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Dimensions of frustration intolerance and their relationship to self-control problems. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy
Abstract
Frustration intolerance beliefs are central to the theory and practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. However, there
has been little investigation of the content of these beliefs, and empirical evidence linking specific beliefs to distinct
psychological problems is sparse. To redress this, the Frustration–Discomfort Scale has been developed as a multidimensional
measure. This was used to explore the relationship between the four dimensions of frustration intolerance (emotional intolerance,
demands for entitlement, comfort, and achievement) and problems of self-control. Results indicated that the Frustration–Discomfort
sub-scales showed differential relationships with self-control problems, independent of self-worth beliefs. This supported
the validity and usefulness of the scale and the importance of distinguishing between dimensions of frustration intolerance.
... Moreover, individuals with DCD have more such beliefs, and at higher levels, than those with dyslexia. Results also revealed specific patterns of irrational beliefs related to frustration = = = = = of hassle, effort or inconvenience (e.g., "I can't stand doing things that involve a lot of hassle"; Harrington, 2005). Entitlement is the belief that wishes should be met (immediate gratification), and other people should indulge and not frustrate them (e.g., "I can't bear it if other people stand in the way of what I want"; Harrington, 2005). ...
... Results also revealed specific patterns of irrational beliefs related to frustration = = = = = of hassle, effort or inconvenience (e.g., "I can't stand doing things that involve a lot of hassle"; Harrington, 2005). Entitlement is the belief that wishes should be met (immediate gratification), and other people should indulge and not frustrate them (e.g., "I can't bear it if other people stand in the way of what I want"; Harrington, 2005). Emotional intolerance is the belief that emotional distress is unbearable and must be quickly relieved or avoided (e.g., "I can't bear disturbing feelings"; Harrington, 2005). ...
... Entitlement is the belief that wishes should be met (immediate gratification), and other people should indulge and not frustrate them (e.g., "I can't bear it if other people stand in the way of what I want"; Harrington, 2005). Emotional intolerance is the belief that emotional distress is unbearable and must be quickly relieved or avoided (e.g., "I can't bear disturbing feelings"; Harrington, 2005). Achievement frustration is a perfectionist belief and reflects intolerance of obstacles to achieving high standards (e.g., "I can't stand feeling that I'm not on top of my work"; Harrington, 2005). ...
Background.Research suggests that adults diagnosed with specific learning disorders, such as dyslexia or developmental coordination disorder (DCD), are at greater risk of emotional problems related to frustration and anger.
Aims.The purpose of this study was to investigate patterns of frustration intolerance beliefs among two groups of adults with a specific learning disorder (dyslexia or DCD), compared with typical adults.
Methods and procedures
Participants were 235 French adults (students or in employment) with dyslexia (Mage = 35.8 years, SD = 13.3; females = 63 %), DCD (Mage = 32.9 years, SD = 11.8; females = 58 %) or typical development (Mage = 33.2 years, SD = 12.7; females = 65 %), who completed an online self-report questionnaire.
Outcomes and results. Analysis of variance revealed a significant between-groups difference, as both learning disorder groups had higher frustration intolerance beliefs than the typical adults. Post hoc analysis showed that participants with DCD scored higher than those with dyslexia on each type of frustration intolerance belief, while participants with dyslexia scored higher than typical adults on achievement frustration and discomfort intolerance.
Conclusions and implications. These results underline the usefulness of distinguishing between frustration intolerance dimensions, and of using rational emotive behavior therapy to reduce the irrational beliefs of people with DCD or dyslexia.
... Uno de los autoinformes más utilizados para evaluar estas creencias es la "Escala de intolerancia a la frustración" (EIF) (Frustration Discomfort Scale, Harrington, 2005a). Según Harrington (2005b), desde la TREC se plantea la existencia de cuatro creencias que promueven la intolerancia a: a) las molestias, b) el esfuerzo, c) la injusticia y d) las emociones incómodas. Tomando estos conceptos redacta un conjunto inicial de 74 ítems. ...
... Los estudios psicométricos mostraron que los factores identificados poseen adecuada consistencia interna y pruebas favorables de validez con criterios externos. Se corroboró una relación negativa entre la IF y la autoestima (r= -0,43) y una adecuada capacidad discriminativa para diferenciar sujetos de poblaciones generales y clínicas (Harrington, 2005a(Harrington, , 2005b. Sumado a ello, Harrington (2006) halló en poblaciones clínicas que la dimensión derechos de la escala de IF está asociada con el enojo, la intolerancia al malestar al estado depresivo y la intolerancia emocional con la ansiedad. ...
... El hecho de que en las sucesivas adaptaciones de la EIF deban eliminarse ítems para alcanzar un adecuado ajuste sugiere que no todos los ítems de la escala original reflejan conceptualmente las dimensiones de la IF. En la presente adaptación se optó por remover dichos ítems y trabajar con aquellos que presenten saturaciones factoriales sólidas, a los fines de evaluar con mayor precisión el modelo propuesto con Harrington (2005b). ...
The Intolerance to Frustration Scale (IFS, Harrington, 2005) assesses a series of beliefs that promote intolerance to annoyance, exertion, injustice and uncomfortable emotions. Despite the importance of this instrument, there is no Spanish version of the IFS. In this work, the equivalence of a translation from the IFS was assessed by a panel of experts. Subsequently, by means of confirmatory factorial analysis (n= 799) it was concluded that the IFS has a multidimensional structure of four factors: Emotional Intolerance, Right, Intolerance to Discomfort and Achievement. However, 11 items had to be removed, which affected the internal consistency of some dimensions. The invariance of the instrument was also examined considering the age, sex and educational level of the participants, and evidence of validity was obtained by correlating the IFS with self-esteem levels. Psychometric results were acceptable, although some limitations should be addressed before the scale is used professionally in Spanish-speaking countries.
... Brownlow and Reasinger (2000) have shown that perfectionism, low extrinsic motivation, external locus of control, and situational attributional style (the tendency to blame performance on situational, rather than interpersonal, factors) correlate with academic procrastination. Strong associations have also been found between procrastination and other state-dependent individual differences including levels of self-efficacy, fear of failure, perceived task relevance, worry, indecisiveness, and forgetfulness Ferrari et al., 1995;Harrington, 2005a;Solomon & Rothblum, 1984;Stainton, Lay, & Flett, 2000). This wide array of empirical findings suggest that both situational and personality factors contribute to the delaying of work toward completion of important tasks. ...
... In contrast, frustration intolerance (FI) represents an individual's beliefs that life must conform to a specific set of subjective standards and that violations of these demands are intolerable. Harrington (2005a) identifies four distinct facets of frustration intolerance that can influence behavior. A person's demand for comfort, measured as discomfort intolerance, involves demands that life be free of hassles and inconveniences. ...
... This could help explain Solomon and Rothblum's (1984) findings that many students report being motivated to put off some academic tasks due to a fear of failure. These findings support the notion that beliefs related to core selfevaluation are a key component of procrastination, affecting not only an individual's self-esteem but also his or her persistence in pursuing goals (Bandura, 1997;Harrington, 2005aHarrington, , 2005c. ...
The present study investigated a conditional model of dispositional and situational variables to predict academic procrastination and academic achievement. Traditional predictive models focus on personality traits, specifically conscientiousness and neuroticism. The dispositional variables of interest in the present study were self-regard, frustration intolerance, grit, and goal orientation. The situational variables were course/task self-efficacy, boredom, and task value. It was hypothesized that self-regard, frustration intolerance, grit, and goal orientation would each be associated with self-efficacy, boredom, task value, academic procrastination and academic achievement and that the conditional model would more strongly predict both academic procrastination and academic achievement than personality traits alone. The results from online survey collection (N = 206) strongly indicate that individual differences in belief-related dispositional and situational factors significantly improve traditional predictive models of academic procrastination and achievement. Future research should consider utilizing conditional models which incorporate these factors.
... Demands on the behavior of the self (e.g. ''I must achieve,'' ''I must be competent,'' ''I must act perfectly'') have been associated with self-defeating behaviors such as comfort eating, medication use, the tendency to engage in routine or repetitive behaviors (Harrington, 2005), and reduced attempts to inhibit aggression (e.g. Bernard, 1998). ...
... A significant amount of research has documented the link between a demand of self-oriented perfectionism and maladaptive behaviors such as disordered eating (e.g., Pearsons & Gleaves, 2006;Sherry, Hewit, Besser, McGee, & Flett, 2004), alcohol abuse (e.g., Hewit & Flett, 1991), problems in interpersonal interactions (e.g., Haring, Hewit, & Flett, 2003), suicide (e.g., Blatt, 1995), diminished task performance (Frost & Marten, 1990), and reduced willingness to discuss and share personal results on various tasks with others (Frost, Turcotte, Heimberg, & Mattia, 1995). Harrington (2005) conducted a study with nonpsychotic psychiatric patients to study demands for personal comfort (e.g., beliefs that life should be free of hassles and inconvenience) and entitlement/fairness (e.g., beliefs that life should be fair, and that one should enjoy immediate gratification), and their relation to maladaptive behaviors. Harrington (2005) determined that individuals holding comfort and/or entitlement beliefs were prone to self-defeating behaviors, including self-harming, behavioral avoidance, comfort eating, the use of medication, overspending, and procrastination. ...
... Harrington (2005) conducted a study with nonpsychotic psychiatric patients to study demands for personal comfort (e.g., beliefs that life should be free of hassles and inconvenience) and entitlement/fairness (e.g., beliefs that life should be fair, and that one should enjoy immediate gratification), and their relation to maladaptive behaviors. Harrington (2005) determined that individuals holding comfort and/or entitlement beliefs were prone to self-defeating behaviors, including self-harming, behavioral avoidance, comfort eating, the use of medication, overspending, and procrastination. Procrastination has been previously (2001) linked to irrationality in general and demandingness in particular in both clinical and nonclinical populations (e.g. ...
In this book leading scholars, researchers, and practitioners of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) and other cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBTs) share their perspectives and empirical findings on the nature of rational and irrational beliefs, the role of beliefs as mediators of functional and dysfunctional emotions and behaviors, and clinical approaches to modifying irrational beliefs, enhancing rational beliefs, and adaptive coping in the face of stressful life events. Offering a cohesive approach to understanding REBT/CBT and its central constructs of rational and irrational beliefs, contributors review a steadily accumulating empirical literature indicating that irrational beliefs are associated with a wide range of problems in living and that exposure to rational self-statements can decrease anxiety and other psychological symptoms, and play a valuable role in health promotion and disease prevention. Contributors also identify new frontiers of research and theory, including the link between irrational beliefs and other cognitive processes such as memory, psychophysiological responses, and evolutionary and cultural determinants of rational and irrational beliefs.
... To accomplish our research goal, three objectives are presented. First, the research draws on precepts from frustration theory (Dollard et al., 1939;Barker et al., 1941;Block and Martin, 1955;Amsel, 1958Amsel, , 1992Shorkey and Crocker, 1981;Harrington 2005aHarrington , 2005b to develop predictions. Second, the study aims to expand the current understanding of frustration (Shorkey and Crocker, 1981;Strauss et al., 2005;Guchait and Namasivayam, 2012) by investigating individual differences in frustration tolerance when goals are blocked. ...
... A 33-item paper-based questionnaire was developed to capture cognitive responses to an imaginary frustrating retail situation at final checkout and a scenario-based manipulation for source of blame (external vs. internal) to test H1a, H1b and H2. The Frustration Discovery Scale (FDS) was used to measure individual differences in frustration among study participants (Harrington, 2005b). Participants were presented one of two scenarios designed to elicit blame toward either the retailer or themselves. ...
... An attempt was made in Study 2 to force respondents to focus on the goal at hand within the constraints provided. To accomplish this, a 58-item online questionnaire was developed that relied on imaginary scenarios to manipulate the social environment (alone, with people they did not know, with people they did know), asked open-ended questions for qualitative analysis and included scales measuring attitude toward the company (Goldsmith et al., 2001), repatronage intention (Bolton et al., 2000) and frustration tolerance (Harrington, 2005b) as dependent variables. The first scenario in which respondents were alone read: Imagine you have gone to the drive through of a fast food restaurant to get something to eat in the few minutes you have before you have to be at work. ...
