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Learner control in animated multimedia instructions
Abstract
The interactivity principle in multimedia learning states that giving learners control over pace and order of instructions decreases cognitive load and
increases transfer performance. We tested this guideline by comparing a learner-paced instruction with a system-paced instruction.
Time-on-task and interactive behavior were logged, and were also related to interest, prior knowledge, and cognitive involvement.
We successfully replicated the interactivity principle in terms of better transfer. However, this coincided with a large increase
in time-on-task. Also, large individual differences existed in the use of learner control options, which were mostly unrelated
to the other variables. Thus, the benefits of introducing learner control in multimedia learning are at the expense of learning
efficiency, and it remains unclear for whom the interactivity principle works best.
KeywordsMultimedia learning-Cognitive load-Learner control-Interactivity principle
... A reverse modality effect can also occur when the learning environment is learner paced as opposed to system-paced (Ginns, 2005). Thus, if learners have enough time to process the visual learning material, the visual overload can be compensated by revisiting relevant information at their own pace or by using text processing strategies (Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010). Since no time was recorded in the study from Baceviciute and colleagues (2020) for how long the participants spent reading the visual text compared to the non-repeatable auditory condition, a repetition effect in reading could also be responsible for the better results of the visual condition compared to the auditory condition. ...
... The aforementioned possibility of self-regulation may also influence cognitive load, as attention must first be divided between different visual information and then cognitively recombined (Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010). Consequently, the audio-visual condition can benefit from a relief on ECL, as the presented information can be processed simultaneously. ...
... In the visual-only condition, on the contrary, an overload could be compensated if learners can take the time, they need to make cognitive connections between different visual information (Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010). Also, the results of a study by Liu and colleagues (2020) support the assumption that the reverse modality effect can be observed in simulated learning environments when it is a learner-paced learning environment. ...
When Virtual Reality (VR) is used to present learning content, the three-dimensional image is often not sufficient and additional text is required, either in the form of visual or auditory text. Such additional instructional text could be particularly beneficial due to the many visual stimuli and the risk of visual working memory overload. Relieving working memory by using both channels in the audio-visual presentation, there might be more cognitive capacity available to invest in germane processes for learning. In addition, the image and the text can be processed simultaneously, supporting deeper learning processes. Based on the modality effect, it is therefore assumed that an audio-visual presentation in VR, compared to a visual-only presentation, can lead to higher learning outcomes (recall, comprehension and transfer). In a between-subjects design we analysed the modality principle in VR with 61 subjects (69% female). We hypothesized that when verbal information in VR is given auditorily instead of visually, it leads to overall higher learning outcomes. For intrinsic cognitive load we assumed no differences, but lower extraneous cognitive load and higher germane cognitive load for the audio-visual condition. However, results show a reverse modality effect. The visual-only condition showed higher learning outcome scores for recall, comprehension and transfer. As expected, the conditions showed no differences with regard to the intrinsic cognitive load. However, we also found no differences in extraneous cognitive load. Contrary to our hypothesis we found higher germane cognitive load for the visual-only condition compared to the audio-visual condition, which may be attributed to repeated reading, reading strategies or other self-regulatory strategies. Future research could focus on the use of strategies or evaluate relevant process data.
... However, mixed findings were identified related to the effect of two types of controls on student learning. It remains unclear what kind of learner control works best (Tabbers and de Koeijer, 2010;Biard et al., 2018). ...
... Little is known regarding student learning in a series of instructional videos with different difficulty levels, which are quite common in practice. Some learning tasks were not authentic, for example, presenting the formation of lightning, which was quite basic, for university students (e.g., Tabbers and de Koeijer, 2010;Schroeder et al., 2020). Consequently, research results from the participants' responses might be subject to caution (Hummel et al., 2021). ...
... Third, the students in FLC spent significantly more time than those in HLC completing the video-based learning. This finding corroborated Tabbers and de Koeijer (2010), who found that giving learner control in multimedia learning could be at the cost of learning efficiency. It can be explained both by the instructor's observation during the study and the post-study interview. ...
Learner control is an important instructional design in video-based learning. This study assessed two conditions: a full learner control where learners direct their learning path, and a hybrid learner control where learners follow the instructor-set path but still enjoy certain aspects of control. Two groups of university students participated in this study by learning statistics through online video courses. The findings show that the full learner control condition attained higher learning performance than the hybrid learner control condition, but spent more time than the latter. The full learner control condition scored higher than the hybrid condition in the difficult sections of video-based learning; but no significant difference was found in the easy section. There was a significant difference between the two conditions in learning agency, but no differences in cognitive load and affective and cognitive engagement. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated differences between the full and the hybrid learner control conditions in the factors predicting overall scores. The findings carry important contributions and implications for the research and practice of instructional designs in online video-based learning such as MOOCs.
... However, since a learner is the key actor in the learner pausing approach, large individual differences in the use of pausing during learning might directly influence the effectiveness of this approach (Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010). In addition, a number of studies found very limited (if any) use of a pause function by some learners (e.g., Biard et al., 2018;Hasler et al. 2007). ...
... In summary, learner pausing is regarded as an effective way for avoiding cognitive overload caused by continuous multimedia presentations (e.g., Hasler et al., 2007;Schwan & Riempp, 2004). However, the notable individual differences in learners' use of pauses during learning (Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010) and high demands of efficient monitoring of the appropriate uses of pausing (Biard et al., 2018) made it unrealistic to guarantee the effectiveness of the learner pausing approach. On the other hand, system pausing might be a good approach for ensuring that all learners are given a break at the appropriate position by the automatic pause. ...
... A possible reason is that learner pausing and system pausing had advantages but also shortcomings when applied to multimedia learning. For learner pausing, learners may be in the best position to initiate effective pauses according to their needs, but there is a concern that large individual differences may also affect the learning outcomes (Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010). For example, in the current study, the participant in the learner pausing group who had the highest number of pauses did not actually show better learning performance than other participants in the same group. ...
System pausing at pre-determined positions during multimedia presentations can enhance multimedia learning. However, the pause positions are usually set up based on the structure of the learning material (e.g., segmentation principle) rather than on the complexity of its different sections (as determined by levels of element interactivity, according to cognitive load theory). This study investigated the effectiveness of complexity-determined system pauses positioned either before or after complex (high element interactivity) sections of a slideshow multimedia presentation. The study adopted a single-factor between-subjects design and randomly assigned 128 undergraduates to four experimental conditions, namely (1) pausing before high element interactivity, (2) pausing after high element interactivity, (3) learner pausing and (4) no pausing. The research results revealed that complexity-determined system pausing approaches and learner pausing resulted in better test performance and instructional efficiency than the continuous presentation without pausing. The findings suggest that pauses allow students more time to deal with learning contents with high element interactivity, thus reducing potential cognitive overload and resulting in better performance compared with continuous presentation. However, no significant difference was found between the two types of system pausing and learner pausing in all measures.
... Interactivity is accordingly established by introducing content delivery control (e.g., pacing and sequencing control devices), which enables learners to adapt the instructional pace to their individual cognitive needs. However, findings on the cognitive benefits of introducing interactivity into multimedia instructions have been inconsistent (Lin & Hsieh, 2001;Höffler & Schwartz, 2011;Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010). Researchers, therefore, suggested that interactivity should be examined in the context of specific learning environments and learner variables (Höffler & Schwartz, 2011;Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010). ...
... However, findings on the cognitive benefits of introducing interactivity into multimedia instructions have been inconsistent (Lin & Hsieh, 2001;Höffler & Schwartz, 2011;Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010). Researchers, therefore, suggested that interactivity should be examined in the context of specific learning environments and learner variables (Höffler & Schwartz, 2011;Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010). ...
