men who have committed to IPA was conducted. In all, 31 papers were found to meet the inclusion criteria (adult, male-to-female abuse, in western culture, peer reviewed and published in English) and were quality appraised. Data were extracted and analyzed using narrative synthesis. The findings indicate the way DMJB operates in this group is complex. It can represent facilitators of abusive behavior, a way to protect the individual’s identity and self-esteem, and a tool men use instrumentally to achieve goals. Themes were present within and between studies highlighting the complex function of DMJB. A model representing the hypothesized intertwined function of DMJB for IPA is proposed. The limitations of the review are discussed and implications and recommendations for policy, practice, and future research are proposed.
This chapter reviews behavioral interventions for addressing two forms of family violence, child maltreatment and intimate partner violence (IPV). Most interventions to address child maltreatment focus on parents, with either a behavioral orientation used to teach parenting skills, or an attachment-based orientation with a focus on improving parental sensitivity and responding to the child. Data supporting parenting programs ability to impact child maltreatment have been equivocal with meta-analyses showing small effects, and behavioral programs appearing to fare better when individual programs are examined. Programs such as SafeCare, Triple P, and Parent-Child Interaction Therapy have been found in clinical trials to reduce maltreatment. Effective interventions to address partner violence have proven even more elusive. Group-based intervention conducted in the community with either a feminist or cognitive behavioral intervention has shown very little impact on violence recidivism. More recent approaches to addressing IPV that address perpetrator motives or underlying psychological states have shown some promise though data are still emerging. Finally, dyadic approaches have also shown some promise but must be implemented with care so as not to place the victim in danger. More research is needed for both effective intervention for both child maltreatment and IPV.KeywordsChild maltreatmentIntimate partner violenceInterventionPreventionEffectiveness
We examined reliability of self-reports of sexual aggression (SA) perpetration and victimisation in ongoing college relationships (n = 638), comparing confidential online self-reports at Time 1 with self-reports under a lab-based bogus pipeline condition at Time 2. High rates of SA victimisation were reported; 46% of women and 47% of men indicated their current partner had been sexually aggressive. However, SA victimisation was associated with fear of one’s partner among women only. These data suggest young men and women may tolerate some SA by their romantic partners. This may not be evident in research that fails to assess the relationship context, as individuals otherwise may not view SA enacted by a current partner as victimisation. The most consistent reporting was among women, in self-reporting their SA perpetration. The least consistent reporting was among men, in their self-reports of their SA victimisation. Both genders tended to underreport their SA victimisation. Men and women with lenient attitudes towards SA were the least reliable reporters of their SA perpetration, and men with antisocial traits responded in a way that suggests possible overreporting of SA victimisation in this group.
Practice impact statement
This study highlights the strikingly high rate of sexually aggressive experiences in young adult relationships. It also discusses gender differences in fear of a sexually aggressive partner and in the reliability of self-reports of sexual aggression and identifies traits associated with reliable versus unreliable reporting of sexual aggression.
This research examines the accounts of 10 out of 22 incarcerated sex offenders undergoing therapy in one of the prison-based sex-offender rehabilitation units in Israel and their ability to renegotiate reality to reject stigmatisation and maintain a favourable identity. The research participants had been convicted either of child molestation or of date/statutory rape against an acquaintance. This differentiation was maintained when analysing the individual interviews conducted in prison. Prior to the provision of accounts, to establish the soundness of their character, the interviewees resituated themselves within a normative background in terms of setting, routine activities, and interactions preceding and following the offence. Offenders convicted of child molestation attributed their behaviour to a sudden unpredictable shift in the setting and interactions with the child that resulted in an erection and consequent impulsive sexual behaviour of which they could not be held responsible. Offenders convicted of date/statutory rape admitted responsibility for their action, yet minimised its harm by attributing it to the dynamic chain of interactions with the victim whose behaviour had deviated from the ‘good’ girl or ‘macho’ man on a date and thus had precipitated the act. Rather than discounting sex offenders' accounts as cognitive distortions of a sick mind, prevention and education programme are to rely on such accounts to increase youth and young adult awareness to traditional gender-role schemata and dating scripts espoused by Israeli macho men that facilitate date rape and to the dynamics of interactional and situational factors placing young children at risk of sexual victimisation. Copyright
This study provides preliminary evidence for an economic exchange game (Thieves' Game), to measure the effects of a lack of guilt or remorselessness on behavior. The study examined the relationship between performance in the Thieves' Game, antisocial personality traits, and self-report of guilt. The sample was composed of 169 community volunteers. Points stolen in the Thieves' Game, male gender, Machiavellianism, Neuroticism, lower Agreeableness, lower Conscientiousness, and lower concern over harming others, were all found to correlate with antisocial traits. When these significant associations were entered into a hierarchical linear regression, with gender, Machiavellianism, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and concern over harming others entered in the first step and Thieves' Game performance entered in the second step, the Thieves' Game was a significant predicator and was responsible for a statistically significant R-squared change. In a second set of analyses designed to assess the relationship between guilt and stealing behavior in the Thieves' Game, a linear regression using self-report of guilt to predict stealing behavior while controlling for the effects of demographics and personality traits demonstrated that self report of experienced guilt was the only significant predictor of stealing behavior.