The research applies precepts from frustration theory to investigate frustration when a goal is blocked in a consumer context. Predictions are derived, and two studies are designed to investigate the goal-directed sequence following a blocked goal and the role of individual differences in frustration tolerance in a retail checkout encounter. The findings of the research suggest that when the goal of retail checkout is blocked, consumers adopt either adaptive or maladaptive resolution strategies. Those who take an adaptive approach return to goal-seeking behaviour, whereas those following the maladaptive path initially resolve their frustrations through resignation. That initial resolution strategy of resignation then produces a second wave of new blocks to goal attainment (helplessness, anger and self-preoccupation). Subsequently, the second wave of blocks is countered with a second set of resolution strategies (alteration, substitution, abandonment with acceptance or abandonment with suffering). The research findings also reveal that consumer frustration responses are associated with internal versus external blame and with social surroundings or who is watching the frustrating event unfold. The results likewise indicate that attitude toward the company and repatronage intentions are influenced by social surroundings and by individual differences in frustration tolerance (fairness, entitlement, gratification and achievement). Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... Behaviors For behavioral reactions, self-related DEM for achievement has been related with maladaptive behaviors, such as emotional eating, medication usage (Harrington 2005), relational problems, social avoidance and isolation (Watson et al. 1998), lower performance in social context (Silverman and DiGiuseppe 2001), and increased anger expression (e.g. Bernard 1998). ...
... Bernard 1998). DEM for comfort and fairness were associated with behavioral avoidance (Bridges and Roig 1997), self-harming (Harrington 2005), comfort eating (Bernard 1998), overspending, procrastination, anger expression and low anger control, respectively relational difficulties (Addis and Bernard 2002). DEM for comfort were related to a hostile dominant interpersonal style (Goldberg 1990). ...
... DEM for comfort were related to a hostile dominant interpersonal style (Goldberg 1990). In terms of the IB derivative processes, (1) AWF was both associated with externalized behaviors, like submissive interpersonal style and social isolation (Watson et al. 1998;Martin and Dahlen 2004), anger suppression but also with externalized anger expression (Silverman and DiGiuseppe 2001); (2) LFT was related to aggressive behavior tendencies, like increased anger expression and decreased control of anger (Jones and Trower 2004), but also with behavioral avoidance, social isolation, marital problems, procrastination, comfort eating, medication use, procrastination or self-harm (Harrington 2005); (3) GE was correlated with defensiveness to negative feedback (Chamberlain and Haaga 2001), anger suppression and expression, and marital problems (Silverman and DiGiuseppe 2001). ...
As cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) has proven to be an evidence-based intervention for many mental health problems, the requirement for training programs has increased. Although there is promising data on the skills outcomes of such programs, trainees’ affective/behavioral changes mechanisms and in their faulty thinking patterns during the personal development of such training are unknown. The aim of this study is to investigate which are the most common irrational/dysfunctional beliefs of trainees during a cognitive-behavioral intervention training and their maladaptive consequences, as well as the methods of restructuring that they prefer to change these beliefs into rational/functional ones and achieve more adaptive consequences. 94 participants in a cognitive-behavioral interventions training program filled out 340 ABC, forms related to negative events at work and in personal life, as part of the personal development component in the training program. The obtained qualitative data was coded by three trained ratters in accordance to the current cognitive model of CBT. Contingencies analysis showed that demandingness, awfulizing and global evaluation (GE) are most frequently associated with anxiety, while low frustration tolerance is associated with anger. Comfort, affiliation, achievement themes were most frequently associated with anxiety, while fairness was most frequently associated with anger. Pragmatic cognitive restructuring was the most frequently used by trainees. We found evidence that confirmed many of the theoretical predictions form the cognitive model of CBT in respect to the associations between irrational/dysfunctional cognitions and dysfunctional emotions as well as some particularities for this specific population.
... This concept can be further broken down into components of discomfort intolerance, emotional intolerance, entitlement, and achievement perfectionism (Harrington, 2011). Frustration intolerance has been related to emotional difficulties with depression, anxiety and anger (Harrington, 2005a). Behaviourally, it has been associated with issues such as aggression, procrastination, avoidance, substance use and selfharm (Chapman et al., 2011;Harrington, 2005b;Harrington, 2006;Leyro et al., 2010). ...
... The LFT exercise, shame attack, and written reflections on these formed part of the assessment requirements for the unit. The LFT exercise was chosen as a behavioural task to provide trainees with insights into frustration/discomfort intolerance due to its suggested contribution to common interpersonal difficulties, self-control issues, and avoidant coping behaviours (Chapman et al., 2011;Harrington, 2005a;Leyro et al., 2010). Theory explaining the basis of LFT exercises and examples of these were provided within classes. ...
Application of a self-practice self-reflection (SP/SR) framework to clinical training programmes for those learning cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) have demonstrated positive outcomes. These programmes have typically resulted in reports of enhanced learning, improved clinical skills, heightened empathy, improved interpersonal skills, increased self-awareness, and self-development for those undertaking such training. However, the utility of specific activities within this framework for enhancing trainees’ learning still requires exploration. This study sought to explore the use of a low frustration tolerance (LFT) exercise to enhance trainee’s learning around issues relating to frustration and discomfort tolerance. It also further explored the possible application of SP/SR as a form of competency-based assessment. The study was based on 41 student trainees that engaged in a self-directed LFT exercise. Written reflections on these exercises were then thematically analysed. From a competency basis, the exercise provided an approach for observing the trainee’s competency with formulation skills, intervention planning, and self-reflective capacity. Participants reported both personal and professional development outcomes from the exercise. These included a ‘deepened’ understanding of cognitive behavioural principles related to their experiences, both in terms of principles relating to maintenance of dysfunction and to creating change. Increased self-awareness and learning outcomes relating to the development of interpersonal skills were also commonly reported by trainees.
Key learning aims
(1) To understand the usefulness of a behavioural experiment [a low frustration tolerance (LFT) exercise] for training within a SP/SR framework.
(2) To examine the potential for using SP/SR as a form of competency-based training.
(3) To demonstrate the benefits of experiential learning through SP/SR in training CBT.
... The Chinese version of the Frustration Discomfort Scale (FDS) was used to evaluate the self-reported frustration intolerance of adolescents [39,49,50]. The FDS contains 28 items evaluated on a 5-point Likert scale, with scores ranging from 28 to 140; a higher total score indicates higher frustration intolerance. ...
... Adolescents with ADHD with high frustration intolerance may have difficulties in making and maintaining peer relationships [57,58] and in achieving adequate academic performance [59]. Research has shown that frustration intolerance is associated with behavior avoidance [39]. Adolescents with ADHD may feel uncomfortable and spend more time and energy on Internet activities to feel a sense of achievement [60], increasing the risk of Internet addiction [37]. ...
Victimization and perpetration of cyberbullying and traditional bullying are prevalent among adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study examined the associations of impulsivity, frustration discomfort, and hostility with victimization and with the perpetration of cyberbullying and traditional bullying in adolescents with ADHD. Self-reported involvement in cyberbullying and traditional bullying was assessed in 195 adolescents with a clinical diagnosis of ADHD. Adolescents also completed questionnaires for impulsivity, frustration discomfort, and hostility. Caregivers completed the Child Behavior Checklist for adolescents’ ADHD, internalization, oppositional defiance, and problems with conduct. The associations of impulsivity, frustration discomfort, and hostility with victimization and perpetration of cyberbullying and traditional bullying were examined using logistic regression analysis. The results demonstrated that after the effects of demographic characteristics and behavioral problems were controlled for, frustration intolerance increased the risks of being cyberbullying victims and perpetrators whereas hostility increased the risks of being the victims and perpetrators of traditional bullying. Impulsivity was not significantly associated with any type of bullying involvement. Prevention and intervention programs should alleviate frustration intolerance and hostility among adolescents with ADHD.
... Each separate factor also has associations with specific emotional and behavioral dysfunctions. For instance, achievement frustration is significantly related to trait anxiety and trait anger, discomfort intolerance with depression and state anger, entitlement with trait anger, and emotional intolerance with state/trait anxiety and non-assertive behavior Harrington, 2005b;Harrington, 2005c;Harrington, 2006). However, the link between frustration intolerance and other dysfunctional attributions, such as school LH, has not been investigated. ...
... Many studies have shown that parental psychological control is positively related to psychological distress (Barber, Stolz, & Olsen, 2005;Costa, Gugliandolo, Barberis, & Larcan, 2016;Rogers, Buchanan, & Winchell, 2003), negatively related to scholastic achievement and academic competence (e.g., Aunola & Nurmi, 2004;Bean, Bush, McKenry, & Wilson, 2003;Soucy & Larose, 2000;Xu, Dai, Liu, & Deng, 2018), and increases the risk of developing LH (Filippello et al., 2015). In terms of frustration intolerance, clinical studies have shown an association with procrastination and behavioral avoidance (Harrington, 2005b;Harrington, 2005c). Furthermore, frustration intolerance is a significant predictor of depression and trait anxiety (Stankovic´& Vukosavljevic-Gvozden, 2011). ...
The present study aims to investigate the relation between perceived parental psychological control, school learned helplessness and mastery orientation, and also to test frustration intolerance as a mediator in the relation between perceived psychological control and school learned helplessness. The sample consisted of 214 (86 male and 128 female) high school students with an age range between 17- and 19- years (M = 18.20; DS = 0.98). Results indicated that maternal psychological control positively predicts frustration intolerance, and that in turn, frustration intolerance positively predicts school learned helplessness. Furthermore, there was a significant indirect effect of frustration intolerance in the link between maternal psychological control and school learned helplessness, pointing to an important mediating role for frustration intolerance. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... These 'weak signals' of stakeholders' discomfort are challenging to identify and assess, and have been often overlooked and only limitedly investigated (Hölttä et al. 2010), mostly in the field of humancomputer interactions (Baker et al. 2010;Ceaparu et al. 2004;Bessiere et al. 2003;Jefferson 2006) and behavioural research (Harrington 2005). Harrington (2005), for example, developed a frustrationdiscomfort scale made of 47 items on a 5-point-likert scale, to quantitatively investigate the correlation between the coping inventory item and the frustration-discomfort scale itself. ...
... These 'weak signals' of stakeholders' discomfort are challenging to identify and assess, and have been often overlooked and only limitedly investigated (Hölttä et al. 2010), mostly in the field of humancomputer interactions (Baker et al. 2010;Ceaparu et al. 2004;Bessiere et al. 2003;Jefferson 2006) and behavioural research (Harrington 2005). Harrington (2005), for example, developed a frustrationdiscomfort scale made of 47 items on a 5-point-likert scale, to quantitatively investigate the correlation between the coping inventory item and the frustration-discomfort scale itself. Conversely, in its dynamic analysis, Grundy (2000) symbolically displayed the curves representing the 'energy of the team' and 'frustration over time', showing that over time, the 'energy level' of the team decreases as the 'frustration' increases. ...
Early and timely sharing of information can provide a sustainable competitive advantage. However, even if lean information management aims to improve this information flow, it has mainly been investigated in ‘operations-based’ companies. This paper fills this gap, drawing upon the experience of the authors working within a large project-based company engaged in the ‘engineer and manufacture to order’ of a complex piece of equipment costing millions of dollars, for its strategic long-term client, both working in the same industrial field, i.e. nuclear decommissioning. This research investigates the information flow regarding scope changes between the project-based company and the long-term client adapting and applying a five-step framework to highlight operational inefficiencies, reduce the corresponding transaction costs and increase the overall company’s competitiveness. This is exemplified through a particular case, but can be applied to other project-based companies dealing with strategic clients involved in long-term relationships.
... Results obtained are supporting and extending other findings (Scott, Spender, Doolan et al., 2001), related to the effectiveness of the RE&CBE based on the RETMAN's rational stories (David, 2010) in helping youth with emotional and behavioral problems living in residential care. Our research supports similar results to researchers in the field who argue that specific types of irrational cognitions, such as demandingness (David et al., 2002;Harrington, 2005) and intolerance to frustration (David et al., 2002;Harrington, 2005;Martin & Dahlen, 2005), are related to anger and aggressive behavior. Also, our findings provide support for the etiopathogenetic role of irrationality in anger and dysfunctional negative emotions (Ellis & Bernard, 2007;Opris & Macavei, 2007, DiGiuseppe et al, 1989. ...
... Results obtained are supporting and extending other findings (Scott, Spender, Doolan et al., 2001), related to the effectiveness of the RE&CBE based on the RETMAN's rational stories (David, 2010) in helping youth with emotional and behavioral problems living in residential care. Our research supports similar results to researchers in the field who argue that specific types of irrational cognitions, such as demandingness (David et al., 2002;Harrington, 2005) and intolerance to frustration (David et al., 2002;Harrington, 2005;Martin & Dahlen, 2005), are related to anger and aggressive behavior. Also, our findings provide support for the etiopathogenetic role of irrationality in anger and dysfunctional negative emotions (Ellis & Bernard, 2007;Opris & Macavei, 2007, DiGiuseppe et al, 1989. ...