... Research on the effectiveness of learner control in multimedia instructions has yielded mixed findings, indicating that interactivity is not always beneficial to learning (Lin & Hsieh, 2001;Höffler & Schwartz, 2011;Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010). Most studies have reported that using learner-controlled pacing and segmentation reduces cognitive load and increases transfer performance (e.g., Ertelt et al., 2005;Hasler, Kersten, & Sweller, 2007;Mayer & Chandler, 2001;Mayer, Dow, & Mayer, 2003;Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010). ...
This study investigated how to create effective interactive video tutorials for learning computer-based tasks. The role of learner modality preferences was also considered. A 4 × 4 between-subjects factorial design was employed to examine the influence of instruction representational formats (noninteractive static, interactive static, interactive visual-only video with onscreen text, interactive video with audio narration) and learner modality preferences (visual, aural, read/write, multimodal) on instructional efficiency. Instructional efficiency was a combined effect of test performance and perceived cognitive load during learning. The results suggested that implementing interactivity into the video tutorials tended to increase transfer performance, and the role of modality preferences was related to learners’ perceived cognitive load. The significant interaction effect on transfer efficiency indicated: (a) the auditory preference tended to exhibit better transfer efficiency with the narrated video, and (b) the read/write preference tended to exhibit better transfer efficiency with both the noninteractive static format and the captioned video. This study highlighted the importance of considering individual differences in modality preferences, particularly that of auditory and read/write learners.
... D'autres auteurs, ont même retrouvé que l'interactivité augmente la charge cognitive sans améliorer les apprentissages (Pedra et al., 2015;Rey & Diehl, 2010;Schnotz et al., 1999) en engendrant par exemple un temps d'apprentissage plus long (Gerjets, Scheiter, Opfermann, Hesse, & Eysink, 2009;Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010). ...
... Selon la théorie de la charge cognitive, les vidéos peuvent être un matériel d'apprentissage plus efficace si les étudiants peuvent avoir le contrôle du rythme de présentation (Ayres & Paas, 2007a). Cependant, comme nous avons pu le voir précédemment, un niveau de contrôle trop complexe d'une visualisation dynamique, tel que interrompre, reprendre, changer de chapitre, changer la vitesse et la direction de la vidéo, induit une augmentation de la charge cognitive inutile qui va finalement diminuer l'efficacité du traitement par rapport à un contrôle minimal (Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010). En revanche, lorsqu'un apprenant a la possibilité d'avoir un contrôle minimal sur le rythme de défilement d'une animation ou d'une vidéo (interrompre et reprendre la vidéo), cela permet de diminuer la charge cognitive et d'améliorer l'efficacité de l'apprentissage. ...
... Malgré la généralisation de ces options d'interaction, l'utilisation des options de contrôle du rythme de présentation par l'apprenant a été rarement abordée dans les travaux de recherches. Seulement quelques rares études (e.g., Hasler et al., 2007;Schwan & Riempp, 2004;Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010) ont déjà exploré cette utilisation. Ce n'est pas parce que ces fonctionnalités sont disponibles qu'elles seront effectivement utilisées par les apprenants, surtout si ces derniers sont novices (Hasler et al., 2007). ...
Les vidéos sont de plus en plus utilisées dans l’enseignement. C’est également le cas dans la formation médicale et paramédicale et, entre autres, dans l’apprentissage de procédures qui seront à réaliser de manière différée. Malgré l’intérêt pédagogique qu’elles offrent aux apprenants, leur utilisation peut entrainer des difficultés spécifiques dans le processus d’apprentissage des utilisateurs en raison de la nature transitoire des informations fournies. Pour limiter la surcharge cognitive que cela peut engendrer, il est possible de laisser le contrôle du rythme de la vidéo à l’apprenant, avec un bouton pause sur l’interface du lecteur par exemple. Cependant, les modèles mentaux des apprenants novices peuvent ne pas être suffisamment pertinents pour savoir à quel moment de la procédure arrêter la vidéo. Ainsi, l’introduction d’une segmentation, avec des pauses imposées par le système à chaque étape de la procédure, peut s’avérer plus efficace lors d’un apprentissage d’une compétence clinique. Ces modalités de présentation de l’information ont été étudiées sous l’angle de la théorie de la charge cognitive et de la théorie cognitive de l’apprentissage multimédia. Une série d’études est menée afin de déterminer la manière dont il est préférable de présenter l’information délivrée par les vidéos pour faciliter son apprentissage. Nous avons tout d’abord vérifié que l’association de la segmentation au contrôle du rythme par l’apprenant améliore la qualité de l’apprentissage (expé. 1) et que cet effet positif était bien lié à la segmentation et non au temps d’exposition au matériel pédagogique (expé. 2) ou à la durée des pauses imposées (expé. 3). Enfin, deux autres modalités, permettant d’optimiser encore l’apprentissage, ont été testées. Alors que l’indiçage verbal n’a pas amélioré l’apprentissage (expé. 4), nous avons pu montrer qu’une incitation à faire des pauses lors de la consigne avait un effet positif sur les comportements des apprenants et sur la qualité de l’apprentissage (expé. 5). Les résultats de ces études sont discutés et des perspectives proposées.
... To examine in what way learner control be used to lower the demand for cognitive resources of learners throughout the process of learning, the primary exploration depicts 'cognitive load theory' (Stiller et al., 2009). While learner regulation is supposed to enhance the cognitive effort of learners as learners are supposed to frame continuous decisions about how to continue with their learning process (DeRouin et al., 2004;Scheiter & Gerjets, 2007), in this regard, maximum studies record an inconsequential impact (Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010;Hasler et al., 2007;Swaak et al., 2001). ...
... The encouragement of activities is generally conceptualised as commitment to on-task or off-task or as task involvement (Brown, 2001). Theoretically, learner management improves the on-task focus of learners by demanding appropriate decision making (Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010). While Hasler et al. (2007) recorded that self-controlled learners displayed a high degree of on-task focus in a shared online course, other research (Bell & Kozlowski, 2008;Orvis et al., 2009) establish no important association between management of learners and motivation for assignments. ...
Online education is not new to the twenty-first century, especially to higher education. It is known since early 2000 and continues. Traditional education is offered in all government institutions in India. However, in March 2020, Education turned 360° immediately after the COVID-19 pandemic, which allegedly originated in Wuhan city of China in late December 2019. Since then, all the Educational Institutions including schools, colleges, universities, coaching centers insisted to shut down for an unknown time by the government to maintain social distancing and mitigating COVID-19 spread. Due to this, the traditional system was bound to shift to Online Education (OE). In this chapter, challenges that occurred due to the immediate shift to the online education system are discussed.
... Studies have shown that systempaced learning environments are cognitively demanding, since preventing re-inspection of learning material can inhibit comprehension (e.g., Hegarty 1992Hegarty , 2004Mason et al. 2013) and cause learners to overlook important information (Ainsworth and Van Labeke 2004). Additionally, a large body of evidence shows a beneficial impact of self-pacing when learning with computer-based environments (e.g., Höffler and Schwartz 2011;Mayer and Chandler 2001;Schwan and Riempp 2004;Tabbers and de Koeijer 2010). For example, there is some evidence that self-pacing promotes the generation of mental models (Schnotz and Lowe 2008). ...
... • According to Tabbers (2002) and Tabbers et al. (2001) a spoken narration is beneficial when learning in a system-paced design, while a written text modality is more advantageous in a self-paced design. Other studies show a general beneficial effect of self-pacing (e.g., Mayer and Chandler 2001;Schwan and Riempp 2004;Tabbers and de Koeijer 2010). ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the role of visual/verbal cognitive style and interactivity level in dynamic and non-dynamic multimedia learning environments. A group of 235 biology students learned about photosynthesis either from a computer-based animation or a series of static pictures with spoken explanatory text. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: with or without the possibility to pause, to play, or to fast-forward/rewind the learning environment (self-paced versus system-paced condition). Participants obtained better results when learning with the system-paced environment than with the self-paced one. A significant triple interaction between cognitive style, type of pacing, and type of visualization showed that highly developed visualizers learned poorer with self-paced static pictures than with system-paced static pictures. There were no significant effects regarding verbal cognitive style. Results shed more light on the relation between different levels of interactivity and visual cognitive style, when learning from static pictures.