Currently, the most popular intervention in the problem of intimate partner violence (IPV) are shelter-based services for victims and the group program model for perpetrators. Since its establishment in the 1970s, the perpetrator group format has been adopted throughout the world, in various settings. Most services are directed at partner-violent men; however, there are initiatives for offering interventions for partner-violent women, lesbians, and gays (e.g., Hamel, 2014). Some smaller scale studies have indicated that these programs result in important changes and help clients stop their violent behavior; however, the effectiveness of these programs has yet to be demonstrated by research using the most rigorous experimental designs. Because there is currently no conclusive evidence on the effectiveness of these interventions, or best practices, many programs face challenges in justifying their work. In addition, many ideological disputes have characterized the development of the group programs. Given the many controversial viewpoints on these interventions, the aim of this article is to discuss some key issues concerning these programs' history, development, and current challenges in both practice and research.
This article refutes Straus's reinterpretation of our study, "Physical Tactics of Female Partners Against Male Batterer Program Participants," drawing on our extended follow-up of batterer program participants and their partners in four cities (Gondolf, 2002). Straus claims that the rate of women's violence in the sample is "high" and asserts the need to address women's violence to reduce the men's violence, which is the opposite of our findings and interpretation. We contend that our focus on the men and women who both used tactics in the total sample addresses the research question. We elaborate why our regression analyses to "explain" the women's violence are sound, despite Straus's unsubstantiated speculations. We argue further that the evidence points to women's "violent resistance" against severe, repeated violence, and that those cases do not fit the "both victim" dyad type that Straus promotes. Moreover, they are inappropriate for couples counseling. Finally, we revisit the limitations of the Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS) as a sufficient measure of the women's experience of male violence and raise concern about the implications of Straus's claims.
© The Author(s) 2014.
Psychological aggression has been shown to have harmful effects on both partners, sometimes above and beyond the effects of physical aggression. However, very little is known about psychological aggression during the transition to parenthood. The transition to parenthood is a time where relationship satisfaction often declines and stress increases, which may put the couples at higher risk for psychological aggression. The purpose of this study was to examine if prenatal risk factors related to interpersonal style (specifically, emotional flooding and hostility) predict changes in psychological aggression from pregnancy to 2 years postpartum. Ninety eight couples took part in this study. The couples completed self-report questionnaires during pregnancy, 1 year postpartum, and 2 years postpartum. Both partners were asked about perpetrating and experiencing psychological aggression in their current relationship. Two level Hierarchical Linear Models (HLMs) were used to examine longitudinal associations between hostility, flooding, and psychological aggression. For women, hostility during pregnancy was a significant longitudinal predictor of psychological aggression. For men, flooding was a significant longitudinal predictor of psychological aggression. For both men and women, relationship satisfaction partially mediated the relationship between flooding/hostility and psychological aggression, indicating that women's hostile attitudes and men's tendency to be flooded tend to erode relationship quality, leading to increases in psychological aggression. This may represent a classic demand-withdraw dynamic in couples. The results indicate hostility for women and flooding for men are potential prenatal risk factors for future psychological aggression. Implications and future research directions are discussed. Aggr. Behav. 9999:1–16, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Individuals vary in their propensity to engage in aggressive behaviors, and recent research has sought to identify individual differences that contribute to a person's propensity for physical aggression. Previous research has shown that impulsivity and aggression have a consistent relational pattern among many different samples. However, not all impulsive people will engage in aggressive behavior, perhaps because of other factors such as level of physiological arousal from anxiety. Specifically, one factor, namely physiological symptoms of anxiety such as those often associated with panic, may help as a predictor variable to be used in risk assessments or subclassification systems of aggression. Participants included 689 college students who completed self-report questionnaires assessing impulsivity, physical aggression, and anxiety. Multivariate hierarchical regression analyses were conducted. Greater scores on the measure of impulsivity were associated with higher levels of reported physical aggression. The interaction (impulsivity x anxiety) was not statistically significant, suggesting that impulsivity has the same effect on physical aggression regardless of the level of anxiety. There was a main effect for anxiety, which was associated with higher levels of reported physical aggression. Our findings may help inform typologies for identifying predictor variables used in risk assessment and treatment planning.