Estimates on psychopathology among children cared for in institutions are the highest, and disruptive behavior disorders can have long-term devastating consequences in adolescence (Blower et al, 2004). Thus, the authors sought to examine the efficacy of a rational emotive and cognitive-behavioral education program using the RETMAN therapeutic stories, in addressing behavioral and emotional problems in foster cared youth. Thirty adolescents with foster care history were included in the study based on their scores of externalizing symptoms and were assigned to the rational stories intervention group (15 participants) or wait-list (15 participants). Participants in the rational stories intervention reported significantly lower rates of externalizing and internalizing symptoms, negative dysfunctional emotions, and more positive affect, compared to the wait-list adolescents. We found that reductions in irrational thinking of the youth have functioned as mechanism for the changes reported in their affect. Our results have important implications concerning the prevention of emotional and behavioral problems in foster cared youth.
... Further studies (Harrington 2005b(Harrington , c, 2006 indicated that this instrument allowed for a more complex assessment of frustration intolerance. Thus, empirical evidence indicated that different frustration intolerance sub-scales were associated with specific emotional dysfunctions such as anxiety, depression and anger (Harrington 2006). ...
... There were similar differential relationships with other selfcontrol problems. For instance, behavioural avoidance significantly correlated with discomfort and emotional intolerance, but not with entitlement or achievement frustration (Harrington 2005b). ...
Introduzione. La capacità degli studenti di tollerare la frustrazione e di ritardare la gratificazione è considerato un fattore predittivo del successo scolastico e accademico (Wilde, 2012). Di conseguenza, in ambito educativo, riveste particolare importanza analizzare la capacità degli studenti di sopportare “sentimenti angoscianti” correlati alla prestazione o alla valutazione e di persistere nello studio, indipendentemente dalla gratificazione immediata del risultato. Nonostante l’intolleranza alla frustrazione sia considerata un concetto centrale della Terapia Razionale Emotiva Comportamentale (REBT - Ellis, 1974), fino a qualche anno fa, le ricerche sulla natura di questi pensieri disfunzionali sono state piuttosto limitate (Chang e Zurilla, 1996; Martin e Dahlen, 2004). Tali studi hanno considerato la bassa tolleranza alla frustrazione come un costrutto unidimensionale, valutato nell’ambito dei pensieri distorti (pensiero catastrofico, intolleranza, svalutazione globale di sé e degli altri, indispensabilità e bisogni assoluti). Indagare le singole dimensioni che costituiscono l’ampia categoria di tali distorsioni cognitive è diventato ancora più importante data l’evidenza empirica che suggerisce che aree di contenuto diverso possono essere correlate a disturbi emotivi diversi (Harrington, 2007). Il Frustration Discomfort Scale – FDS (Harrington, 2005) risponde a tale esigenza, dal momento che considera l’intolleranza alla frustrazione come un costrutto costituito da quattro dimensioni: intolleranza emotiva, diritto, intolleranza al disagio e realizzazione. Poiché nel panorama scientifico italiano si evidenzia una carenza di strumenti idonei alla valutazione di questo costrutto, uno degli obiettivi del presente studio è quello di adattare al contesto italiano il Frustration Discomfort Scale ed analizzare la relazione tra le quattro dimensioni di cui è composto lo strumento e specifici disagi emotivo-comportamentali quali: ansia, depressione, rabbia e comportamenti anassertivi, in un campione di studenti universitari (N=250; età media= 23 anni;163 femmine e 87 maschi). Un ulteriore obiettivo è quello di valutare se esistono differenze di genere nelle variabili prese in considerazione. Metodo. A tutti gli studenti sono stati somministrati cinque questionari: (1) la versione adattata al contesto italiano del Frustration Discomfort Scale (Harrington, 2005), per valutare la capacità di tollerare la frustrazione; (2) la versione italiana dello STAI di Spielberger et al. (1970) (Lazzari e Pancheri, 1980), per la valutazione dell’ansia; (3) il Questionario D (Bertolotti et al., 2000) per misurare la depressione; (4) la versione italiana dello STAXI-2 di Spielberger (1999) (Comunian, 2004) per valutare la rabbia; (5) la SIBr (Arrindell et al., 2004) per la valutazione del comportamento interpersonale e assertivo. Risultati. I risultati dell’analisi fattoriale confermativa indicano un adattamento della FDS accettabile (RMSEA= .06), confermando le quattro dimensioni proposte da Harrington. L’ANOVA ha messo in evidenza differenze di genere significative relativamente alla variabile depressione [F(1, 248)=20,75; p<.001], in quanto le femmine hanno ottenuto punteggi più elevati rispetto ai maschi. La MANOVA ha permesso di rilevare una maggiore presenza nelle femmine, rispetto ai maschi, di ansia di stato [F(1,248)=13.48; p<.001] e di tratto [F(1,248)=32,47; p<.001], di intolleranza emotiva [F(1,248)=12,49; p<.001] ed assertività generale/disagio [F(1,248)=9,13; p <.05]. Nelle scale diritto, realizzazione, intolleranza al disagio, rabbia di stato, rabbia di tratto e assertività generale/frequenza non sono state riscontrate differenze significative in relazione al sesso. Infine, la regressione multipla gerarchica ha evidenziato che le dimensioni del FDS sono predittrici di disfunzioni emotivo-comportamentali, in accordo con le precedenti ricerche (Harrington, 2006; Stanković, 2011). L’intolleranza al disagio è predittrice della depressione e della rabbia di stato; l’intolleranza emotiva è predittrice dell’ansia di stato, dell’ansia di tratto e del disagio nel manifestare comportamenti assertivi. Nella rabbia di tratto predittore positivo risulta essere la dimensione diritto, mentre l’intolleranza emotiva è negativamente predittiva della rabbia di tratto. Discussione. I risultati ottenuti indicano che le varie dimensioni della FDS possono essere coinvolte in differenti manifestazioni emotive e comportamentali, considerate di particolare rilevanza nella predizione del successo accademico (Wilde, 2012). I dati ottenuti confermano la validità della versione italiana dello strumento e forniscono una prova della sua applicabilità in una cultura diversa.
... Further studies (Harrington 2005b(Harrington , c, 2006 indicated that this instrument allowed for a more complex assessment of frustration intolerance. Thus, empirical evidence indicated that different frustration intolerance sub-scales were associated with specific emotional dysfunctions such as anxiety, depression and anger (Harrington 2006). ...
... There were similar differential relationships with other selfcontrol problems. For instance, behavioural avoidance significantly correlated with discomfort and emotional intolerance, but not with entitlement or achievement frustration (Harrington 2005b). ...
The aim of the present research was to investigate the relationship
between frustration intolerance and emotional-behavioural problems. Specifically,
the study explored whether frustration intolerance beliefs were associated with
difficulties in assertive behaviour, anxiety, depression, and anger in a non-clinical
student sample (N = 250). For this purpose an Italian version of the Frustration
Discomfort Scale (FDS) was developed. The findings supported a multidimensional
model of frustration intolerance and the relationship between specific frustration
intolerance beliefs and emotional-behavioural problems. Regarding unhealthy
emotions, structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses (model A) indicated that
discomfort intolerance and emotional intolerance had a significant relationship with
state anxiety, trait anxiety, and depression. The discomfort intolerance and entitlement
sub-scales had a significant relationship with state anger and trait anger,
while entitlement directly predicted trait anger. Regarding assertiveness, SEM
analyses (model B) indicated that emotional intolerance had a significant relationship
with distress when being assertive. More generally, the FDS full scale score
(model C) was significantly related to unhealthy emotions and (model D) unassertive
behaviour (distress). The present study provided evidence of the crosscultural
applicability of the FDS.
... Further studies (Harrington 2005b(Harrington , c, 2006 indicated that this instrument allowed for a more complex assessment of frustration intolerance. Thus, empirical evidence indicated that different frustration intolerance sub-scales were associated with specific emotional dysfunctions such as anxiety, depression and anger (Harrington 2006). ...
... There were similar differential relationships with other selfcontrol problems. For instance, behavioural avoidance significantly correlated with discomfort and emotional intolerance, but not with entitlement or achievement frustration (Harrington 2005b). ...
The aim of the present research was to investigate the relationship between frustration intolerance and emotional-behavioural problems. Specifically, the study explored whether frustration intolerance beliefs were associated with difficulties in assertive behaviour, anxiety, depression, and anger in a non-clinical student sample (N = 250). For this purpose an Italian version of the Frustration Discomfort Scale (FDS) was developed. The findings supported a multidimensional model of frustration intolerance and the relationship between specific frustration intolerance beliefs and emotional-behavioural problems. Regarding unhealthy emotions, structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses (model A) indicated that discomfort intolerance and emotional intolerance had a significant relationship with state anxiety, trait anxiety, and depression. The discomfort intolerance and entitlement sub-scales had a significant relationship with state anger and trait anger, while entitlement directly predicted trait anger. Regarding assertiveness, SEM analyses (model B) indicated that emotional intolerance had a significant relationship with distress when being assertive. More generally, the FDS full scale score (model C) was significantly related to unhealthy emotions and (model D) unassertive behaviour (distress). The present study provided evidence of the cross-cultural applicability of the FDS.
... As a consequence of high levels of emotional intolerance, distressing states may be followed by meta-emotional appraisal (Wells, 2000) which in turn may drive motivation for relief from, or avoidance of, emotional distress by using alcohol (Spada & Wells, 2005). Research appears to support this view, with levels of emotional intolerance found to be positively associated with the degree of substance misuse (McHugh & Otto, 2012) as well as a wide range of self-control problems (Harrington 2005a). In addition, a recent study found that patients with substance use disorder who received a brief treatment aimed at improving emotional intolerance reached a clinically significant improvement compared to patients who received supportive counselling (Bornovalova et al. 2012). ...
... Higher scores represent higher levels of emotional intolerance. The subscale has been shown to possess good psychometric properties (Harrington 2005a). ...
The use of alcohol as a strategy to regulate emotional distress has been widely considered as a core risk factor for problem drinking. Recent research has suggested that using alcohol to self-regulate may be sustained by emotional intolerance (the perceived inability to tolerate emotional distress) and desire thinking (a voluntary cognitive process involving verbal and imaginal elaboration of a desired target). The goal of this study was to explore the role of emotional intolerance and desire thinking in predicting problem drinking. A sample of problem drinkers (n = 50), and social drinkers (n = 56) completed self-report instruments of emotional intolerance, desire thinking and problem drinking. Analyses revealed that the verbal perseveration factor of desire thinking was the only significant predictor of classification as a problem drinker. In addition both factors of desire thinking were found to predict problem drinking independently of emotional intolerance. These findings suggest that desire thinking may be a risk factor across the transition from social to problem drinking and that treatment may benefit from targeting specifically this cognitive process together with meta-emotional appraisal.
... However, they noted that several items in the "catastrophic evaluations" subscale better represented Ellis' (1994) construct of frustration intolerance. Therefore, they replaced these items with ones better reflecting catastrophizing evaluations, and they created a separate seventh subscale to reflect frustration intolerance based on the theory of Ellis (1994) and the work of Harrington (2005). They also noted that the subscale assessing adaptive coping thoughts reflected several adaptive cognitions. ...
Background
This study aims to provide insight into the specific cognitive constructs that are most strongly correlated with disturbed anger and could guide the development of more effective cognitive-behavioral treatments. The Anger Cognitions Scale-Revised (ACS-R) presents participants with nine scenarios of anger-provoking events and asks them to indicate the degree to which the situations would trigger the experience of seven different cognitive processes: hostile attributions, negative consequences of anger, inflammatory labeling, demandingness, frustration intolerance, awfulizing, and overgeneralization. The current study tested the factor structure and the construct validity of the ACS-R in a diverse sample to examine which cognitive constructs best predict dysfunctional anger and, consequently should be targeted when treating angry clients.
Method
1024 participants with an average age of 20.4 years (SD = 6.15) completed the ACS-R and measures of dysfunctional anger and anger outcomes via online administration.
Results
Confirmatory factor analyses found that ACS-R scores best fit a bifactor model, with 7-factors representing the seven cognitive constructs with a separate set of 9-factors in which items loaded on their respective scenarios. Multiple regression analyses revealed that negative consequences of anger, hostile attributions, and inflammatory labeling contributed more significant variance in models predicting dysfunctional anger.
Discussion
Although additional research should replicate these results, our findings suggest that cognitive-behavioral treatment for dysfunctional anger might improve their outcomes if they targeted negative cognitions most strongly associated with dysfunctional anger. In addition, the inclusion of situational factors in our best-fitting CFA models suggests that assessing the circumstances in which one experiences distressing and unhelpful anger is essential in clinical practice.