... Learner control, refers to the degree to which learners control different instructional characteristics in a course or program (Reeves, 1993), and learner control may be an important manipulation of behavioral emotion design. Existing research regarding the effects of the learner-paced instruction in multimedia learning or computer-based learning focused more on cognitive outcomes (e.g., cognitive resources, learning performance) and interactive behaviors (e.g., time-ontask, number of clicks) (Mayer and Chandler, 2001;Mayer et al., 2003;Hasler et al., 2007;Gerjets et al., 2009;Tabbers and de Koeijer, 2010;Gong et al., 2017b;Rey et al., 2019). For example, a recent meta-analysis demonstrated that learner-paced instruction had significant positive effect on cognitive load, retention and transfer performance, and increased learning time (Rey et al., 2019). ...
... For example, a recent meta-analysis demonstrated that learner-paced instruction had significant positive effect on cognitive load, retention and transfer performance, and increased learning time (Rey et al., 2019). Tabbers and de Koeijer (2010) found that learner-paced instruction not only improved transfer performance, but also increased learning time. However, studies in this area rarely investigated the emotional outcomes. ...
Previous studies on multimedia learning have provided shreds of evidence for the positive effect of visually attractive emotional design on college students’ emotion and learning outcomes. However, the effect may vary among middle school students. The aim of this study was to examine the impacts of visual and behavioral emotional design on the emotional, motivational and cognitive outcomes of middle school students. In Experiment 1, 50 participants (ages 13–15) were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: visual positive emotional design (colorful and anthropomorphic design) and visual neutral emotional design (achromatic and without anthropomorphic design). In Experiment 2, 173 participants (ages 13–16) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions created by the two factors: visual emotional design (positive vs. neutral) and behavioral emotional design (positive vs. neutral). The behavioral positive emotional design allows learners to interact with learning materials, whereas behavioral neutral emotional design only allows learners to watch learning video. Results showed that both visually attractive and behaviorally interactive design (visual positive emotion design and behavioral positive emotional design) had positive effect on learners’ positive emotions. Combining visual positive with behavioral positive emotional design could facilitate learning performance.
... One simple yet fundamental aspect in many games is the pacing. While presentation speed has been a topic of empirical investigation with regard to other types of instructional media such as instructional videos and animationsmostly leading to the conclusion to give learners control over the presentation speed (Hasler, Kersten, & Sweller, 2007;Karich, Burns, & Maki, 2014;Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010;Wouters, Paas, & Merriënboer, 2008), it has seldom been the focus of research on serious games. The reason for this might be due to the tendency that serious games have rarely employed fastpaced gaming formats such as jump-and-run-games, racing-simulations or ego-shooters, where slowing down is not an option (Boyle et al., 2016;Connolly, Boyle, MacArthur, Hainey, & Boyle, 2012). ...
... De Koning, Tabbers, Rikers, & Paas, (2011) have found no difference in learning gains between faster and slower pacing, both with or without cues. Many studies agree, however, that learner-controlled pacing seems to be beneficial when compared to system-controlled pacing (Hasler et al., 2007;Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010;Wouters et al., 2008). Few studies have focused on serious games however -although it has been proposed that the guidelines and concepts of cognitive load theory are equally relevant for the design and application of educational games (Huang & Johnson, 2009;Kalyuga & Plass, 2009). ...
Background. To determine the optimal speed of computer-paced serious games, the interplay of cognitive load variables and game engagement variables can serve as combined criteria.
Intervention. In order to test the effects of higher or lower game speeds on different types of cognitive load and engagement, the FRESH FOOD RUNNER game was developed, which teaches the harvest seasons of different fruits and vegetables.
Method. In this study, N=58 6 th grade primary school students are randomly assigned to play the serious game FRESH FOOD RUNNER at different speeds. Pre-and post-tests are used to assess learning gains, in combination with rating scales for different types of cognitive load and game engagement.
Results. Results show that highest learning gains and lowest levels of extraneous cognitive load are prevalent at medium speed settings, which are neither too fast nor too slow. A similar pattern is apparent for student ratings of game engagement.
Discussion and Conclusion. In consequence, learning gains, cognitive load and engagement variables can be regarded as suitable criteria to determine the optimal speed of serious games.
... This is because digital video segmentation gives the learner the opportunity to stop the flow of information when necessary, and allows him to process information more precisely, thus promoting the learning process [12]. Although a large number of studies in literature supported segmented instruction (SI) versus non-segmented instruction (NSI) [10,13,14], the comparison between segmented and non-segmented remains one of the variables that need to be studied within a context that necessitates interaction with other variables [15]. ...
... Segmentation also gives learners an opportunity to learn how to extract important information from a specific part before moving on to the next, as well as analyse the visual spatial structure of the content on the screen, which can be difficult to do when the display is constantly changing [42]. Several studies that were interested in segmentation processing versus non-segmentation processing have shown that segmentation process is very effective in developing the ability to acquire knowledge, apply new strategies [10], solving problems [14], enhance performance and conduct cognitive processes [43], and enhance the ability to recall [44]. ...
p>the current research aimed at identifying the relationship between segmentation of video clips (Segmented Video (SV) / Non-Segmented Video (NSV) and Question location (Pre-questions Preq / Post question Postq) through Mobile Video Platforms on affecting the Recall ability among some students of the College of Education. The semi-experimental approach was used as based on the factorial designs (2 × 2). The research sample consisted of (63) female students from the College of Education at the University of Jeddah and randomly distributed to the four specified research groups. A Recall test has been developed. Analysis of variance (one and two) (ANOVA), Partial Eta Squared, and Schiff's post hoc comparison were employed to analyze data. The results showed the effectiveness of the segmented videos as compared to the non-segmented videos, and of the pre-questions as compared to the post questions, it also showed the priority of the fourth treatment of the interaction between segmented videos and pre-questions locations as compared with other experimental treatments.</p
... Some studies found that increased student agency is associated with higher levels of motivation and involvement, and resulted in better learning outcomes (Snow et al. 2015;Rowe et al. 2011). Tabbers and de Koeijer (2010) demonstrated that giving students control over the pace and order of instructions in an animated multimedia presentation led to higher learning outcomes. Similarly, letting students customize game components has also shown to be positive for learning (Cordova and Lepper 1996;Snow et al. 2015). ...
... However, research suggests that increasing student agency may not be beneficial for all students (Katz et al. 2006). Agency may lead to non-optimal learning such as increased learning time (Tabbers & de Koeijer 2010), or to difficulties with selecting, organizing and integrating information (Mayer 2004;Kirschner et al. 2006). ...
Agency refers to the level of control the student has over learning. Most studies on agency in computer-based learning environments have been conducted in the context of educational games and multimedia learning, while there is little research done in the context of learning with Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs). We conducted a study in the context of SQL-Tutor, an ITS that teaches database querying, with students solving a fixed set of ten problems. Before each problem, students worked on a preparatory task, which could be presented as a worked example, erroneous example, or another isomorphic problem. There were two conditions in the study. In the High-Agency condition, students could select the type of preparatory task freely or skip it altogether. In the Low-Agency condition, an adaptive strategy selected preparatory tasks for students on the basis of their performance. The participants were classified as High Prior Knowledge (HPK) or Low Prior Knowledge (LPK), based on their scores on the pre-test. Due to the timing of the study, we had 40 participants who completed all elements of the study. The participants in both Low- and High-Agency conditions improved significantly from the pre- to post-test, and there was no difference between the LPK and HPK students on post-test scores. Therefore, we have not found an effect of agency on learning. The Low Agency condition was beneficial for both HPK and LPK students, while in the High Agency condition there was significant improvement between the pre- and post-test only for the LPK students. In the High-Agency group, the HPK students selected more challenging learning activities, but did not outperform LPK students on the post-test scores. The limitation of our study is the small sample size.