La distribución de los fenómenos sociales en el territorio de un país no es homogénea, y la violencia doméstica no es la excepción (Baron y Straus, 1988; Brownridge, 2002; Nisbett, 1993; Yllo y Straus, 1990). Un informe de la Secretaría de Salud (2003) sobre mujeres que acuden a centros sanitarios públicos muestra diferencias interestatales impor-tantes en la prevalencia de la violencia de pareja. Quintana Roo es la entidad federativa con incidencia mayor y Aguascalientes, la menor, siendo la diferencia entre ambos estados de casi 23%. La mortalidad femenina a consecuencia de la violencia doméstica es igualmente he-terogénea en México. Los estados con mayor mortalidad femenina son Baja California, Chihuahua, Oaxaca y Jalisco (Natera, Juárez y Tiburcio, 2004). Los datos que arroja la Encuesta Nacional sobre la Dinámica en las Relaciones en los Hogares (INEGI e I, 2003), confirman la distribución desigual de la violencia en la república mexicana. Mien-tras que, por ejemplo, en Michoacán e Hidalgo, se reportan las mayores tasas de violencia física durante 2003, Nuevo León presenta la menor: 5%. El porcentaje de mujeres afectadas por otros tipos de violencia * La autora expresa su agradecimiento a las fundaciones Andrew W. Mellon y Rockefeller por el financiamiento para llevar a cabo esta investigación como residente en el seminario permanente "Cultura y violencia", en el CRIM, UNAM, en Cuernava-ca. Expreso mi agradecimiento al director del seminario permanente, doctor Roberto Castro, y a mi mentor, Ronald J. Angel de la University of Texas at Austin por su guía, sugerencias, lectura cuidadosa y comentarios en el desarrollo de este estudio. A la docto-ra Irene Casique del CRIM, UNAM, así como a omas W. Pullum de la University of Texas at Austin por su apoyo metodológico y sugerencias. También agradezco a María Eugenia Fernández-Esquer de la University of Texas at Houston, y a Juan Manuel Contreras del Fondo de Población de las Naciones Unidas, así como a otros(as) resi-dentes y asistentes al seminario por sus sugerencias en los inicios de este manuscrito.
Objective: Results of testing the original four-factor structure of the URICA—DV as well as two three-factor structures in prior researches is presented to investigate alternative structures suitable for Korean batterers. Method: This study developed the URICA—DV Korean Version and sought the most appropriate structure for a Korean context. The sample is 293 batterers either referred by the courts, by prosecution, or who participated voluntarily. Results: The original four-factor model and the two three-factor models are demonstrated as possessing poor model fit index and fail to be accepted as apt models for a Korean context. The suggested three-factor model is a better fit according to confirmatory factor analysis. Conclusion: Findings and further discussion for practical implications and research are presented.
Prior to starting a pro-feminist domestic violence rehabilitation programme, 120 British male domestic violence offenders completed psychometric and attitudinal measures that assessed pro-domestic violence attitudes, anger, locus of control, self-reported emotional and psychological abuse of a partner, interpersonal dependency and social desirability. Offenders who completed the programme were compared to those who dropped out on these measures and demographic variables. Just under one-third (32.5%) of offenders failed to complete the programme. Of those variables that discriminated between completers and dropouts (age, previous custodial sentences, age at first conviction, marital status, self-reported abuse, and diagnosis of depression), only age (being young), having previously received a custodial sentence and self-reported low levels of physical abuse of a partner predicted attrition. These results are discussed with reference to probation supervision.