... Those with high academic control pay little attention to academic failure, which leads to little AF. Harrington (2005) found that students with different levels of frustration tolerance might adopt different strategies to deal with stress during the learning process to relieve frustration. Several studies have pointed out that anti-frustration ability (AFA) is a crucial factor causing negative academic emotions, e.g., academic frustration (see Ou et al., 2013;Yang and He, 2018;Yang et al., 2021). ...
Background:
With the ongoing push to improve the quality of talent in all professions, academic pressure on undergraduates is gradually increasing, leading to students feeling increasingly frustrated by academic stressors. As it becomes more widespread, the resulting issue of academic frustration is attracting public attention.
Aim:
The current study explored the relationship between undergraduate anti-frustration ability (AFA) on their academic frustration (AF), focusing specifically on the roles played by core competence (CC) and coping style (CS) in this relationship.
Methods:
Our sample comprised 1,500 undergraduate students from universities in China. Data collection made use of the Ability to Anti-Frustration Ability Questionnaire, the Academic Frustration Questionnaire, the Core Competence Questionnaire, and the Simple Coping Style Questionnaire.
Results:
The results showed that: (1) AFA negatively predicted the AF of undergraduates, with CC mediating this relationship and (2) CS had a moderating effect on the relationship between CC and AF. We concluded that students who employ positive CS may be more successful in alleviating their AF to a larger extent, with the mediation of CC.
Interpretation:
The results revealed the mechanism of AFA on AF, which will help schools consider and guide students' skills and abilities, both academically and personally.
... A person can have rigid expectations about their ability to sustain effort, survive, or continue in the face of frustration, discomfort, or pain. I have found it useful to apply the theoretical categories of FI (Harrington, 2005) when exploring FI with clients. These are emotional intolerance (e.g., the belief that emotional distress is intolerable and must be avoided or controlled, and uncertainty reduced), entitlement intolerance (e.g. the belief that desires must be met), discomfort intolerance (e.g. the belief that life should be easy, comfortable, and free of hassles and effort), and achievement frustration (e.g. the belief that it is intolerable to perform below ones best). ...
The current article provides a review and auto-ethnographic account of the application of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) in a police setting. After reviewing literature that explores the application of both REBT in policing to date, the focus will then turn to a reflection of the personal experiences of applying the principles of REBT theory in the context of policing. This commentary will highlight the broad applicability of REBT across the many challenging facets of policing. From stress management and resilience enhancement to optimal performance and team cohesion, this article posits that REBT theory provides an accessible foundational framework on which individuals, teams, groups, and systems can perform effectively. The nuanced application of the approach in the face of exposure to traumatic events and cultural challenges within policing will also be discussed.
... Pronounced procrastination tendencies have been most notably associated with lower conscientiousness or increased impulsivity at the trait-level (for reviews, see Klingsieck, 2013;Steel, 2007;van Eerde, 2003). Further research has found pronounced procrastination tendencies to be associated with low self-esteem, lack of confidence in one's ability to succeed at tasks of a particular type or domain (i.e., low self-efficacy beliefs), and with workor mastery-avoidance orientations (Harrington, 2005;Howell & Watson, 2007;Klassen et al., 2008;Wolters, 2003). Thus, students' procrastination tendency appears to be affected by self-beliefs and attitudes that limit their self-regulatory efforts, especially when tasks appear difficult or demanding. ...
Procrastination is thought to be affected by trait-based and by situational, or task-specific determinants. Situational and task-specific influences on students' procrastination behavior have rarely been studied. Most research has examined trait-based individual differences in students' general procrastination tendencies. This study used an adaptive experience sampling approach to assess students' (N = 88) task-related perceptions of ambiguity and their situation-specific procrastination behavior during exam preparation six times a day for seven days (n = 3581 measurements). Results revealed that 30% of all intended study sessions were procrastinated. The risk that study sessions were procrastinated increased with students' task-related ambiguity perceptions. Individuals' average risk of procrastinating study sessions was further predicted by their procrastination tendency and conscientiousness assessed at baseline. The findings suggest interventions that promote students’ ability to self-regulate but also modify tasks and instructions. Further implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
... When an individual is confronted with a negative life event, maladaptive emotional and behavioral responses will not appear as a reaction to the event itself, but as a result of faulty interpretations of the event (i.e., holding irrational beliefs in relation to that event).There is now extensive research, including large meta-analyses, pointing that, at individual level, irrational beliefs are associated to dysfunctional emotions such as anxiety, depression and anger Vîslă et al., 2016). Irrational beliefs are also related to dysfunctional behaviors such as aggressive manifestations (Watson et al., 1998), comfort eating (Harrington, 2005), procrastination (Bridges & Roig, 1997) and many others (for a complete review see Szentagotai & Jones, 2010). Moreover, the clinical literature offers consistent evidence that psychological treatments, which aim to help patients with various mental health disorders to change their irrational beliefs into more rational ones, are effective in decreasing mental health problems (David et al., 2018). ...
Previous studies established a relationship between the historical prevalence of pathogens and the individualism-collectivism cultural dimension. In this article, we argue that this relation can be mediated by distorted information processes derived from the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) model (i.e., irrational beliefs in the form of rigid/absolutistic/inflexible thinking). We hypothesize that populations living in dangerous environments, expressed through the historical prevalence of pathogens, have developed a psychological tendency towards rigid information processing strategies, which have in turn contributed to the formation of collectivistic cultural organization. We extracted data on the prevalence of historical pathogens and individualism-collectivism cultural dimension from previous sources, and we computed an index of irrationality based on two items extracted from the World Values Survey. Using the sample of 41 countries we tested a mediation model between these variables. The results pointed that irrational beliefs partially mediated the relationship between pathogen prevalence and individualism—collectivism cultural dimension (b = − .07, SE = 0.28, 95% boot CI [− 0.13, − 0.02]). This result support the idea that demanding beliefs about social interactions emerges as an adaptation to harsh environments and partially promotes collectivistic cultural organization.
... A if desempenha um papel importante no modo como os indivíduos respondem aos eventos da vida, sendo relevante para alcançar ajustamento psicológico (DiGiuseppe et al., 2014;Stanković & Vukosavljević-Gvozden, 2011). Evidências empíricas indicam associação entre if e distresse psicológico (Jibeen, 2017;Vîslă et al., 2016), problemas de autocontrole (Harrington, 2005a;Martin & Dahlen, 2004;Medrano et al., 2019), procrastinação (Harrington, 2005b, vício em internet (Ko et al., 2008;Lu et al., 2019), ansiedade e depressão (Chang & D'Zurilla, 1996;Harrington, 2006;Jibeen, 2017;Stanković & Vukosavljević-Gvozden, 2011). ...
A Escala de Frustração e Desconforto (EFD) avalia as crenças de intolerância à frustração. Este trabalho objetivou: adaptar esse instrumento para o contexto brasileiro; buscar evidências de validade de conteúdo, de estrutura interna e com base na relação com variáveis externas e, por fim, verificar a relação entre os níveis de intolerância à frustração com gênero e idade dos participantes. A amostra foi composta por 293 indivíduos, com idade média de 21.6 anos (DP = 3.57). Foram aplicados a EFD, o Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) e um questionário sociodemográfico. Os resultados da análise fatorial exploratória indicaram a pertinência de solução fatorial composta por duas dimensões. Quanto a consistência interna, foram verificados bons índices para ambos os fatores e para a escala. Observou-se associação positiva e estatisticamente significativa entre a EFD e o PHQ-4, atestando a validade baseada na relação com variáveis externas. Não foram identificadas diferenças estatisticamente significativas nos níveis de intolerância à frustração em razão do gênero e idade. Baseado nesses achados, conclui-se que a versão adaptada da EFD apresentou propriedades psicométricas satisfatórias, sendo adequada para investigação da intolerância à frustração, possibilitando que pesquisadores e profissionais investiguem como esse construto se manifesta na população brasileira e como ele se relaciona com variáveis associadas à saúde mental.
... The 28-item Mandarin Chinese version of the Frustration Discomfort Scale (FDS) was used to evaluate the adolescents' self-reported frustration intolerance, including emotional intolerance, demands for entitlement, comfort, and achievement (e.g., "I can't stand having to wait for things I would like now.") [60][61][62]. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (absent) to 5 (very strong). ...
This study examined the relationships of cyberbullying and traditional bullying victimization and perpetration, perceived family function, frustration discomfort, and hostility with self-reported depressive symptoms and suicidality in adolescents diagnosed as having attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Both the self-reported severity of depressive symptoms on the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale and the occurrence of suicidal ideation or a suicide attempt on the suicidality module of the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia were assessed in 195 adolescents with ADHD. The adolescents completed the Cyberbullying Experiences Questionnaire, Chinese version of the School Bullying Experience Questionnaire, Frustration–Discomfort Scale, Buss–Durkee Hostility Inventory, and Family APGAR Index. Caregivers completed the ADHD problems component of the Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 6–18. Multiple regression analyses were used to examine the correlates for each of self-reported depressive symptoms and suicidality. The results showed that after the effects of gender, age, ADHD symptoms, and family function were controlled, greater frustration discomfort and bullying perpetration significantly predicted self-reported depressive symptoms. Being cyberbullying victims and displaying hostility significantly predicted the risk of suicidality. Various types of bullying involvement, frustration intolerance, and hostility significantly predicted self-reported depressive symptoms and suicidality in adolescents with ADHD. By monitoring and intervening in these factors, we can reduce the risk of depression-related problems and suicidality in adolescents with ADHD.
... The results highlight the importance of gaining a deeper insight into the dynamic processes that determine success or failure in students' efforts to realize their task-specific intentions. It is reasonable to assume that the detrimental changes in the task-specific appraisals that have been revealed in the present study may be more frequently experienced by more impulsive students who are less skilled in self-regulation (Steel, 2007), more intolerant toward the experience of negative emotions (e.g., Harrington, 2005), or less skilled in regulating the experience of negative emotions (e.g., Rebetez et al., 2015;Eckert et al., 2016). However, provided that procrastination behavior has been explained to arise because the avoidance of the negative affective experience that arises when dealing with a task that is perceived as aversive is prioritized over the benefit of long-term goal pursuit (Sirois and Pychyl, 2013), it is imperative to examine the momentary withinperson processes that are involved. ...
Academic procrastination involves the delayed implementation of actions required to fulfill study-related tasks. These behavioral delays are thought to result from momentary failures in self-regulation (i.e., within-person processes). Most previous studies focused on the role of trait-based individual differences in students’ procrastination tendencies. Little is known about the within-person processes involved in the occurrence of procrastination behavior in real-life academic situations. The present study applied an event-based experience sampling approach to investigate whether the onset of task-specific delay behavior can be attributed to unfavorable changes in students’ momentary appraisals of tasks (value, aversiveness, effort, expectations of success), which may indicate failures in self-regulation arise between critical phases of goal-directed action. University students (N = 75) used an electronic diary over eight days to indicate their next days’ intentions to work on academic tasks and their task-specific appraisals (n = 582 academic tasks planned). For each task, a second query requested the next day determined whether students’ task-related appraisals changed and whether they implemented their intention on time or delayed working on the respective task (n = 501 completed task-specific measurements). Students’ general procrastination tendency was assessed at baseline using two established self-report questionnaires. Stepwise two-level logistic regression analyses revealed that within-person changes in task-related appraisals that reflected a devaluation of the study-related tasks increased the risk for an actual delay. The risk to delay decreased when students maintained a positive attitude toward the task. Students’ general procrastination tendency did not predict individual differences in their task-specific delay behavior. We discuss these findings in light of the growing effort to understand the within-person processes that contribute to induce procrastination behavior under real-life academic conditions and illustrate how this knowledge can benefit the design of tasks and instructions that support students’ self-regulation to their best.
THIS ARTICLE IS PART OF THE RESEARCH TOPIC:
New Perspectives on Procrastination, Volume II
... Frustration intolerance is essentially an "attempt to shoehorn reality to fit our desires, whilst tolerance is the acceptance of the undesirable in order to achieve longer-term goals" (Harrington 2007, p. 193). Also called discomfort disturbance, it refers to IBs about the tolerability of discomfort and frustration and the demand for comfortable and easy conditions (Harrington 2005a) and usually reflects poor self-control (DiGiuseppe et al. 2014). Higher levels of FIBs are known to be related to emotional disturbance and maladaptive behaviors (e.g., Chang et al. 1996;DiGiuseppe 1996;Rabinowitz et al. 1996). ...
The purpose of this study was to address frustration intolerance related to bullying among
adolescents. We investigated how sociodemographic characteristics and intolerance frustration
beliefs are related to four bullying roles (pure victim, bully-victim, pure bully, and noninvolved).