... Thus, Sinha et al. (2014) go on to describe click behaviors of the appetitive motivational systems as rewatching, seeking and scrolling back to clear up confusing concepts, and decreasing the playback speed, while click behaviors representing the aversive motivational system are skipping and increasing the playback speed. In a study on the effects of learner-controlled pacing while watching an instructional animated slide show, Tabbers and de Koeijer (2010) found that students' desire to learn more about the topic being covered had no effect on the amount of interaction behaviors (analogous with lecture behaviors, in this case) they exhibited while viewing the slides. ...
... These results indicate that more motivated students utilize lecture behaviors more frequently as part of their learning strategies in e-learning environments and that lecture behaviors may be viewed as a signal of a learner's willingness to engage with and understand the content being presented in a lecture video. The present results contradict those of Tabbers and de Koeijer (2010), who found no relationship between students' desire to learn more about a topic and the amount of lecture behaviors they exhibited while viewing media. Prior work has suggested that students prefer to have the option to exhibit lecture behaviors while watching course videos (i.e., learner-controlled pacing) and that doing so helps keep them focused and engaged, which may be considered aspects of motivation (Galbraith, 2004). ...
Cite as: Fanguy, M. Costley, J., Lange, C., Baldwin, M. & Han, S. (2018). The role of motivation in the use of lecture behaviors in the online classroom. ABSTRACT Aim/Purpose Extant research provides conflicting information regarding the role that lecture behaviors play within e-learning lectures. This study sought to understand what role motivation plays in increasing the likelihood that students engage in lecture behaviors in general, and how motivation affects the differing types of lecture behaviors. Background The growth of online learning has increased the importance of video lectures as a means of delivering content. As with offline lectures, students may find it useful to adapt and change the way they interact with lectures to improve their learning. One possible approach that allows students to effectively manage any challenges they have in understanding a lesson is to initiate lecture behaviors to alter the flow of information.
... 2. Segmenting principle: 2-hour session is divided into 4 components, with 4 videos (50 minutes total) and intervening breaks. In addition, there were several pauses and start during each video, thus giving the learners, some controlling to pace these sessions [17,18]. ...
... Our Surgery II consists of 14 opera- 2. Personalization principle: The commentary also includes interactive discussion by asking direct questions. The interactive environment keeps the students involved in the session with better mental model and understanding [17]. ...
... Another issue that has seldom been addressed up to now in research on interactive videos is learners' use of control features. Despite its importance, only a handful of studies (e.g., Hasler et al., 2007;Schwan & Riempp, 2004;Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010) have ever assessed this use. Just because these features are available does not mean that they will actually be used by learners-especially if they are novices (Hasler et al., 2007). ...
... Moreover, as the learning environment we used in this study was very simple, in terms of learner control, the impact of combining imposed pauses and segmentation with more complex control options will have to be assessed in future studies involving both novices and more experienced learners. It should, however, be borne in mind that if controls are too complex (stop, play, next chapter, control of speed, control of direction), they may induce considerable cognitive load and lead to a decrease in learning efficiency (Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010). In a future study, it would be interesting to specifically measure the learners' perceived cognitive load, to assess the impact of using control options. ...
Videos are increasingly being used in education and training,but can lead to specific difficulties in terms of users' learning processes, owing to the transient nature of the information that is delivered. To cope with potential cognitive overload, learner controls can be provided (e.g., pause button), but novice users' mental models may not be sufficiently relevant for them to know when to halt the video. Given that procedural learning involves memorizing an organized and discrete sequence of behaviors, we tested the assumption that providing control buttons is not sufficient for novice learners, and introducing a system-paced interruption at each procedural step is far more effective, when it comes to learning a clinical skill. In the present study, 68 occupational therapy students were divided into three groups: noninteractive video, interactive video (with learner-paced control), and segmented interactive video (interactive video with system-paced interruptions). Results showed the superiority of the segmented format for procedural learning, but no significant difference between conditions for recall test. Users made very little use of the pause button when it was available. These findings support the importance of using segmented instructional videos to reinforce representations of procedures in memory for novice learners and reduce cognitive load.
... Firstly, the educational animations used in this research were presented to students in a systematically controlled manner, depriving them of control over the pace of the animations. Previous studies (Tabbers & De Koeijer, 2010) have suggested that allowing students to control their learning pace can lead to better learning performance. Future investigations could explore the impact of students autonomously controlling educational animations. ...
Educational animation, recognized for its potential accessibility and engaging qualities, has become increasingly prevalent in classroom instruction. However, not all educational animations exhibit high quality or significantly enhance learning outcomes. This study addresses the need for optimizing educational animation design to enhance student learning outcomes and experiences, employing the construction-integration model. We developed three types of educational animations: subtitled textual cue (STC), keyword textual cue (KTC), and structured textual cue (CTC). Through a quasi-experimental research design, 257 fifth-grade students were assigned to three groups, each exposed to one type of textual cue. The results indicate that CTC leads to superior achievement, knowledge retention, higher self-efficacy, and the lowest cognitive load. In comparison, KTC demonstrates moderate results, while STC yields the poorest outcomes. Furthermore, there is a significant negative correlation between achievement and cognitive load, and a significant positive correlation between achievement and self-efficacy. Additionally, there is a significant positive correlation between the "faded effect" of knowledge retention and self-efficacy. These findings highlight the superior learning outcomes and experiences associated with CTC. Based on these findings, recommendations are provided for future educational animation design and instructional practices.
... According to research regarding the segmenting effect (Tabbers and de Koeijer, 2010) and menu structures (Prezenski and Russwinkel, 2014), a deep menu structure should increase learning time. ...
Introduction
Results from experimental research in instructional psychology imply that a deep menu structure of a e-learning website may provide useful segmentation. However, menu depth also increases the need for navigation and thus, might have impairing effects on learning. Furthermore, instructional support can be provided by including a checklist, to ensure that learners reflect on their study progress. The study aimed at investigating which menu structure is beneficial for e-learning websites and whether a checklist could compensate the negative effects of an unfavorable menu structure.
Methods
Therefore, in an online experiment, we let 101 students learn facts about rocks from an e-learning website with either a deep or a flat menu structure. We further manipulated whether metacognitive support through a checklist was provided or not. Learning outcomes, cognitive load, metacognitive factors as well as learning time were measured.
Results
Results show no main effects of the menu depth or the presence of a checklist on retention and transfer performance. Learning achievements in percent for retention were 37.31 (deep menu/checklist), 31.10 (deep menu/no checklist), 36.07 (flat menu/checklist), 38.13 (flat menu, no checklist) and for transfer were 35.19 (deep menu/checklist), 34.40 (deep menu/no checklist), 37.78 (flat menu/checklist), 33.23 (flat menu, no checklist). Yet, there are hints that the deeper menu structure had a negative effect on learning processes: The deep menu structure led to an enhanced extraneous cognitive load (ECL) and reduced learning efficiency. However, providing a checklist had beneficial effects mainly when learning with a deep menu structure but not overall. Unexpectedly, the presence of the checklist did not influence metacognitive measures.
Discussion
Our study suggests that possible costs of a deep menu structure should be considered when designing instructional checklists. However, the study also provides a way in which these costs can be compensated, which is by using a checklist. Implications for instructional research and e-learning are discussed.
... The learning process is examined in relation to many internal learner qualities (such as prior knowledge, self-efficacy, and curiosity) and various external limitations (such as learner control, instructional design and level of control). Discussion on the learning process can be via various multimedia contexts, including video, hypertext, kiosks and other hypermedia, using a constructivist perspective and a schema theoretic methodology (Lawless and Brown, 1997;Tabbers and de Koeijer, 2010). ...
Purpose
The world after the pandemic of Covid-19 is looking at a different environment in teaching and learning and primarily being influenced by general online learning readiness. Perception towards the measurement of online learning readiness would also need to change. This study seeks to determine whether Malaysian undergraduate students are ready to study online if the Movement Control Order (MCO) is reimposed.