In the midst of the debate over batterer program effectiveness, several alternative approaches have been promoted: psychodynamic treatment for attachment disorders, diversified programming for batterer types, motivational techniques addressing readiness to change, specialized counseling for African-American men, and couples counseling for mutual violence. A critical overview of the research on these alternative approaches exposes weak or insufficient supporting evidence. There is also strong generic evidence for the predominant cognitive-behavioral approach in batterer programs, and a focus on system implementation might account for improved outcomes. While the innovations are encouraging, an “evidence-based practice” for batterers has yet to be clearly established.Research highlights► Research on attachment disorders is based primarily on batterer characteristics. ► Batterer types may be more an artifact of dimensions or tendencies. ► Stage of change is not a strong predictor of program outcomes. ► Culturally-oriented approaches have, as yet, little substantiating outcome research. ► The few studies of couples counseling have been with highly selective samples.
Descriptive and predictive analyses were conducted using a multisite database of batterer program participants to assess the nature and extent of their female partner's violence, and implications for batterer program outcome (N = 563). Approximately 40% of the women reported ever using "severe" conflict tactics on the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS; 17% used severe tactics in the arrest incident). Approximately 20% of the women reported using any type of physical tactic during a 15-month follow-up, and nearly all of these women were with men who physically attacked them during that period. These women were also highly likely to report acting out of fear or self-defense, and having sought a variety of services to deal with the men's violence. Their male partners, furthermore, showed evidence of antisocial tendencies and alcohol problems. Overall, the findings suggest women's "violent resistance" rather than "mutuality and symmetry." Batterer programs appear more appropriate in this regard than couples counseling.
Using a sample of 1,269 dating, cohabitating, and married young adult couples, my dissertation explores the extent of disagreement about violence between heterosexual romantic partners, how the prevalence and common predictors of intimate partner violence (IPV) change because of disagreement, and how errors in the cognitive response process can explain disagreement. Disagreement occurs when one partner reports physical violence in their relationship but the other partner does not. Male and female-perpetrated violence are analyzed separately because disagreement may operate differently for these two types of violence. As a result of disagreement among partners, estimates of violence based on individual assessments may be unreliable and potentially could produce biased results. Having accurate estimates of the prevalence of partner violence is important, for example, because many social policy and funding decisions are based on the magnitude of the problem. For instance, greater or fewer resources could be devoted to services that help victims of partner violence depending on the perceived need. Results from my study show that disagreement about relationship violence is substantial and does have an effect on the prevalence of reported violence and conclusions about some common predictors of IPV. This means that previous findings using proxy data (i.e. one-partner data) may not adequately represent the couple and may be different from those studies that use couple data. In addition, some patterns of overreporting and underreporting IPV are a result of breakdowns in the cognitive response process. By identifying and understanding the causes of disagreement the goal of my dissertation is to help survey methodologists and partner violence researchers work towards reducing or accounting for disagreement in order to improve the accuracy and reliability of estimates for intimate partner violence.
The notion of ‘cognitive distortion’ has become enshrined in the offender treatment literature over the last 20 years, yet the concept still suffers from a lack of definitional clarity. In particular, the umbrella term is often used to refer to offence-supportive attitudes, cognitive processing during an offence sequence, as well as post-hoc neutralisations or excuses for offending. Of these very different processes, the last one might be the most popular and problematic. Treatment programmes for offenders often aim to eliminate excuse-making as a primary aim, and decision-makers place great weight on the degree to which an offender “takes responsibility” for his or her offending. Yet, the relationship between these after-the-fact explanations and future crime is not at all clear. Indeed, the designation of post hoc excuses as criminogenic may itself be an example of fallacious thinking. After all, outside of the criminal context, post hoc excuse-making is widely viewed as normal, healthy, and socially rewarded behaviour. We argue that the open exploration of contextual risk factors leading to offending can help in the identification of criminogenic factors as well as strengthen the therapeutic experience. Rather than insist that offenders take “responsibility” for the past, we suggest that efforts should focus on helping them take responsibility for the future, shifting the therapeutic focus from post hoc excuses to offence-supportive attitudes and underlying cognitive schemas that are empirically linked to re-offending.