This cross-sectional study featured a sample of 1124 French adolescents (616 girls and 508
boys), who completed the revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire and Frustration
Discomfort scales. Results revealed that adolescents involved in bullying expressed more
irrational frustration intolerance beliefs than their noninvolved peers. Entitlement, emotional
intolerance, and achievement frustration were positively associated with victimization, but only
entitlement emerged as a significant predictor of victim status in a logistic regression analysis.
Entitlement and achievement frustration were positively associated with bullying perpetration,
but entitlement only emerged as a significant predictor of bully status in the regression analysis.
The present findings show that entitlement is the type of frustration intolerance belief that
contributes the most to bullying involvement. Interventions targeting irrational entitlement
beliefs and reinforcing rational ones could be considered when dealing with adolescent bullying.
... 5 He demonstrated a multidimensional model of frustration intolerance belief which consisted of entitlement, emotional intolerance, discomfort intolerance, and achievement. These dimensions could contribute differently to self-control problems, 6 such as addictive behaviors. 7,8 ...
This study aimed to evaluate the belief of frustration intolerance of individuals with internet gaming disorder (IGD) and its association with depression among them. We recruited 69 participants with IGD and 138 controls (69 regular gamers and other non‐gamers). IGD is diagnosed based on DSM‐5 (DSM stands for diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders) criteria through psychiatric interviews. They had completed the questionnaire for the belief of frustration intolerance, depression, and severity of IGD. The participant with IGD had a higher score on the frustration discomfort scale and its subscales, discomfort intolerance, entitlement, emotional intolerance, and achievement. Further regression analysis demonstrated an independent association between entitlement and IGD in control of depression. The frustration intolerance is also associated with depression and the severity of IGD among the IGD group. The discomfort intolerance and achievement were the most associated factors of depression. Frustration intolerance is a crucial irrational belief of IGD. It contributes to the severity of IGD and depression among individuals with IGD. The frustration intolerance, particularly for discomfort intolerance, entitlement, and achievement, should be assessed and intervened while treating individuals with IGD.
... While maladaptive emotion-regulation strategies have been quite constantly linked to psychopathology (for a review see Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010;Diefendorf, Richard, & Yang, 2008), adaptive emotion-regulation strategies have been linked to mental health, well-being, job satisfaction and to high performance (Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004). Irrational thinking has been consistently associated with distress and low performance (Silverman & DiGiuseppe, 2001); in contrast, rational thinking is considered important for resiliency and is associated with adaptive behaviors (Harrington, 2005). However, recent findings on emotion-regulation processes have rarely been integrated in the work performance context specificity (i.e., emotional regulation to work performance; Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010;Daus, & Ashkanasy, 2005). ...
The Prescriptive Index platform is dedicated to the appraisal and development of managerial competencies, and it is comprised of such measures as the multi-rater Freeman-Gavita Prescriptive Executive Coaching (PEC) Assessment for assessing core managerial skills, and the multi-rater Managerial Coaching Assessment System (MCAS) for the evaluation of coaching competencies in managers. The aim of this research was to present the development and psychometric properties of new tools, part of the Prescriptive Index platform, for the assessment of managerial emotional competencies: the web and mobile based Mood Wheel measure using experience sampling procedures, for the assessment of current/previous distress and positive emotions; and the self-report Manager Rational and Irrational Beliefs Scale (M-RIBS) for the assessment of managerial attitudes involved in emotion-regulation processes. Results obtained show that both instruments integrated in the Prescriptive Index platform have adequate initial psychometric support and predictive validity. Practical implications of our findings are discussed in the light of the importance of enabling organizations to accurately identify managerial competencies and coaching needs.
... It is a type of irrational belief related to emotional and behavioral problems based on the theory of rational emotive behavior therapy (32). Adolescents with IA have been reported to have higher frustration intolerance that healthy controls (21), indicating that frustration intolerance is associated with difficulty with self-control (33). Aversion to delayed reward, which may be a source of frustration, is a core feature of ADHD (22). ...
Background: Deviations in reinforcement sensitivity and frustration-related reactions have been proposed as components of the biopsychosocial mechanisms, which explained the high vulnerability to internet addiction (IA) among individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). There is currently limited knowledge on the relationship of IA symptoms with reinforcement sensitivity and frustration intolerance, as well as factors moderating those correlations in this population.
Objective: The aims of this study were (1) to examine the associations of IA symptoms severity with reinforcement sensitivity and frustration intolerance and (2) identify the moderators of these associations among adolescents diagnosed with ADHD in Taiwan.
Methods: A total of 300 adolescents aged between 11 and 18 years who had been diagnosed with ADHD participated in this study. Their levels of IA severity, reinforcement sensitivity, and frustration intolerance were assessed using the Chen Internet Addiction Scale, behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral approach system (BAS), and Frustration Discomfort Scale, respectively. The associations of IA severity with reinforcement sensitivity and frustration intolerance were examined using multiple regression analysis. Possible moderators, including medications for ADHD, were tested using the standard criteria.
Results: Higher fun seeking on the BAS (p = .003) and higher frustration intolerance (p = .003) were associated with more severe IA symptoms. Receiving medication for treating ADHD moderated the association between fun seeking on the BAS and severity of IA symptoms.
Conclusion: Fun seeking on the BAS and frustration intolerance should be considered as targets in prevention and intervention programs for IA among adolescents with ADHD.
... En psicología todas estas estas reacciones se estudiaron dentro del concepto de relatividad de los refuerzos o efectos de contraste y nos indican que los incentivos tienen un valor relativo que dependen en parte de las expectativas que tenemos acerca de lo que nos va a ocurrir (Amsel, 1958(Amsel, , 1992 Algunos estudios que evaluaron la tolerancia a la frustración en humanos se realizaron con la Escala de Intolerancia a la frustración (EIF, Harrington, 2005) que evalúa las creencias arraigadas acerca de que la realidad debe ser de acuerdo con nuestras expectativas y el fuerte rechazo a que no lo sean. Los estudios realizados con este cuestionario en jóvenes hallaron correlaciones positivas entre la EIF y procrastinación (Ozer, Demir & Harrington, 2012), y negativas con autoestima (Garaigordobil & Oñederra, 2010 En forma similar (e.g.: "Sigo pensando en lo terrible que es lo que me ha pasado". ...
Se evaluaron las relaciones entre intolerancia a la frustración (IF) y regulación emocional (RE) en adolescentes argentinos. Se administraron dos instrumentos: la Escala de Intolerancia a la Frustración (EIF, Medrano, Franco & Mustaca, 2018) y la Escala de Regulación Emocional (ERE, Medrano, Moretti, Ortiz & Pereno, 2013), y un cuestionario sociodemográfico. Se hallaron relaciones directas significativas entre Intolerancia Emocional con Rumiación, Autoculparse y Catastrofismo; Intolerancia por alcanzar Logros con Autoculparse; Intolerancia a la Incomodidad con Catastrofismo; Derechos con Culpar a Otros y Rumiación; y Puntuación Total de la EIF con Rumiación, Catastrofismo y Autoculparse. Las mujeres exhibieron un mayor puntaje en Intolerancia Emocional, Derechos y Puntuación Total de la EIF y en Rumiación y Poner en Perspectiva en la ERE respecto de los varones. Estos datos se discuten en función de investigaciones previas y su utilidad en ámbitos educativos y clínicas.
... Future theoretical and empirical work could focus on the beliefs associated with externalizing psychopathology. The work of Harrington (2005) that focuses on expanding the types of frustration tolerance beliefs is one example of how future research could proceed. Also, the accurate assessment of IBs and RBs might require more content specific scales such as the PTSD IBs (Hyland et al. 2015) or the development of theme scales for different PDs as was done by Young et al. (2003) and Beck and Beck (1991) : Fournier 2015) for personality disorder. ...
The Attitudes and Belief Scale-2 (ABS-2) developed in the late 1980s, is a measure of Ellis’ irrational and rational beliefs. Although no publication has described the instrument and it has only appeared in conference presentations, many researchers have used the ABS-2 to test REBT. This article describes the development of the ABS-2 and the original research on its psychometric properties. The scale has three factors that represent 24 different cells in a 4 × 2 × 3 factorial model. The first factor, Cognitive Processes, reflects Ellis’ concepts of Demandingness, Awfulizing, Frustration Intolerance, and Self-Downing. The second factor covers irrationally worded items versus rationally worded items. The rationally worded items were written to counter the irrational beliefs. The third factor includes content or life themes about which the person could be concerned, and includes Achievement, Affiliation, and Comfort. The ABS-2 generates a Total Score, a Total Irrationality Score, a Total Rationality score, and Scales scores representing each of the four Cognitive Processes domains and each of the three Content domains. The ABS-2 scores demonstrate adequate to excellent internal consistency, and correlate significantly with measures of depression, anxiety, life satisfaction, selfcontrol, well-being, and measures of internalizing personality disorders. The ABS-2 did not correlate significantly with measures of anger, externalizing personality disorders, mania, and somatoform disorder. An exploratory factor analysis provided weak support for the factor structure of the scale. The ABS-2 scores distinguish between normal and clinical samples. Rationally worded items discriminated between clinical and nonclinical groups much better than did the irrationally worded scales, suggesting that instruments that only assess irrational beliefs might underestimate the support for REBT.
... Discomfort intolerance represents the belief that life should be easy, comfortable, and free from hassles (i.e., ''Tasks that I attempt absolutely must not be too difficult. I can't stand doing them'' (Harrington 2005c). Further, achievement frustration represents the belief that individuals must not be prevented from reaching their goals. ...
The present study examines the moderating role of unconditional self acceptance and self esteem in relation to frustration intolerance beliefs and psychological distress. Participants were one hundred and fifty student (aged 18–25) studying at three universities (COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, University of Management Sciences, and University of Central Punjab) of Lahore, Pakistan. They completed a demographic information sheet, the Frustration Discomfort Scale (Harrington in Clin Psychol Psychother 12:374–387, 2005a), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg in Society and the adolescent self image. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1965), the Unconditional Self Acceptance Questionnaire (Chamberlain and Haaga in J Ration Emotive Cogn Behav Ther 19:163–176, 2001a), and the General Health Questionnaire (Goldberg in Manual of the General Health Questionnaire. NFERNelson, Great Britain, 1972). The results demonstrated the moderating effects of unconditional self acceptance and self esteem in the relationship between frustration intolerance beliefs (entitlement, achievement, emotional intolerance, and discomfort intolerance) and psychological distress . The present findings highlight the importance unconditional self acceptance that reduces the emotional problems of students hindering their educational and personal growth.
... Demandingness in REBT is the primary irrational belief and research (see Szentagotai and Jones, 2010, for a review) indicates that demandingness is positively related to a vast array of dysfunctional emotional and behavioral outcomes. Specifically, and non-exhaustively, demandingness is associated with disordered eating (Harrington, 2005a;Pearson and Gleaves, 2006), reduced anger control (Addis and Bernard, 2002), relationship problems, social avoidance and isolation (Watson et al., 1998), decreased performance in social situations (e.g., speaking; Nicastro et al., 1999), procrastination (Beswick et al., 1988;Bridges and Roig, 1997), alcohol abuse (Hewitt and Flett, 1991), interpersonal issues (Haring et al., 2003), suicide (Blatt, 1995), and reduced task performance (Frost and Marten, 1990). It is reasonable to suggest that none of these outcomes are conducive to short or long-term athletic goal achievement. ...
In this article Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is proposed as a potentially important framework for the understanding and promotion of mental health in athletes. Cognitive-behavioral approaches predominate in the provision of sport psychology, and often form the backbone of psychological skills training for performance enhancement and maintenance. But far from being solely performance-focused, the cognitive-behavioral approach to sport psychology can restore, promote, and maintain mental health. This review article presents REBT (Ellis, 1957), the original cognitive behavioral therapy, as a valuable approach to addressing mental health issues in sport. REBT holds that it is not events that directly cause emotions and behaviors. Rather, it is one’s beliefs about the events that lead to emotional and behavioral reactivity. Further, REBT distinguishes between rational and irrational beliefs, and suggests that in response to failure, maltreatment, and misfortune, people can react with either healthy or unhealthy emotional and behavioral responses. The extant research indicates that irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy negative emotions, a range of pathological conditions, and a host of maladaptive behaviors that undermine mental health. Therefore, REBT proposes a process for the reduction of irrational beliefs and the promotion of rational beliefs. The use of REBT in sport is seldom reported in literature, but research is growing. This review article proposes three important areas of investigation that will aid the understanding of irrational beliefs and the application of REBT within sport. These areas are: (1) the influence of irrational beliefs and REBT on the mental health of athletes, (2) the influence of irrational beliefs and REBT on athletic performance, (3) the origins and development of irrational beliefs in athletes. Each area is discussed in turn, offering a critical and progressive review of the literature as well as highlighting research deficits, and recommendations to address each of the three areas of investigation.