Design/methodology/approach
Using an online poll, this study analysed 299 undergraduate students from Malaysia's public and private universities. The collected data were then analysed using SmartPLS software to test the measurement model and structural equation modelling.
Findings
The findings of this study indicate that computer self-efficacy and self-directed learning have a substantially positive link with online learning preparedness among Malaysian undergraduate students.
Research limitations/implications
Findings in this study indicate that universities should draw comprehensive plans to enhance students' readiness in terms of indicators such as technology usage, technology availability, computer and internet efficacy, self-directed learning and attitude. One of the aspects that require change is online communication self-efficacy. Thus, there is a need for improvement, or this would affect undergraduates adversely, especially in the event of future MCO.
Originality/value
The originality of this article lies in the time frame this study was conducted, where cases of coronavirus infection are seen to increase around the world and there is a possibility that movement restrictions will be re-enforced. The findings in this study are expected to give insight to the government in the effort of the national higher education plan. By not undervaluing previous research models, this research model should give a new perspective to the academic literature on online learning among undergraduate students.
... Learner-controlled instruction may be one approach to overcoming the drawbacks of learning from instructional videos, as well as a way to enhance its advantages (Höffler & Schwartz, 2011;Lin et al., 2022; T.-C. Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010). Learner control refers to the extent to which learners are able to direct their own learning process, including controlling the pacing, content and representation of the lesson (Domagk et al., 2010). ...
Instructional videos risk overloading learners' limited working memory resources due to the transient information effect. Learner control is one way to mitigate this concern, but has shown almost zero overall effect and considerable heterogeneity. Consequently, it is essential to identify when learner control is most beneficial. The present study examined the influence of cues on learners' behaviour, cognitive process, metacognition and learning performance in an interactive learning environment. Employing a 2 (temporal cues: without vs. with) × 2 (organizational cues: without vs. with) between‐subject design, 117 participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: no cues, temporal cues, organizational cues and temporal cues + organizational cues. Among these, temporal cues (ie, progress bar) serve as time‐related signals designed to regulate pacing, and organizational cues (ie, table of contents) provide a structural framework for the content. Significant cueing effects were observed for both cue types at germane cognitive load and transfer. Notably, our results indicate that organizational cues effectively guide learners' attention towards the underlying structure, thus promoting cognitive processing. These unique benefits are evident in improved topic recall, retention and monitoring accuracy. Importantly, combined temporal cues and organizational cues were seen to not only allow learners to exhibit more engagement behaviours (ie, skimming) but also assist learners in accurately judging their learning. These findings strongly support the recommendation to use cues to enhance the effectiveness of learner control.
Practitioner notes
What is already known about this topic Instructional videos may overload limited working memory resources due to the transient information effect.
The overall effect of including learner control within educational technology was almost zero (g = 0.05) but showed higher heterogeneity.
It is unclear whether embedding various cues in an instructional video improves the effectiveness of learner control.
What this paper adds Both temporal and organizational cues aided in increasing learners' germane cognitive load and enhancing their transfer.
Organizational cues helped learners understand the underlying structure, thus facilitating deeper cognitive processing, improved metacognition and ultimately boosted learning performance.
Combined temporal and organizational cues lead to engagement behaviours and accurate self‐monitoring.
Implications for practice and/or policy Providing instructional support is important in assisting learners with the complexities of learner‐controlled instruction.
Embedding cues help learners process the content deeply by giving learners control over the instructional video.
... Learning time in system-paced conditions has commonly been limited to the length of the narration (Tabbers et al., 2004), whereas learner-paced conditions have had fewer time constraints (Reinwein, 2012), or even unlimited time (e.g., Leahy et al., 2003;Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010). This can affect the modality effect in two ways. ...
The modality effect occurs when people learn better from a combination of pictures and narration than from a combination of pictures and written text. Despite the strong empirical results in earlier studies, the modality effect has been less prominent in later studies of children in learner-paced settings. However, the generalizability of these results in practice may be limited because the studies included notable differences compared to a classroom context. The present study examined the modality effect in a learner-paced classroom context. In a within-subjects experiment, fifth graders learned from illustrated texts and videos and completed pre-, post-, and delayed tests on two science topics. The video group outperformed the illustrated text group in retention, delayed retention, cognitive load, and efficiency measures but there were no statistical differences in transfer. In both learning conditions, the cognitive load was moderate and did not correlate with any learning outcomes. The results suggest that while the modality effect can occur in a learner-paced classroom context, it may not be based on the avoidance of cognitive overload. Alternative explanations concerning the differences in settings and materials between classroom contexts and modality effect research are discussed.
... The whiteboard animations used in this work were presented to the learners in a system-controlled way, so they had no control over the progress of the animation. Considering findings from Hasler et al. (2007) as well as Tabbers and de Koeijer (2010), who showed that learner-paced animations resulted in better learning performance, it might be fruitful for further studies to leave it up to the learner to decide when they need a break (i.e., learner-paced). Similarly, Schroeder et al. (2020) confirmed that increased learner control in instructional videos with embedded virtual humans is associated with better learning outcomes. ...
Whiteboard animations encounter increasing popularity among learners. However, due to their transient nature, such animations can quickly exceed learners’ working memory capacities. To compensate for this transience, the segmentation principle (i.e., separating the animation into smaller, “digestible” segments) can be used to give learners more time to process the content. However, it is still relatively unclear how many segments should be used to unfold learning-beneficial effects. In addition, breaks between segments can be used to support learners in monitoring their learning process. Across two experiments involving different whiteboard animations and corresponding learning topics (N1 = 132; N2 = 119), the number of segments was manipulated by dividing the whiteboard animations into one (i.e. no segmentation), two, three, or four segments. Moreover, the use and number of metacognitive prompts (i.e., on-screen instructions to recap already learned information) were examined by including these prompts in either pauses between the segments or after the animation. Results revealed that an increase in segments did not lead to better learning performance or reduced intrinsic cognitive load perceptions. Metacognitive prompts did not result in more accurate judgment of learning evaluations. The first experiment found that metacognitive prompts were associated with higher intrinsic motivation. In sum, the results of this experimental series serve as a call to further explore how the interplay of segmentation and metacognitive prompts can facilitate learning with dynamic visualizations.
... Technology provides access to a rich and diverse information environment, where information is conveyed through a variety of different representational formats (e.g., video, animation, 3D visualizations, spoken text; Mayer, 2014;Renkl & Scheiter, 2017;Scheiter et al., 2017). Unlike printed content, many of these representational formats are dynamic and interactive in that learners can control their presentation, choose from various display options, or even change the information that is being displayed (e.g., in the case of simulations; de Jong, 2006;Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010). In addition, students can create their own representations by creating explanatory videos, drawings, or concept maps (Fiorella & Mayer, 2015). ...
Effort students put forth when learning (EFF) is paramount to high achievement in an academic context. However, EFF has been shown to decrease over the course of a student’s school career. Using technology (i.e., computer-based technologies including digital [smart] devices like tablet computers) in classroom teaching might be a powerful way to cushion this effect as technology has the potential to promote effort-related learning processes. However, it is yet unclear how technology should be integrated into classroom teaching to promote sustainable effects because long-term studies in natural classroom scenarios are scarce. In this study, we analyzed both short-term (across 4 months) and long-term (across 16 months) changes in students’ EFF in mathematics and German as a language in a context in which teachers had begun to integrate technology (i.e., tablet computers) into their teaching. We used data from N = 1,363 seventh- to eighth-grade students in 28 schools. The schools were randomly assigned to either a tablet condition (teachers and students were given the opportunity to use tablet computers for one-to-one computing for teaching and learning) or a non-tablet condition. Changes in students’ EFF, assessed as cognitive engagement and academic effort, were analyzed with baseline latent change and multiple, multivariate linear regression models. In mathematics, short-term changes in EFF were more positive in the tablet than in the non-tablet condition and the higher the quality of technology integration in classrooms the more positive were long-term changes. In German, the more often tablet computers were used the more positive were short-term changes. The results underscore the importance of high-quality integration of technology in complex classroom environments but also demonstrate the need to examine domain-specific integration of technologies more intensively.