This article examines the difference between male and female reports of violence and threats of violence directed by the man towards the woman. All men in the study were clients in a large batterers' treatment program in the Midwest. Both men and their female partners completed a modified version of the Conflict Tactics Scale at intake and 1 year later at follow-up. In many categories, significantly more women were found at intake to report higher frequencies of threats and violence than their male partners. At follow-up and after extensive intervention these differences were not found in the more severe categories of violence. Differences remained, however, in the less concrete realm of threats of violence and in less severe forms of violence such as pushing and shoving.
Using meta-analytic procedures, the relationship between self-reporting of involvement in marital and courtship violence, and level of socially desirable responding was investigated. Eighteen effect-size estimates were located and, overall, displayed a low to moderate effect on reporting involvement in partner violence (mean r = -.179). No significant differences emerged with respect to the sex of the respondent; however, reports of perpetrating intimate violence were more strongly correlated with social desirability scores than were reports of being victimized. Implications of these findings are reviewed.
This article examines the extent to which individuals are consistent in their survey interview reports of sexual assaults over time and the impact of consistency on prevalence and risk factor estimates for sexual assaults. Specifically, persons whose sexual assault reports are consistent over time (positive on two occasions or negative on two occasions) are compared to individuals whose reports are inconsistent over time (positive on one occasion and negative on the other). Data are from a longitudinal mental health survey of a large (N = 3,132), gender- and ethnically diverse, community-based sample, interviewed twice over a 1-year interval. Results reveal that consistency is a function of the individual's position in society. Also, prevalence estimates, which appear stable over time, are based on positive reports by differing groups of respondents.
Reviews research on characteristics of men who batter and interventions directed at helping men who batter become nonabusive. The characteristics examined include personality/psychopathology, the use of alcohol and drugs, anger/hostility, depression, behavioral deficits, sex roles/masculinity/femininity, stress, violence in the family of origin, and typologies. Intervention outcome focuses on groups for men who batter, couples intervention, criminal justice intervention, and predictors of intervention success. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
An experiment was conducted to compare six different group treatment programs for men who batter. The 283 men included in
the study were randomly assigned to one of three forms of group treatment offered in two different intensities. Of these men,
153 completed 80 percent or more of their assigned programs. Six months after group treatment ended, 92 program completers
or their partners were located and interviewed. Analyses of the resulting data revealed that shorter, more structured group
treatment was most effective in reducing the number of men reported violent and using terroristic threats during follow-up.
The majority of men in all six programs were reported to be using less severe threats during follow-up.
Husbands' and wives' reports (n=97 couples) of engaging in or experiencing marital aggression were compared to determine congruence. Congruence was defined as spousal agreement on whether either spouse had been nonviolent, mildly violent, or severely maritally violent within the past year. Whereas approximately equal numbers of clinic couples were incongruent for husband and for wife violence (32% vs. 31%), only incongruence for husband violence (H W) was found to correlate with reports of affective and relationship functioning. Incongruent H W wives were more likely to be depressed and angry. H W incongruent wives were also more negative about the inter-spousal communication and rated the relationship as more unsatisfactory for them than did congruent wives. Incongruent H W husbands also perceived the relationship more negatively, but their levels of depression and anger did not differ from congruent H W husbands. These findings were not replicated for spouses who were incongruent for wife violence. Our results support the conclusion that spousal disagreement about H W violence has a more negative impact than does disagreement about wives' level of aggression.
Community couples (N = 272) were assessed in a longitudinal study of early marriage. More women than men reported physically aggressing against their partners at premarriage (44% vs. 31%) and 18 months (36% vs. 27%). At 30 months, men and women did not report significantly different rates of aggression (32% vs. 25%). However, using either the self-report or the partner's report, the prevalence of aggression was higher for women than men at each assessment period. Modal forms of physical aggression for both men and women were pushing, shoving, and slapping. Conditional probability analyses indicated that the likelihood of physically aggressing at 30 months given that one had engaged in such aggression before marriage and at 18 months after marriage was .72 for women and .59 for men. Furthermore, 25-30% of the recipients of physical aggression at all three assessment periods were seriously maritally discordant at 30 months.