... Although the experience of the aforementioned states may contribute to NSSI engagement, it is also important to consider one's ability to tolerate such emotionally valenced and/or distressing experiences (e.g., their distress tolerance; Simons & Gaher, 2005). For example, research suggests poor distress tolerance facilitated NSSI engagement, even after controlling for acute negative affect (Anestis et al., 2013;Chapman, Gratz, & Brown, 2006;Harrington, 2005;Nock & Mendes, 2008). These findings have been replicated among those with BPD (Gratz, Tull, & Gunderson, 2008;Linehan, 1993), and, further, poor distress tolerance has also demonstrated a role in depression (Leyro, Zvolensky, & Berstein, 2010). ...
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a highly comorbid disorder, and these comorbidities increase the impairment associated with BPD. For example, depression, which occurs in the majority of individuals with BPD, increases the likelihood of an individual with BPD to engage in nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI). Little research, however, has investigated potential mechanisms of NSSI engagement in this population. The current study aimed to fill this gap by examining momentary experiences, levels of distress tolerance, and NSSI among 51 individuals meeting current diagnostic criteria for BPD and a comorbid depressive disorder. Using data from an ecological momentary assessment across 7 days, it was found that daily urges to hurt oneself and impulsive urges, but not daily negative affect or aggressive urges, predicted NSSI occurrence. Furthermore, low levels of distress tolerance was a stronger predictor of NSSI behavior than daily experiences. These findings have important implications with regard to state versus trait dispositions in NSSI engagement among those with BPD and depression.
... In addition, compulsive buyers may have lower levels of frustration reactivity. Harrington (2005) reported that overspending on unnecessary things was correlated with frustration reactivity (i.e., intolerance of negative emotions, lack of delayed gratification, and frustrated goals). Recently, Harnish and Bridges (2014) explored how compulsive buying is associated with irrational beliefs among college students at an American university. ...
The aims of this study are to examine the characteristics of compulsive buying among college students at an American public university. More specifically we explored how irrational beliefs impact compulsive buying among this population; and, to investigate the types and frequency of consumer goods purchased by college students at an American public university. The study is based on data collected from a self-administered survey of 175 American college women. The results of this study showed that the prevalence of women are compulsive buyers was consistent with an earlier estimate using the Richmond Compulsive Buying Scale (27 %); irrational beliefs were associated with and predicted compulsive buying; and compulsive and non-compulsive buyers did not differ in the types of consumer goods purchased but in the frequency with which consumer goods are purchased. The study has significance by replicating the impact irrational beliefs have on compulsive buying. Such beliefs should be addressed in any preventative program targeting compulsive buying.
... HFT is associated with optimism, preferences, non-awfulizing and acceptance-factors that support goal attainment and enhance the quality of life (Morley, 2014). Alternatively, Harrington (2005aHarrington ( , 2005b found that frustration intolerance was a predictor of procrastination behaviors, including issues of self-control, among students. When working toward goals, especially ones that create discomfort, self-responsibility and HFT help move individuals forward and toward success. ...
The non-cognitive factors (NCFs) endorsed by Sedlacek (2004) appear to align with the core values of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). This article explores theoretical and empirical evidence that suggests REBT fosters the development of NCFs. School counselors can promote non-cognitive development by embedding REBT throughout direct and indirect student services. REBT-based strategies and interventions can aid school counselors in their efforts to close the achievement gap and foster college and career readiness among students, especially those from historically underrepresented populations. Recommendations for school counseling practice are provided.
... Per la valutazione del costrutto, l'autore ha sviluppato il Frustration Discomfort Scale (Harrington, 2005a), un self-report di 28 items suddivisi in quattro sottoscale di sette items ciascuna (intolleranza al disagio, pretese/diritto, intolleranza emotiva e perfezionismo/realizzazione), testandolo su studenti universitari e su campioni clinici. Le ricerche internazionali, condotte utilizzando questo strumento su studenti universitari, hanno confermato la multidimensionalità del costrutto, l'indipendenza dall'autostima e la sua relazione con specifici disturbi emotivo-comportamentali, quali rabbia, ansia, depressione, problemi di autocontrollo, procrastinazione e comportamenti anassertivi (Filippello et al., 2014;Harrington, 2005bHarrington, , 2005cHarrington, , 2006Jibeen, 2013). ...
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between the dimensions of psychological well-being and frustration intolerance beliefs. Specifically, it was assumed that a higher level of frustration intolerance (emotional intolerance, entitlement, discomfort intolerance, and achievement frustration), corresponds to a lower index of both psychological wellbeing and its dimensions. A further objective was to investigate the presence of gender differences and the possible correlation with age in the variables considered in order to improve scientific knowledge in a field of investigation by the results still not uniform. At this research 200 university students participated (sampled in the universities of Messina and Reggio Calabria). For the evaluation of the variables considered were used Italian versions of Psychological Wellbeing Scale (PWB) (Ryff, 1989; Ruini et al., 2003) and the Frustration Discomfort Scale (FDS) (Harrington, 2005a; Filippello et al., 2014). The results partially confirmed the initial hypotheses. As to gender differences, women have presented both a lower well-being and a greater frustration intolerance than men. As for the age, there is a negative correlation with the beliefs of emotional intolerance, entitlement, and discomfort intolerance. Finally, the analysis of regression showed that some dimensions of intolerance to frustration (emotional intolerance and discomfort intolerance) are negatively predictors of psychological well-being. Conversely, the perfectionist beliefs (achievement frustration) influence it positively. Further longitudinal studies would be necessary in order to deepen and confirm the result obtained.
... Per la valutazione del costrutto, l'autore ha sviluppato il Frustration Discomfort Scale (Harrington, 2005a), un self-report di 28 items suddivisi in quattro sottoscale di sette items ciascuna (intolleranza al disagio, pretese/diritto, intolleranza emotiva e perfezionismo/realizzazione), testandolo su studenti universitari e su campioni clinici. Le ricerche internazionali, condotte utilizzando questo strumento su studenti universitari, hanno confermato la multidimensionalità del costrutto, l'indipendenza dall'autostima e la sua relazione con specifici disturbi emotivo-comportamentali, quali rabbia, ansia, depressione, problemi di autocontrollo, procrastinazione e comportamenti anassertivi (Filippello et al., 2014;Harrington, 2005bHarrington, , 2005cHarrington, , 2006Jibeen, 2013). ...
L’obiettivo del presente studio è quello di analizzare la relazione tra le dimensioni del benessere psicologico e le credenze di intolleranza alla frustrazione. Si è ipotizzato che a più alti livelli di intolleranza alla frustrazione (intolleranza emotiva, intolleranza al disagio, pretese/diritto, perfezionismo/realizzazione) corrisponda un minor indice di benessere psicologico e delle dimensioni che lo compongono. Sono state, inoltre, indagate eventuali differenze di genere e la possibile relazione con l’età delle variabili considerate, allo scopo di ampliare le conoscenze scientifiche in un campo di indagine dai risultati ancora poco uniformi. Hanno partecipato alla ricerca 200 studenti universitari campionati negli Atenei della città di Messina e di Reggio Calabria. Per la valutazione delle variabili considerate sono state utilizzate le versioni italiane del Psychological Well-being Scale (PWB) di Ryff (Ryff, 1989; Ruini et al., 2003) e del Frustration Discomfort Scale (FDS) di Harrington (Harrington, 2005a; Filippello et al., 2014). I risultati hanno in parte confermato le ipotesi di partenza. Relativamente alle differenze di genere, le donne presentano sia un minor benessere sia una maggiore intolleranza alla frustrazione, rispetto agli uomini. Per quanto concerne l’età, si evince una correlazione negativa con le credenze di intolleranza emotiva, pretese/diritto e intolleranza al disagio. Infine, l’analisi di regressione ha messo in evidenza che alcune dimensioni dell’intolleranza alla frustrazione (intolleranza emotiva e intolleranza al disagio) sono negativamente predittrici del benessere psicologico; mentre, le credenze perfezionistiche (perfezionismo/realizzazione) lo influenzano positivamente. Ulteriori studi longitudinali sarebbero opportuni al fine di approfondire e confermare in maniera adeguata i risultati ottenuti.
... Entitlement is the belief that our desires must meet and other people should not frustrate these desires. Discomfort intolerance is the demand that life must be easy, comfortable, and free of hassle (Harrington, 2005). ...
Kountouri were the guest editors of the current issue. They have put together a very interesting collection of papers about evidence based bullying prevention programs. I hope you will enjoy the Newsletter! From the President EARA between Spetses and Cesme/Izmir During the fall and winter 2012/2013 we lost two of our prominent members: Professor Margaret Kerr and Professor Silvia Ciairano. We will continue to read their important contributions to our field and cherish our personal memories of them. I also hope and believe that our colleagues from Torino and Örebro will be able to keep up their excellent contribution to our association and to adolescent psychology. We successfully organized the elections for a new president and we were fortunate that Professor Figen Cok was willing to stand once again for election. She was voted in with an overwhelming majority, and I am really happy
... Entitlement is the belief that our desires must meet and other people should not frustrate these desires. Discomfort intolerance is the demand that life must be easy, comfortable, and free of hassle (Harrington, 2005).), I don't feel like it!, " I can tolerate it " mask, A story about tolerance (third module), Class necklace and The miracle of the necklace, Teacher accuses and The teacher and fairness (forth module), I am well behaved in class, Behavior chart, I have a final!, The school without rules (fifth module). ...
... Much of the impetus for this development stems from a large number of studies showing that analysing key educational variables can enhance the search for solving some educational problems and hence increase the quality of education. For example, Al-Alak (2006), Kahn and Nauta (2001), Elias and MacDonald (2007), Eppler and Harju (1997), Gaston-Gayles (2004), Harrington (2005), Jamelske (2009), Johnson et al. (2010), Marx, Huffmon, and Doyle (2008), Poole et al. (2012), Sobol (1984), Srikanthan and Dalrymple (2002), Wilde (2012), and Wong and Cmor (2011). Another type studies applied economic and statistical models to explain the behaviour of university students related to their scores, Bisping, Patron, and Roskelley (2008), McCabe, Feghali, www.ccsenet.org/hes ...
This paper investigates the main indicators of scores of K-12 leavers who were admitted at Princess Sumaya University for Technology, PSUT, in Jordan and their graduation scores. It uses time series data covering the period 1993-2012, including all 3,229 Bachelor graduates in all specialisations. The paper applies several statistical techniques to describe and test the relationships among educational variables. After that, the paper specifies an Auto Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) model that determines the relationship between K-12 leavers' grade-point average (GPA) and Bachelor graduates' GPA. It uses Granger causality to test the existence of causality. We also test score differences for gender, specialisation and time variations. Empirical results of these tests provide strong evidence that secondary GPA has no significant effect on graduation GPA. Moreover, the two GPAs had very small correlations and secondary GPA does not cause university GPA. The implication being that variations in university GPA are not caused by variations in secondary GPA. Therefore, admission policy, which is based on secondary GPA, should include other factors of admission criteria.
... Individuals were asked to rate the strength of their ability to tolerate frustration on a 5-point scale with the following anchors: 1 = absent, 2 = mild, 3 = moderate, 4 = strong, 5 = very strong. The FDS differentiates individuals on the basis of selfesteem and self-control, displaying construct validity (Harrington, 2005a(Harrington, , 2005b. Internal consistency of the total FDS scale was .94 in both samples. ...
Distress tolerance (DT), or the ability to withstand psychological distress, is a popular construct in the psychological literature. However, research has not specified the nomological network of DT across self-report measures. The purpose of the current investigation was to understand what personality features, environmental stressors, current affective states, and behaviors contribute to DT in two different samples: college students and those in residential substance use treatment. Correlations revealed that self-reported DT was most strongly associated with trait negative emotionality, state negative affect, impulsivity, and perceived stress. In comparisons across samples, self-harm exhibited a stronger relationship with self-reported DT in the drug treatment than in the student sample, whereas perceived stress had a stronger association in the student sample. Correlations between self-report and behavioral measures of DT were nonsignificant. To understand this lack of associations, associations of outcomes with behavioral measures were assessed. In contrast to self-reported DT, behavioral DT was more closely related to achievement orientation, state negative affect, and state positive affect, but was not significantly related to psychopathology and maladaptive behaviors. It is necessary to continue investigating the construct validity of behavioral DT measures via the use of incremental utility analyses and experimental approaches.