... From the cognitive load perspective, several studies supported the cognitive and instructional benefits of video pacing (Wouters, Tabbers, and Paas 2007;Schwan and Riempp 2004;Hasler, Kersten, and Sweller 2007;Mayer and Chandler 2001;Tabbers and de Koeijer 2010;Höffler and Schwartz 2011;Nesbit and Adesope 2011). For instance, Schwan and Riempp (2004) conducted a study to investigate the effectiveness of video pacing on the learning of motor skill (tying a nautical knot) using play, pause, and fast forward or repeat buttons. ...
Background
Instructional videos are increasingly employed in a physical education domain in order to enhance motor learning and self-motivational beliefs. However, evidence showed that videos are generally ineffective because they often create extraneous loads due to the information transience and passive processing of information.
Purpose
The current study investigates the effects of controlling the display of video on learning outcomes – expressed in terms of recall and transfer scores – and situational interest in physical education settings.
Method
60 tenth-grade students (Mage = 15.90 years, SDage = 1.32 months; 30 boys and 30 girls) were instructed to study using either a continuous video (presented without pauses), a system-controlled video using predefined segments or a self-controlled video where the learner uses ‘stop’ and ‘play’ keys. Then, they were asked to perform the learning tests (i.e. game comprehension test and game performance test) and evaluate the situational interest of the learning materials (i.e. attention demand, challenge, exploration intention, instant enjoyment, novelty).
Findings
The results from one-way ANOVAs revealed that students performed significantly better on both recall and transfer post-tests when the video was either system-controlled or self-controlled, which suggested that studying a controlled video could decrease irrelevant cognitive load and so yield better learning performances. Concerning the situational interest variable, students in the self-controlled condition scored significantly higher on almost all dimensions of situational interest.
Conclusion
This study indicates that self-controlled video, as applied in this study, can be integrated in a physical education context to foster learning and enhance situational interest. The discussion advances several options for enhancing the effectiveness of instructional videos during physical education lessons.
... In addition to images and animations, researchers have also examined the strategies of embedding questions or providing students with notes/handouts that align with the PowerPoint (Valdez, 2013). One way to reduce mental effort is to provide learners with a possibility to control the pace and sequence of processing the information (Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010). That way, learners have the opportunity to adjust the presentation speed to their needs i.e., subjects make use of the possibility to select relevant information and to organize and integrate it into a mental model (Mayer & Chandler, 2001). ...
When it comes to presenting research results, the usual approach is to use PowerPoint or similar slide applications, or to opt for alternative presentation tools. A central question is how well the knowledge is transferred and to what extent the target audience is addressed emotionally. Based on a 2*2 factorial design, the effects of presentation form (PowerPoint slide presentation vs. explainer video) and interaction (no interaction vs. interaction by means of additional questions on the topic) were investigated. Overall, the presentation factor is more important for learning success than the interaction factor and explainer videos perform significantly better than the PowerPoint presentation. This applies to the objective and subjective learning success, but also to the emotional appeal and the increase in engagement, interest and other cognitive activities. The effects of the interaction factor are relatively low, achieving minor improvements in combination with the PowerPoint presentation, while no statistically significant and relevant effects were found in combination with the explainer video.
... [23] and [24] stated that computer-based learning increases the effectiveness of teaching and learning process, in line with research conducted by [25], [26] which states that utilization technology in learning to facilitate the learning process, the use of technology in the learning process can be used in all subject areas such as biology, even in Deniz research the use of technology is used for the history lesson. The use of multimedia technology in any form is an attempt to ease cognitive burdens [27], [28]. Multimedia is the technology that can be used without looking at the learning model [21], [29]. ...
There are three problems in teaching engineering, especially in the field of electricity, those are: (1) students are unable to read electricity wiring; (2) students do not understand the basic concepts of electricity; (3) students do not understand the basic concept of the relationship between the electrical components. The purpose of this article are: (1) to describe multimedia, especially interactive multimedia engine management systems, prior knowledge, problem-solving; (2) to describe the relationship between interactive multimedia and prior knowledge; (3) to describe the relationship between interactive multimedia and problem solving; and (4) to provide the concept of interactive multimedia engine management system. The collection of information in this article uses a literature review or library research. Problem-solving is an attempt to solve problems through high-level thinking (high order thinking). Prior knowledge is the initial knowledge students have when entering topics with the same background. The existence of interactive multimedia or multimedia has a positive impact on prior knowledge. Some interactive multimedia research has a positive impact on the ability of problem-solving.
... Adaptive learning environments vary in terms of the engagement afforded to the learner, ranging from highly interactive learning environments (Land, 2000) to highly structured environments in which the system controls the selection of each new activity with no input from the learner. Previous research has shown that an intermediate level of learner control and engagement is typically associated with better learning outcomes, such that learners exert some control over the pacing and selection of learning activities (Bradbury, Taub, & Azevedo, 2017;Cordova & Lepper, 1996;Sawyer, Smith, Rowe, Azevedo & Lester, 2017;Scheiter & Geriets, 2007;Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010). Active engagement and control can lead to improved learning due to a number of different cognitive mechanisms (Markant, Ruggeri, Gureckis, & Xu, 2016). ...
Adaptive learning uses computers to provide personalized learning pathways for students. This project explores the use of an adaptive learning module implemented in a sophomore level course for civil engineering technology and construction management students with an instructional focus on "Pumps." The research goal of this case study is to examine student learning and behavioral engagement when an adaptive learning module is introduced. The adaptive learning module was designed to engage students in personalized instruction and was used as a supplement to the instructor's in-class lectures on the topic. The researchers gathered and analyzed 42 students' learning data on learning, performance, and user pathways on the adaptive learning platform Smart Sparrow. In total, 81% of students demonstrated mastery across all modules by successfully answering all assessment questions. Furthermore, 65% interacted with at least one adaptive learning module due to assessment, and 24% had more than one interaction, suggesting students were able to efficiently resolve uncertainty within the lesson. Additionally, correct responses for students viewing adaptive content were associated with increased time spent reviewing adaptive content, demonstrating the usefulness of an adaptive learning program. Student responses to a follow-up survey reflect an overall positive experience and also highlight opportunities to improve the module in future iterations.
... In these experiences, agency can be framed as a phenomenon involving both a learner and their learning environment, in which the actions that learners desire are among those they can actually take [67]. The goal of having learners exert agency is to have learners make informed choices, to support their engagement [8,56], motivation [17], and learning [17,56,62,63]. Agency might manifest as a learner deciding that an exercise is too easy, choosing to jump ahead to a more difficult exercise, or realizing that they lack some understanding, and reviewing some prior instruction. ...
... Specifically, for learner-paced instruction, learners have the opportunity to pause and continue the presentation based on their cognitive and learning needs, while system-paced instruction are timed and progress automatically. Some research suggests that giving learners control over the pacing of the material can be beneficial for transfer of knowledge (Hasler et al. 2007;Tabbers and de Koeijer 2010). Yet at the same time, this finding has not always been supported or deemed universally advantageous due to several factors including individual differences in learners (Höffler and Schwartz 2011) and the design of the learning environment (Rop et al. 2018). ...