This study represents an attempt to assess the effectiveness of court-mandated treatment for wife assault. A quasi-experimental design examined post-conviction recidivism rates for men convicted of wife assault. Fifty men who completed a 16-week treatment program had a 4% recidivism rate for a posttreatment period of up to 3 years. A comparable group who were not treated had a 40% recidivism rate in the same period. Hence, the "success" rate of treatment was 36% according to police records (Rosenthal, 1983). Straus Conflict Tactics Scale scores reported both by the treated men and their wives demonstrated significant posttreatment decreases from pretreatment levels. Treated husbands' average annual use of severe violence dropped from 10.6 to 1.7 times per year (p less than 0.01). Eighty-four percent of wives reported no posttreatment violence. Rates of verbal aggression also dropped significantly from pretreatment levels. Comparison with CTS scores of a group of men who were arrested but not treated for wife assault (Jaffe, Wolfe, Telford, & Austin 1986) revealed significant decreases in the use of Physical Aggression subscale tactics (as reported by their wives) as a result of treatment. Interpretative difficulties with the quasi-experimental design used in this study are discussed and a randomized design with appropriate psychological assessment of subjects is recommended.
Examined interpersonal reliability on reports of marital violence. 65 couples beginning marital therapy and 37 couples from the community participated. Husbands and wives had average ages of 35 and 32 yrs, respectively. Each S completed a version of the Conflict Tactics Scale on which they were asked to report on their own use of physically abusive behavior as well as their partner's use of such behaviors in the past 12 mo. Agreement between partners on the occurrence of violence was low to moderate for both the clinic and the community sample. Clinic husbands tended to underreport their own violent behavior, and/or clinic wives tended to overreport the violence performed by husbands. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
At a community-based domestic violence program, 218 men with a history of partner abuse were randomly assigned to either feminist-cognitive-behavioral or process-psychodynamic group treatments. The treatments were not hypothesized to differ in outcome. However, men with particular characteristics were expected to have lower recidivism rates depending on the type of treatment received. Treatment integrity was verified through audio-taped codings of each session. The partners of 79% of the 136 treatment completers gave reports of the men's behavior an average of 2 years post-treatment. These reports were supplemented with arrest records and self-reports. Rates of violence did not differ significantly between the two types of treatment nor did reports from the women of their fear level, general changes perceived in the men, and conflict resolution methods. However, interaction effects were found between some offender traits and the two treatments. As predicted, men with dependent personalities had better outcomes in the process-psychodynamic groups and those with antisocial traits had better outcomes in the cognitive-behavioral groups. The results suggest that more effective treatment may occur if it is tailored to specific characteristics of offenders.
The paper demonstrates the use of couple data as a methodological tool. Using Straus's Conflict Tactics Scale as an example, it is shown that couple data may be used for the evaluation of scale items and for the assessment of the validity of frequency estimates of violence and its relationship with other variables. The results provide clear evidence that aggregate husband-wife data cannot substitute for couple data.
The Straus Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) has been used frequently in past research to assess incidents of assault between spouses. The majority of these studies have relied on CTS scores from only one member of a couple. Szinovacz (1983) corrected this shortcoming by administering the CTS to 103 nonassaultive couples. In the current study the CTS was administered to 30 assaultive couples where the husband was undergoing treatment for wife assault. Differential reporting was found whereby husbands tend to view their marital relationship as mutually violent, while wives view it as husband-violent. Except when weapons were implicated, the husband-wife correlation on specific items of the CTS ranged from +.32 to +.57, indicating considerable disparity in recall for violence. The methodological and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.
This article addresses effects of reporting bias on spouses' answers to questions concerning sensitive marital issues by comparing one-partner and couple data on marital violence. Data are based on a subsample of the National Survey of Families and Households, Wave 1 (n = 4,088). The results reveal considerable underreporting of violence. In addition, some predictors of violence are significantly related to underreporting by one spouse, and such relationships between predictors of violence and underreporting result in some divergences between predictor models based on one-partner and couple scores of violence. The findings further indicate that data collection method significantly influences reporting of violence.