© The Author(s) 2014.
... The Frustration Discomfort Scale (FDS) (Harrington, 2005a) consists of 28 items, with four 7-item subscales: a) discomfort intolerance, b) entitlement, c) emotional intolerance, and d) achievement frustration. Subjects were asked to rate the strength of a belief on a 5-point Likert-type scale that used the following scoring: 1) absent, 2) mild, 3) moderate, 4) strong, 5) very strong. ...
Traditional measures of predicting academic achievement in college such as high school grades and standardized test scores account for approximately 25% of the difference between predicted and actual grade point average (GPA). Researchers have also examined the relationship between psychological factors and academic self-efficacy which may account for up to 14% of the variance in college students' GPA. The present study involving 105 undergraduate students was interested in the relationship between frustration intolerance and academic achievement. Subjects were given the Frustration Discomfort Scale (FDS) which consists of 28 items divided into four subscales: a) discomfort intolerance, b) entitlement, c) emotional intolerance, and d) achievement frustration. Results indicated that the FDS was statistically significant at the .000 level and accounted for 23% of the variance when predicting overall college GPA.
... Additionally, compulsive buyers may have lower levels of frustration intolerance. Harrington (2005) reported that overspending on unnecessary things was correlated with frustration intolerance (i.e., intolerance of negative emotions, lack of delayed gratification, and frustrated goals). ...
Our goal was to examine how irrational beliefs, materialism, and nar-cissism relate to and predict compulsive buying. One hundred and fifty-five (155) undergraduate women completed the Compulsive-Buying Scale, the Irrational Beliefs Inventory, the Material Values Scale-Short Form, and the 16-item Narcis-sistic Personality Inventory. As expected, irrational beliefs and materialism were correlated and predicted compulsive buying. Additionally, irrational beliefs were associated with compulsive buying only for those who scored high in narcissism. Examining the Irrational Beliefs Inventory subscales, Problem Avoidance and Rigidity were the sole subscales that predicted compulsive buying. Implications for the amelioration and treatment of compulsive buying are discussed.
... Participants rated ability to tolerate frustration on a 5-point scale: (1) absent, (2) mild, (3) moderate, (4) strong, (5) very strong. The FDS has exhibited good construct validity, differentiating individuals on self-esteem and self-control (Harrington, 2005a(Harrington, , 2005b. Internal consistency of this measure was high in previous reports (␣ Ն .84; ...
Distress tolerance (DT), or the ability to withstand psychological distress, has been proposed as a mechanism underlying multiple forms of psychopathology. However, research on DT is limited in several areas. First, stability and change of DT over time has never been assessed in adults. Second, it is unclear whether alternative conceptualizations of DT yield differences in longitudinal stability and change. Third, gender differences in DT have yet to be examined in nonclinical adult samples. And fourth, longitudinal predictive utility of DT has not been adequately assessed. The purpose of this study was to investigate these 3 questions using data collected at 3 time points over a 6-month period, examining borderline personality disorder (BPD) features as an outcome. Using 3 different measures of DT, results indicated that there is no mean level change in DT. Similarly, there was moderate rank-order stability in DT and no significant individual level change across measures. These findings suggest that DT is similar to other stable, trait-like constructs, as has been previously theorized. Next, a series of cross-lagged panel models revealed that although DT had a cross-sectional relationship with BPD features across all time points, DT did not predict BPD traits longitudinally. These findings have implications for treatments for BPD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
... While maladaptive emotion-regulation strategies have been quite constantly linked to psychopathology (for a review see Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010;Diefendorf, Richard, & Yang, 2008), adaptive emotion-regulation strategies have been linked to mental health, well-being, job satisfaction and to high performance (Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004). Irrational thinking has been consistently associated with distress and low performance (Silverman & DiGiuseppe, 2001); in contrast, rational thinking is considered important for resiliency and is associated with adaptive behaviors (Harrington, 2005). However, recent findings on emotion-regulation processes have rarely been integrated in the work performance context specificity (i.e., emotional regulation to work performance; Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010;Daus, & Ashkanasy, 2005). ...
The Prescriptive Index platform is dedicated to the appraisal and development of managerial competencies, and it is comprised of such measures as the multi-rater Freeman-Gavita Prescriptive Executive Coaching (PEC) Assessment for assessing core managerial skills, and the multi-rater Managerial Coaching Assessment System (MCAS) for the evaluation of coaching competencies in managers. The aim of this research was to present the development and psychometric properties of new tools, part of the Prescriptive Index platform, for the assessment of managerial emotional competencies: the web and mobile based Mood Wheel measure using experience sampling procedures, for the assessment of current/previous distress and positive emotions; and the self-report Manager Rational and Irrational Beliefs Scale (M-RIBS) for the assessment of managerial attitudes involved in emotion-regulation processes. Results obtained show that both instruments integrated in the Prescriptive Index platform have adequate initial psychometric support and predictive validity. Practical implications of our findings are discussed in the light of the importance of enabling organizations to accurately identify managerial competencies and coaching needs.
... The authors focused on goal orientation as a possible moderator and found that goal orientation moderated the relationship between frustration and workload. Working from a different perspective, Harrington (2005Harrington ( , 2007b based his work in rational-emotive theory rather than frustration theory and developed a measure of frustration intolerance. The author discussed possible dimensions of feelings of intolerance for frustration and distinguished intolerance for frustration from other factors such as self-worth. ...
From a career decision-making perspective, frustration may be an important catalyst for career change. Literature is discussed and used to develop propositions that present perceived frustration, not just as a state of discomfort but as an impetus for career change. Self-perception and achievement need are presented in relation to frustration to speculate about specific career decisions that might be enacted in a state of frustration. A framework is developed to represent career decisions based on proposed relationships. Implications are discussed for human resource development specialists, managers, and employees and suggestions are presented for conducting future research.
Academic success has been studied about self-efficacy and cognitive abilities but one phenomenon that has received less attention is academic grit. Recent evidence suggests that reductions in irrational beliefs brought about by REBT can facilitate increased academic success. This paper reports the findings of a study that used an A–B–A single-case research design to investigate the effect of rational emotive behavior therapy on academic grit. Participants consisted of three students (N = 3) in vocational high schools who experienced a low level of grit. Rational emotive behavior therapy intervention to increase academic grit was provided in 6 sessions. Treatment focused on developing consistency of passion and perseverance using disputing irrational beliefs, tape-recorded examination of beliefs, rational-emotive imagery, time projection, self-monitoring, and behavior reinforcement. Participants completed the Student Grit Inventory. Data were collected before, during, and after the REBT intervention. The results showed an increase in the level of grit during and after the intervention. Thus, rational emotive behavior therapy could be an intervention to increase academic grit.
Researchers who examine existing models of choking under pressure are beginning to explore the antecedents that predispose individuals to increased anxiety. Irrational beliefs (IBs) may be one such antecedent to “choking”, given that irrational beliefs are closely associated with anxiety intensity. This study aimed to investigate whether IBs influenced anxiety and performance under pressure. Experienced Australian football players (N = 35) completed an IBs questionnaire prior to an Australian football set shot experiment with low- and high-pressure. During both pressure conditions, participants completed a state anxiety questionnaire prior to completing 15 set shots on goal. Results indicated that cognitive and somatic anxiety increased from low- to high-pressure. For somatic anxiety, an IBs main effect approached significance, indicating higher somatic anxiety with increases in IBs. A marginally significant Condition main effect was found for performance, which decreased from low- to high-pressure, with no other effects for performance evident. Follow-up correlation analysis of seven athletes who likely experienced choking (i.e., greater than 15-point performance decrease) indicated a strong negative correlation between IBs and change in performance from low- to high-pressure. Further analyses for “chokers” indicated a significant IBs x Condition interaction, with performance tending to increase with increasing IBs under low-pressure and decrease with increasing IBs under high-pressure. This study provides initial, tentative support that IBs associated with performance trends of “chokers” under different pressure conditions may be dissimilar to those of “underperformers” or “clutch” performers. Applied implications for sport psychologists working with athletes are discussed.
Lay Summary: This paper investigated whether inflexible thoughts (i.e., irrational beliefs- IBs) led to increased anxiety and “choking”. Athletes completed an IBs questionnaire, then an anxiety survey during a football kicking task under low- and high-pressure. Results indicated IBs may affect “chokers” response to pressure differently to other groups.
While working with forensic populations poses some unique challenges, cognitive therapy (CT) and rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) can be successfully adapted for justice-involved patients. Following a discussion of strategies for developing the treatment agenda and building the therapeutic alliance, this chapter focuses on the conceptualization of antisocial schemas, intermediate beliefs, and automatic thoughts. Specific antisocial intermediate beliefs, in areas such as self and other perception, interactions with the environment, and decision-making are proposed as cognitive targets to be modified in treatment. An REBT conceptualization of criminality emphasizing patients' demands for comfort and control is also proposed.
The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that impulsiveness is positively related to the total number of categories of distinct impulse control incidents. That is, high impulsive individuals are more likely to be involved in more separate types of impulsive acts than low impulsive subjects. This is an extension and replication of research done by Kennedy and Grubin [(1990) British Journal of Addiction, 85, 639–643] on the multi-impulsive personality disorder [Lacey & Evans (1986) British Journal of Addiction, 81, 641–649]. The current study extends past research by: (1) studying inmates from a general prison population; (2) controlling for IQ and educational achievement; (3) the inclusion of impulsive fire-setting as a disorder; and (4) using impulsiveness subtraits as well as a global measure of general impulsiveness. Our results indicate that an impulsiveness subtrait, motor impulsiveness, was significantly related to the number of different types of impulse control incidents an individual displays. Global impulsiveness was not related to these incidents. The number of impulse control disorders an inmate displayed was not related to age, duration of present sentence (years), educational achievement or intellect. Categories of impulsive incidents used in this study were independent except for other drug abuse and sedative dependence. These results are consistent with Kennedy and Grubin's (1990) results and support Lacey and Evans' (1986) proposed multi-impulsive personality disorder.
Investigated the frequency of 342 college students' procrastination on academic tasks and the reasons for procrastination behavior. A high percentage of Ss reported problems with procrastination on several specific academic tasks. Self-reported procrastination was positively correlated with the number of self-paced quizzes Ss took late in the semester and with participation in an experimental session offered late in the semester. A factor analysis of the reasons for procrastination Ss listed in a procrastination assessment scale indicated that the factors Fear of Failure and Aversiveness of the Task accounted for most of the variance. A small but very homogeneous group of Ss endorsed items on the Fear of Failure factor that correlated significantly with self-report measures of depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, delayed study behavior, anxiety, and lack of assertion. A larger and relatively heterogeneous group of Ss reported procrastinating as a result of aversiveness of the task. The Aversiveness of the Task factor correlated significantly with depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, and delayed study behavior. Results indicate that procrastination is not solely a deficit in study habits or time management, but involves a complex interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and affective components. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The study examined three psychological explanations for procrastination: indecision (Janis & Mann, 1977); irrational beliefs about self-worth (Ellis & Knaus, 1977); and low self-esteem (Burka & Yuen, 1983). Times taken by 245 students in a first-year Psychology course to submit three separate assignments (a term-paper outline, a term paper, and a research questionnaire) were recorded and correlated with measures of indecision, irrational beliefs, and self-esteem, depression and anxiety. Similarly, students' self-reported frequency of procrastination was correlated with the above measures. Small but significant correlations were found between indecision, irrational beliefs, and low self-esteem and two measures of procrastination: time taken to submit a term paper and self-reported frequency of procrastination. Multiple regression analyses revealed that self-esteem and, to a lesser extent, indecision accounted for significant unique portions of the variance in procrastination. Significant correlations were also found between anxiety and depression and the two measures of procrastination. A significant negative correlation was found between self-reported procrastination and final course grade, indicating that procrastination is detrimental to academic performance. It was found that older students (21 and over) were less likely to procrastinate than younger students.
This paper discusses some limitations of Ellis's Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. It is suggested that the present definition of irrational and rational beliefs is inadequate. The present theory is unclear whether irrational beliefs are exaggerated negative evaluations or empirical distortions of reality. It is proposed that irrational beliefs are core schemes, and that the concept of schema replace the present definition of beliefs. Ellis's position that demandingness is at the center of irrational thinking and emotional disturbance is examined. Research has failed to support this theory. It is proposed that demandingness and self-downing may be separate types of core irrational schemes. Research strategies are suggested that could test Ellis's position on the centrality of demandingness and on the nature of irrational beliefs in general.