Emotions can both facilitate and hinder learning. Emotional design features such as colors and shapes can be embedded in multimedia learning environments to manipulate learners’ affects and learning outcomes. However, some studies suggest that emotional designs promote learning, while others show that they hinder it. Although Brom et al. (Educational Research Review 25:100–119, Brom et al. 2018) published a meta-analysis on the use of emotional designs in multimedia learning, an updated search showed that more studies were published recently. Thus, the present meta-analysis is a replication and extension of Brom et al.’s (Educational Research Review 25:100–119, Brom et al. 2018) meta-analysis. A total of 28 articles yielded the following independent effect sizes for each outcome examined: retention (k = 28), transfer (k = 38), comprehension (k = 16), mental effort (k = 28), perceived difficulty (k = 19), change in positive affect (k = 25), intrinsic motivation (k = 28), and liking/enjoyment (k = 19). Results showed that including emotional designs enhanced learning outcomes (retention: g+ = 0.35; transfer: g+ = 0.27; comprehension: g+ = 0.29), change in positive affect (g+ = 0.09), intrinsic motivation (g+ = 0.15), mental effort (g+ = 0.11), liking/enjoyment (g+ = 0.10), and reduced perceived difficulty (g+ = − 0.21). Moderator analyses were conducted for retention, mental effort, intrinsic motivation, and positive affect, and findings showed that mean effect sizes were moderated by participant characteristics as well as methodological and contextual features of the studies. We discuss these findings as well as their theoretical and practical implications.
... Previous studies concerning the pause effect in CLT have yielded inconsistent results (Hasler, Kersten, & Sweller, 2007;Lowe, 1999Lowe, , 2004Merkt, Ballmann, Felfeli, & Schwan, 2018;Schnotz, Bockheler, & Grzondziel, 1999;Schwan & Riempp, 2004;Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010). We argue that these studies have limited power to explain the pause effect in medical training, as they all used linear tasks (e.g., learning from text and pictures, watching animations). ...
In medical training, allowing learners to take pauses during tasks is known to enhance performance. Cognitive load theory assumes that insertion of pauses positively affects cognitive load, thereby enhancing performance. However, empirical studies on how allowing and taking pauses affects cognitive load and performance in dynamic task environments are scarce. We investigated the pause effect, using a computerized simulation game in emergency medicine. Medical students (N = 70) were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: simulation with (n = 40) and without (n = 30) the option to take pauses. All participants played the same two scenarios, during which game logs and eye-tracking data were recorded. Overall, both cognitive load and performance were higher in the condition with pauses than in the one without. The act of pausing, however, temporarily lowered cognitive load, especially during intense moments. Two different manifestations of the pause effect were identified: (1) by stimulating additional cognitive and meta-cognitive processes, pauses increased overall cognitive load; and (2) through relaxation, the act of pausing temporarily decreased heightened cognitive load. Consequently, our results suggest that in order to enhance students’ performance and learning it is important that we encourage them to utilize the different effects of pausing.
... A multimedia learning, as part of e-learning, will be effective when in the construction/development to successfully integrate its main elements, namely: the presence of the desired learning objective, content, strategies/methods of learning, and media delivery (Clark, 2008). The effectiveness of multimedia learning may be more increases, when in design and manufacture, also pay attention to accommodating the other aspects, for example: the learners learning style (Clark & Mayer, 2008); availability of control facility of learners or multimedia interactivity, which is useful in controlling the cognitive load of learners during a learning process (Tabbers & de Koeijer, 2010); content type (static/dynamic) which will be presented (Passerini, 2007); and content visualization type (static/animated) (Lin & Dwyer, 2010). Related to such matters, in the development of multimedia learning, certainly need to pay attention to the following points: (1) the development of the modern multimedia technologies that are able to support the development/learning with multimedia development faster, interesting and effective, (2) the conditions/criteria that must be met in order for the effectiveness of multimedia learning built/developed is reached, (3) associated with the delivery, the need for media content presentation with animated visualization (pointer animation) can be used in ways that are consistent with how does the human learn (principle of animation in learning via multimedia) (Clark & Mayer, 2008;Mayer & Moreno, 2003). ...
This research was the development research, i.e. developing a multimedia interactive learning over a matter of principle, that is, Logic. The learning strategy follows the Merrill's strategy (in Component Display Theory or CDT, especially those related to the rule relation between display), and the principle of animation (pointer animation) in learning via multimedia (multimedia, modality principle, spatial and temporal contiguity). The software of its development using the Authoring tool Adobe Captivate 9. The results of this research were two effective interactive multimedia learning modules (computer-based and mobile-based) that had the quality of good—very good. With the modules, the learner will have the option of learning and be more motivated (via a computer or mobile device) to learn independently repeatable and meaningful, such that the ability of the learner in applying concepts, procedures and basic principles of Logic can be achieved.
... Fast-paced presentations are a reason why students experience cognitive overload that can reduce learning performance, 41 whereas optimizing control of pace has been shown to improve learning. 42 The inclusion of explanation and reasoning in worked examples is associated with more effective imitation of subject matter experts and ultimately the organisation of knowledge. 28,43 A small number of respondents felt that the sound quality of recordings could be improved, reflecting the fact that technical issues are one of the most common drawbacks on the use of podcasts in education. ...
Introduction
Accurately completing pharmaceutical calculations is a core professional skill for pharmacists. To date, few studies have focused on to providing feedback on calculations, or the role of technology in feedback provision. This study aimed to develop a theory-informed video podcast-based method of providing formative feedback and evaluate student perceptions.
Methods
First-year pharmacy students (n = 53) completed a formative pharmaceutical calculations assessment. Two forms of feedback were designed and evaluated; typed solutions (traditional format commonly used/seen in textbooks) and video podcasts informed by instructional design theory (novel format).
Results
A survey was completed by 70% (37/53) of students. Specific features of video podcasts reported useful included hearing reasoning, and the ability to pause and rewind. Most (76%) reported positive attitudes towards video podcasts, considered them useful (75%) and helpful for learning (79%). A comparable number (76% and 71% respectively) felt positively about typed solutions. The majority (51%) preferred to receive both types rather than podcasts alone (24%), or typed solutions alone (8%). Free-text responses indicated both were used in different ways; typed solutions for quick verification and video podcasts for clarification.
Conclusions
Video podcasts appear to be a potentially helpful additional method of delivering feedback that afford specific advantages. They can be readily developed by faculty with minimal expense/difficulty. However, as respondents indicated that they used both kinds of feedback in different ways to support their learning, and indicated a preference to receive both types, they should be considered an addition rather than replacement for typed solutions.
... Studies have reported that learner-pacing with segmentation reduces cognitive load and increases transfer performance for dynamic visuals (e.g. Hasler, Kersten, & Sweller, 2007;Tabbers & Koeijer, 2010). ...
The popularity of online learning has made web-based software training materials the primary learning resources adopted by computer users. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of various common representational formats of web-based instructions. The formats included static (textual manual with screenshots) and dynamic (animated demonstration, AD) instructions. The findings suggested that in learner-paced learning with sufficient learning time (a) both narrated and captioned AD formats tended to increase transfer performance; (b) the segmenting principle likely became less important for the static format; and (c) the modality principle likely became less important for the AD format. Implications for determining optimal AD segment length for student engagement and suggestions for possible factors to be included in future research are offered accordingly. © 2018
... Several past studies have explored the effects of agency, giving students control over the way they play an educational game. For example, [29] showed that allowing students control over the time in which they engage with different lessons in multimedia learning can lead to higher learning outcomes. Approaching agency from a different perspective, [3] allowed the customization of game icons and names in their fantasy-based arithmetic tutor, while [26] provided ingame currency, which could be spent on either personalizing the system interface or extra play. ...