A comparative multisite evaluation was conducted in four geographically distributed cities to examine the relative effectiveness of different approaches. The intervention systems represented a range of court-referral procedures (pretrial or postconviction), program duration (3 months to 9 months), and additional services (occasional referral or in-house alcohol treatment). 210 men at each site were recruited and tested (background, Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory, Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test). The batterers' partners were interviewed by phone every 3 months over a 15-month follow-up after intake, with a response rate of 77% overall. There was no significant difference in the reassault rate, portion of men making threats, and victim quality of life across the four sites. The longest, most comprehensive program did, however, have a significantly lower rate of severe reassault substantiated in a logistic regression controlling for background variables. The findings suggest that differing intervention systems that conform to fundamental standards can achieve similar outcomes.
Development of research on intrafamily conflict and violence requires both conceptual clarity and measures of the concepts. The introduction to this paper therefore seeks to clarify and distinguish the concepts of "conflict," "conflict of interest," "hostility," and "violence." The main part of the paper describes the Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. The CT Scales are designed to measure the use of Reasoning, Verbal Aggression, and Violence within the family. Information is presented on the following aspects of this instrument: theoretical rational, acceptability to respondents, scoring, factor structure, reliability, validity, and norms for a nationally representative sample of 2,143 couples.
purpose . . . is to explore the methodological debates between mainstream and feminist researchers and activists; to identify major points of contention; and to consider possible resolutions or, at least, ways to continue the dialogue more productively
two studies of wife abuse
the status of women and wife beating
rape in marriage
feminist critiques of methodology / critiques of "sex bias" in our methods / quantitative versus qualitative approaches / science, objectivity, and masculinity (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The major purpose of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI) is to provide information to psychologists, counselors, psychiatrists, and social workers who must make assessments and treatment decisions about persons with emotional and interpersonal difficulties. Each of its 22 scales is designed to be an operational measure of a syndrome derived from a theory of personality and psychopathology (T. Millon, 1969, 1981, 1990). Both uses and limitations of the instrument are recorded. Steps to be followed in making configural interpretations are recommended, and results of evaluative research are reported. The MCMI-II is viewed as an evolving assessment instrument, upgraded and refined to reflect substantive advances in knowledge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Physical aggression (PAG) against wives was assessed in 132 couples attending a marital therapy clinic. The presence of PAG or abuse was assessed by obtaining information from husbands and wives from written self-reports about the most important problems in their marriage, oral responses to direct questioning during the intake interview, and written responses on the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS). Only 6% of wives indicated that PAG was a marital problem in their written self-report. However, when questioned directly in an interview, 44% of wives indicated that these problems existed. Further, 53% of the wives were classified as being the victims of PAG according to their reports on the CTS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Self-reports on domestic violence inventories remain the basis of court and clinical decision-making and program outcome evaluations, but little research has investigated the reliability and validity of these self-reports with clinical populations. We investigated the most widely used self-report inventory, the Conflict Tactics Scale, using a multisite database of men admitted to batterer programs and their female partners (n = 840). Concurrent validity was assessed by comparing batterer and victim reports to police incident reports at program intake (n = 145). Victims (29%) were more likely than batterers (19%) to report no assault when the police reports indicated an assault. Batterers were, however, more likely to minimize the severity of assaults than their victims. Reliability was assessed by comparing agreement between men and women at intake and at 12-month follow-up (n = 558). Overall man–woman agreement was higher at follow-up (74%) than at intake (64%). However, occurrence agreement declined substantially (from 61 to 17%), and male underreport and male denial markedly increased. Based on the men's and women's descriptions of the assaults, the women who underreport appear to do so primarily to preserve the relationship and men do so in outright denial. The findings imply the need to collect both men's and women's reports at intake and contradict the notion that agreement increases as a result of the batterer's sensitization to violence in a program.
This study used a modified version of the Conflict Tactics Scale to examine the prevalence of premarital aggression in a community sample of husbands and wives. The sample consisted of 625 couples participating in a longitudinal study of marital functioning and alcohol use. Consistent with past studies, the overall prevalence rate of husband-to-wife premarital aggression was 35%. Sociodemographic variables were associated with premarital aggression, with differences emerging primarily with regard to moderate aggression rather than mild aggression. Further, factors such as race, education, social class, cohabitation, and presence of children were independently associated with premarital aggression. This study is one of the first to examine premarital aggression in a large, heterogeneous sample of young husbands and wives at the same stage of relationship development. Future analyses will examine the prevalence, frequency, and continuity of husband and wife aggression over the first year of marriage.