It is also suggested that irrational beliefs differ on their level of abstraction. The present REBT theory fails to identify which level of abstraction is necessary to cause disturbance, at which level of abstraction therapists should seek change, and whether a therapist should intervene first at higher or lower levels of abstract beliefs. It is suggested that a therapist only seek change to the level of abstraction that matches the client's concerns and that therapists begin to intervene at lower levels of abstraction and move up to more abstract cognitions as therapy progresses.
Two hundred three alcohol-using college students completed a questionnaire on their levels of alcohol use, moderate to severe
problems with alcohol use, and measures of life stress, impulsivity, compulsivity, irrational beliefs, and depression. While
impulsivity significantly predicted both alcohol use and problems, stress, compulsivity, irrational beliefs, and depression
were found to only be significant predictors of alcohol use problems. When irrational beliefs, impulsivity, and compulsivity
were combined to form an “irrational coping” scale, this construct was found in multiple regression analyses to completely
mediate the effect of stress on alcohol use problems, while depression was a partial mediator of this effect. Results were
interpreted in terms of Rational Emotive Behavior Theory.
Low self-esteem is usually considered unhealthy, but according to rational-emotive behavior therapy, any level of self-esteem reflects a dysfunctional habit of globally evaluating one's worth; it would be preferable to accept oneself unconditionally. This hypothesis was tested by examining several correlates of scores on a novel questionnaire measure of unconditional self-acceptance (USA). In a nonclinical adult sample, statistically controlling for self-esteem, USA was inversely correlated with anxiety symptoms and with narcissism, positively correlated with state mood after imaginal exposure to negative events. Other predicted associations of USA (with depression, happiness, and self-deception) either were not evident or became nonsignificant when self-esteem was taken into account. Discussion centered on the conceptual and operational distinctions between self-esteem and self-acceptance.
The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between psychological variables and repetition of deliberate self-harm by adolescents (n=45) aged 13–18 years who had been admitted to a general hospital having taken overdoses. Standardized measures of depression, hopelessness, suicidal intent, impulsivity, trait and state anger, self-esteem and problem-solving (both self-report and observer-rated) were administered to the adolescents while still in the general hospital. Repetition was assessed on the basis of previous overdoses (n=14) and repetition of self-harm (self-poisoning and self-injury) during the subsequent year (n=9).Adolescents with a history of a previous overdose and/or who repeated self-harm during the following year (n=18) differed from non-repeaters in having higher scores for depression, hopelessness and trait anger, and lower scores for self-esteem, self-rated problem-solving and effectiveness of problem-solving rated on the basis of the Means End Problem Solving test, all measured at the initial assessment. These differences largely disappeared when level of depression was controlled for. Similarly, differences found between repeaters and non-repeaters in the year following the index overdoses for problem-solving were much reduced when account was taken of differences in depression scores.Depression is a key factor associated with risk of repetition of adolescent self-harm (and hence of suicide risk). In the management of adolescents who have harmed themselves, careful assessment of depression and appropriate management of those who are depressed is essential.
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) hypothesizes that the functionality
of inferences is primarily affected by the preferential and demanding nature
of rational and irrational beliefs, respectively. It is then, secondarily,
influenced by the functional and dysfunctional contents to which rational
and irrational beliefs, respectively, refer. This hypothesis was tested by
asking 96 participants to imagine themselves holding one of four specific
beliefs: a rational belief with a preference and a functional content, an
irrational belief with a demand and a dysfunctional content, a rational
belief with a functional content and no preference, and an irrational belief
with a dysfunctional content and no demand. Participants imagined themselves
holding their belief in an imaginary context, whilst rating the extent of
their agreement to 14 functional and dysfunctional inferences. Contrary to
REBT theory, results indicated that rational and irrational beliefs had the
same magnitude of effect on the functionality of inferences, whether they
referred to a preference/demand+contents, or only contents. The discussion
maintains that preferences and demands may not constitute the principal
mechanism through which rational and irrational beliefs affect the
functionality of inferences. Instead, consistent with Beck's
cognitive therapy, belief contents may constitute this primary
mechanism.
Rational-emotive therapy (RET) is an evolving theory of psychopathology and form of psychotherapy. In three main areas — theory of psychopathology, assessment, and practice of therapy — we present initial RET assumptions, a statement regarding current scientific status, recent developments and revisions, and recommendations for future research priorities.
Procrastinating in routine life tasks was investigated in university students (N = 314) by administering self-report measures of the phenomenon and various personality tests. Two conceptually independent aspects of procrastination—when one performed the task and how one handled scheduling tasks and adhering to schedule—were found to be highly correlated. Procrastination was greater on tasks regarded as unpleasant or as impositions, and to a lesser extent on tasks requiring skills the respondent did not believe he or she possessed. The phenomenon was inversely related to self-regulation, time-related factors of Type A behavior pattern, and life satisfaction, in men only. The findings were discussed in relation to broad concepts of cognitive appraisal, self-regulation, and coping with stress.
A frequently occurring phenomenon in factor and cluster analysis of personality or attitude scale items is that all or nearly all questionnaire items that are nega tively keyed will define a single factor. Although sub stantive interpretations of these negative factors are usually attempted, this study demonstrates that the negative factor could be produced by a relatively small portion of the respondents who fail to attend to the negative-positive wording of the items. Data were generated using three different correlation matrices, which demonstrated that regardless of data source, when only 10% of the respondents are careless in this fashion, a clearly definable negative factor is gener ated. Recommendations for instrument development and data editing are presented.
Although numerous measures of coping have been presented in the literature, many suffer from methodological flaws. This article argues that efforts to improve coping assessment should not be limited to enhancing psychometric quality, since methodological shortcomings reflect more basic underlying conceptual problems of the coping constud. TWO types of problems in coping assessment are discussed, based on a review of well-known coping measures. The first concerns conceptual issues, such as the process versus trait approach to cop ing and the lack of clear theoretical guidelines for systematic exploration of the appropriate measurement level and number of coping dimensions. He second concerns the issue of developing appropriate techniques to evaluate psychometric properties of proass measures of coping. Several recommendations for improving the quality of coping assessment are suggested.
Procrastination may be a means of getting revenge for mistreatment by others or inequities from life. Across two samples, the relation between procrastination and revenge was assessed. In Sample 1, 263 college students completed self-reported inventories on revenge and decisional and behavioral procrastination. Revenge was significantly related to decisional procrastination, behavioral procrastination, and dysfunctional procrastination. In a second sample, 277 other college students completed the procrastination and revenge scales, plus measures of irrational beliefs and just world. Results indicated that only a just world belief was related significantly with decisional, behavioral, and dysfunctional procrastination. Irrational beliefs and revenge were not significantly related to procrastination in this sample. Taken together, these studies indicate that people may not openly admit the use of “procrastination as revenge,” and the relation between these personality variables is tentative at best.
Traces the development of the cognitive approach to psychopathology and psy hotherapy from common-sense observations and folk wisdom, to a more sophisticated understanding of the emotional disorders, and finally to the application of rational techniques to correct the misconceptions and conceptual distortions that form the matrix of the neuroses. The importance of engaging the patient in exploration of his inner world and of obtaining a sharp delineation of specific thoughts and underlying assumptions is emphasized. (91/4 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
examine in detail the proposed association between perfectionism and procrastination / a multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is adopted to clarify the link between perfectionism and procrastination / examine the similarities and differences between dimensions of perfectionism and procrastination at a conceptual level / present a review of existing empirical data on perfectionism and procrastination / a multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is utilized to demonstrate that procrastination is a response to a form of social evaluation that involves the perceived imposition of unrealistic expectations on the self / directions for future investigation in this area are discussed (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We have previously written articles and chapters covering important aspects of the practice of RET (Dryden, 1985b; Ellis, 1969, 1974a, 1982a, c, 1986a), but some of these are outdated and/or out of print. Therefore, in this book we have revised and updated this previous material, added several chapters of new RET formulations, and attempted to produce a volume that will present a comprehensive picture of the practice of RET that can be used effectively by any therapist who wants to employ its important clinical modalities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In "Losing Control," the authors provide a single reference source with comprehensive information on general patterns of self-regulation failure across contexts, research findings on specific self-control disorders, and commentary on the clinical and social aspects of self-regulation failure. Self-control is discussed in relation to what the "self" is, and the cognitive, motivational, and emotional factors that impinge on one's ability to control one's "self." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The theories and practices of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) have been heavily revised, expanded, corrected and updated since its inception in 1955. This book takes into consideration those REB therapists who criticise the constant dissection of the therapy, claiming that these innovations make it too complicated for most clients and even for some therapists. This book, written in an easy-to-read style, strips away the sophistication and focuses on the essential elements of REBT. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In view of the increasing number of factor analytic studies, investigators are urged to plan such studies prior to collecting the data, to formulate a hypothesized factor structure, to develop several relatively pure measures of each factor expected, and to select an appropriate sample of at least 200 cases. Continuous rather than dichotomous variables should be used wherever possible. Programmatic series of studies are preferred over one-shot investigations. Putting unities in the diagonals and rotating all factors with eigenvalues of one or more is discouraged, because this procedure tends to give communalities that are too high, produces too many factors, and distorts the rotational solution, especially when analytic rotational programs are used. In some situations, a computer-assisted hand rotational solution is most likely to give satisfactory results. Mathematical algorithms designed to approximate simple structure work well only in situations properly designed for their application. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter reviews and compares various instruments that have been developed to measure the perfectionism construct. To date, the assessment of perfectionism has relied almost exclusively on self-report measures. The first part of the chapter describes each perfectionism scale, provides an overview of the conceptualization and process of scale development, and summarizes evidence for the reliability and validity of each instrument. The second part reviews the relationship between perfectionism measures and higher order personality factors, including new clinical data from the authors' own studies. The order of discussion of perfectionism measures in the chapter generally follows the chronological order of their appearance in the psychological and psychiatric literature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Affective correlates of procrastination were examined through experience-sampling. 45 undergraduate students carried electronic pagers for 5 days preceding an academic deadline. Students were paged 8 times daily. At each signal, the participants indicated what they were doing, extent of procrastination and affective state. Contrary to previous research, procrastination was not found to be correlated with either positive or negative affect. Participants' appraisals of their tasks when paged revealed that they procrastinated on unpleasant, stressful and difficult tasks, while engaging in activities that were significantly more pleasant. Specious rewards, self-regulation and the apparent short-term benefits of procrastination are discussed in relation to these findings and as a basis for counseling intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This book discusses schema-focused therapy, an integrative approach . . . to treat characterological patients including borderline, narcissistic, avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive, passive-aggressive, and histrionic personality disorders. . . . [This] model is [an] integration of cognitive behavior therapy with gestalt, object relations, and psychoanalytic approaches. It expands on conventional cognitive behavior therapy by placing more emphasis on the therapeutic relationship, affective experience, and the discussion of early life experiences. In addition to presenting the rationale, theory, and practical techniques of schema-focused therapy, this book includes an extended case example, and revised editions of the Schema Questionnaire, Client's Guide, and schema listings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
ABSTRACT– A self-assessment scale has been developed and found to be a reliable instrument for detecting states of depression and anxiety in the setting of an hospital medical outpatient clinic. The anxiety and depressive subscales are also valid measures of severity of the emotional disorder. It is suggested that the introduction of the scales into general hospital practice would facilitate the large task of detection and management of emotional disorder in patients under investigation and treatment in medical and surgical departments.
Burgess' Attitude and Belief Scale, a measure of Ellis' irrational beliefs, was administered to a large sample of outpatients. All 13 subscales demonstrate very adequate internal consistency. A factor analysis yielded one factor accounting for 83% of the variance, which was labeled irrationality. Clients endorsed focused items more than overgeneralized items, self-referential items more than non-self-referential items, and preferential items more than irrational items. Clients also received higher scores on the irrational process of demandingness than they did on the irrational process of awfulizing, self-worth and low frustration tolerance. The results were consistent with new formulations in Rational-Emotive theory. Suggestions were made for the construction of measures of irrational beliefs.
Prior tests of irrational thinking have included affect words in their irrational idea statements. Thus, because of content similarity, spuriously high correlations may have been previously observed between the endorsement of irrational ideas and self reported affect. A new measure of core irrational ideas, the Personal Beliefs Test, was given to 70 adults between the ages of 17 and 58. Results showed moderate correlations with neuroticism and self-reported negative affect, and a non-significant association with positive affect, thus supporting RET theory. Most of the explained variance in negative affect was related to the endorsement of irrational, Low Frustration Tolerance and Self Worth statements. This suggests that rational emotive therapists might devote greater time to disputing these ideas. Since most studies, including the present one, find only moderate correlations (i.e. .20 to .70) between irrational thinking and negative affect, it seems important to review the hypothesis that such thinking is theprimary cause of emotionality.