The present study evaluated a 15-week cognitive-behavioral skills training program for male spouse abusers. Results showed dramatic decreases in occurrence of violent behaviors after treatment, and up to 1-year follow-up in subjects (n =32)completing the intervention. Furthermore, compared to program dropouts (n =36),completers showed a lower rate of physical violence recividism over the 1-year follow-up period. However, there was evidence of continued psychological abuse among completers in some cases (as corroborated independently by the victim/partner). Changes measured by psychometric assessment indicated decreased dysphoria. No change in basic personality, characterized primarily by disorder, was found. The latter findings was interpreted to partly account for continued psychological abuse. Implications for refining programs to address psychological abuse and to develop mechanisms to reduce attrition are discussed.
Current research suggests that a husband's substance abuse is correlated with severity of physical abuse and the woman's decision to leave a violent situation. Often, only the battered woman's report of abuse is available. This study compares women's reports of their partners' substance use/abuse with their partners' report using a brief measure of polydrug and alcohol abuse, the Substance Abuse Subtle Screening Inventory (SASSI) and the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS). Data were analyzed for 25 recovery couples and 25 nonrecovery couples. The correlations for all 50 couples between the male's reported use and the female's report of her partner's use on the SASSI and the CTS were significant on all but one of the CTS scales. They ranged on SASSI from .73 to .33 and from .31 to .06 on the CTS. This suggests that the SASSI and possibly the CTS could be used as valuable tools for assessing women's reports of their partner's substance use/abuse.
Wife assaulters attending a treatment group and women who had just exited an abusive relationship were asked to report on the extent of physical violence and emotional abuse in their relationship. Measures of socially desirable responding (SDR) were administered to both groups. Wife assaulters' self-reports of physical abuse correlated negatively with one SDR measure (the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding) but not another (the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale); emotional abuse correlated negatively with both measures. Although physical abuse was primarily related to impression management, psychological abuse was affected by both impression management and self-deception aspects of SDR. Wife assaulters' reports of their own anger also correlated negatively with SDR. Both self-deception and impression management appear to contribute to underreporting of anger. Finally, abuse victims' reports of both physical and emotional abuse were unrelated to SDR.
The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test (MAST), devised to provide a consistent, quantifiable, structured interview instrument to detect alcoholism, consists of 25 questions that can be rapidly administered. Five groups were given the MAST: hospitalized alcoholics, a control group, persons convicted of drunk driving, persons convicted of drunk and disorderly behavior, and drivers whose licenses were under review. The validity of the MAST was assessed by searching the records of legal, social, and medical agencies and reviewing the subjects' driving and criminal records. The MAST responses of 15 subjects who were found to be alcoholic in the record search were analyzed to determine where the screening failures had occurred. Recommendations are made for reducing the number of such "falsė negatives."
A comparative multisite evaluation was conducted of four "well-established" batterer programs in geographically distributed cities to assess the pattern of reassault. Eight hundred and forty batterers were recruited and tested at program intake from each site (210 per site). The batterers and their partners were interviewed by phone every 3 months for 15 months after intake with a response rate for the female partners of nearly 70% for the full follow-up. According to initial victims, 31% of the men reassaulted during the follow-up. The reassault rate varies only slightly when adjusting for new partners (32%) or no partner contact (32%), but substantially more when adjusting for reports from the batterers (36%) and batterers plus arrest record (39%). Rates of verbal abuse (70%) and threats (43%) are much higher, but 73% of the women report feeling "very safe." Nearly half of the men who reassaulted did so within 3 months after program intake. "Voluntary" participants were significantly more likely to reassault (44% vs. 29%), as were program dropouts (40% vs. 28%). The "well-established" batterer programs appear to contribute to a short-term cessation of assault in the majority of batterers. However, a small portion of the men are unaffected by or unresponsive to the intervention.
Prediction of intentional interpersonal violence Assessing the Risk of Dangerousness: Potential for Further Violence of Sexual Offenders, Batterers, and Child Abusers
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