A key feature of most computer-based games is agency: the capability for students to make their own decisions in how they play. Agency is assumed to lead to engagement and fun, but may or may not be helpful to learning. While the best learners are often good self-regulated learners, many students are not, only benefiting from instructional choices made for them. In the study presented in this paper, involving a total of 158 fifth and sixth grade students, children played a mathematics learning game called Decimal Point, which helps middle-school students learn decimals. One group of students (79) played and learned with a low-agency version of the game, in which they were guided to play all “mini-games” in a prescribed sequence. The other group of students (79) played and learned with a high-agency version of the game, in which they could choose how many and in what order they would play the mini-games. The results show there were no significant differences in learning or enjoyment across the low and high-agency conditions. A key reason for this may be that students across conditions did not substantially vary in the way they played, perhaps due to the indirect control features present in the game. It may also be the case that the young students who participated in this study did not exercise their agency or self-regulated learning. This work is relevant to the AIED community, as it explores how game-based learning can be adapted. In general, once we know which game and learning features lead to the best learning outcomes, as well as the circumstances that maximize those outcomes, we can better design AI-powered, adaptive games for learning.
هدفت الدراسة الحالية إلى قياس مهارات سهولة استخدام تطبيقات التعلم النقال
القائمة على أنماط التحكم التعليمي لدى عينة من الأطفال ذوي اضطراب التوحد، وتحددت
عينة البحث من 15 طفل توحدي، وأسفرت نتائج البحث عن وجود فروق ذات دلالة إحصائية
عند مستوى 0,05 بين متوسطات درجات طلاب المجموعات التجريبية في مقياس سهولة
الاستخدام ترجع لأثر الاختلاف في أنماط التحكم: المتعلم، التطبيق، المتعلم مع الإرشاد، وذلك لصالح المجموعة التجريبية التي تعرضت لتطبيق التعلم النقال القائم على أسلوب تحكم المتعلم مع الإرشاد
The following is a case study of a series of pioneering tests with visual teaching aids in elementary and secondary schools in the United States, conducted between 1920 and 1923. As it happened, these tests coincided with similar experiments in the Netherlands. Although unbeknown to each other, the innovative aspect of both studies consisted in taking their research into the classroom. With this measure experimenters in both countries hoped to collect well-founded evidence to refute what appeared to them as unfounded or overstated claims about photography-based, visual teaching aids, film in particular. While the experimenters forwent a controlled lab situation, by entering the classroom they nonetheless introduced adjustments into everyday educational practice, whether it concerned the activities required of pupils, staff, the interactions between them, and/or the composition of test groups. Thus, they changed what today one would call the educational dispostif: the arrangement of a presentation (a lesson by staff) in a designated space (a classroom with its equipment) before an assemblage of attendees (a class of pupils). Although the term educational dispositif was not current at the time, the experimenters did comment on the elements that constitute it. And given elementary and secondary education’s time-honoured routines, they were bound to stumble upon these elements’ interdependence and reconsider, albeit not in so many words, their conception of what goes on in a class. I largely focus on the American experimentsbecause they are more numerous, more invasive, and more extensively discussed in the 1924 book Visual education. The Dutch experiments, on which I published elsewhere, consisted of two, less invasive series, conducted in one secondary school, and were reported on in two articles, in 1923, and one English translation, in 1924.
Constructing interactive web apps has become more accessible for instructors, for example, by using the R package Shiny. Here we explored learners' preferences and the efficiency of interactive simulations versus static pictures in acquiring statistics knowledge of Cohen's d and standard normal distribution. Results revealed that students' spontaneous interaction with pictures was infrequent (pilot study, N = 26). While prompts (Exp. 1, N = 152) effectively ensured the manipulation of simulations, student exposure to interactive simulations led to longer learning times though similar test performance compared with student exposure to static pictures. Multiple interactive representations led to lower test performance than single interactive and static representations (Exp. 2, N = 117). Though no advantage was gained regarding learning outcomes, participants preferred the interactive variant (Exp. 3, N = 119). Taken together, this study demonstrates that the superiority of interactive pictures cannot be assumed to hold in general. Further work should evaluate how mental model construction can be effectively scaffolded by interactive simulations.
Instructional videos are increasingly part of the teaching practices of educators across all sectors. The most common theoretical lens used to design and evaluate instructional videos has been to apply principles emerging from the cognitive theory of multimedia learning. However, these principles have been largely developed from research using instructional media other than videos. In addition, there is no comprehensive list of principles that have been shown to improve learning from instructional videos. Therefore, this paper seeks to identify principles of video design that are empirically supported in the literature. A systematic literature review was conducted, with a final analysis of 113 papers describing 28 principles. While some of the existing cognitive theory of multimedia learning principles, notably coherence, segmenting and learner control, have been found to improve learning from instructional videos in a variety of contexts, others, such as redundancy and modality, are not supported. These findings serve as clear guidance to instructional designers creating educational video content. In addition to describing the breadth of research in the field, this paper also found that the development of the research field suffers from a lack of coherence and is in urgent need of clear nomenclature and improved reporting of media and research design. Implications for practice or policy: Instructional videos that are shorter, segmented, coherent and paired with learning activities are more likely to lead to improved learning gains in students. Researchers reporting on the use of videos should provide comprehensive descriptions of media, including links to the media where possible. Designers of instructional videos should critically evaluate design principles established for non-video media.
استهدف البحث الحالي قياس أثر اختلاف معدل تجزئة مقاطع الفيديو الرقمي (کبير – صغير) عبر التطبيقات النقالة على تنمية مهارات الحاسب الآلي والکفاءة الذاتية لدى طلاب السنة التحضيرية بجامعة جدة. استخدم البحث المنهج شبه التجريبي والتصميم التجريبي ذي المجموعتين التجريبيتين مع القياس القبلي والبعدي. طُبق البحث على عينة مکونة من (60) طالبًا خلال الفصل الاول للعام الدراسي 2017/2018م. وتمثلت أدوات البحث في اختبار تحصيل معرفي، وبطاقة ملاحظة الأداء المهاري، ومقياس الکفاءة الذاتية. اعتمد البحث على اختبار (ت) للوقوف على دلالة الفروق بين المجموعتين التجريبيتين، ومربع إيتا لقياس حجم الأثر. أسفرت نتائج البحث عن تفوق طلاب المجموعة التجريبية الأولى (الذين درسوا باستخدام مقاطع فيديو رقمي بمعدل تجزئة کبير) على طلاب المجموعة التجريبية الثانية (الذين درسوا باستخدام مقاطع فيديو رقمي بمعدل تجزئة صغير) في تنمية نواتج التعلم محل البحث الحالي؛ وهو ما يعکس فاعلية معدل التجزئة الکبير لمقاطع الفيديو الرقمي عبر التطبيقات النقالة في تنمية مهارات الحاسب الآلي بجانبيها المعرفي والأدائي والکفاءة الذاتية لدى طلاب السنة التحضيرية بجامعة جدة. في ضوء نتائج البحث، قدم الباحث مجموعة من التوصيات والمقترحات التي من شأنها الاهتمام والتوسع في استخدام مقاطع الفيديو الرقمي والتطبيقات النقالة بما يساهم في تحسين العملية التعليمية ونواتج التعلم المختلفة.
Online streaming has transformed instructional videos into a seemingly ubiquitous part of learning and teaching in secondary schools. Much of the research into video use in secondary education has either proposed best practices or focused on a-typical pedagogies like flipped learning and distance education. The use of videos in mainstream schooling is under-examined. Drawing on the experiences of nine Australian secondary teachers this research examines ways in which instructional videos, mostly from YouTube, were used in mainstream classrooms. These uses included replacing the teacher as direct instructor, displaying historical footage, and the demonstration of abstract phenomena. However, some practices were less predictable, such as a virtual duplication of teachers or the use of controversial videos to prompt critical discussion. A connection emerged between teacher experience and the innovative use of instructional videos, suggesting that the use of videos is a pedagogical skill that improves with wisdom of practice.
E-learning platforms are experiencing major improvements in curriculum and corporate preparation. Through the development in online learning platforms, learning influence of the teaching phase has arisen as a core element in technology-based learning. However, the methodological work on the role of learner control in e-learning has not progressed enough to foresee how autonomous learning influences e-learning efficacy. In order to expand research on the function of learner control in e-learning and to analyse its effects on e-learning efficacy, this review explores literature on learner control to derive a conceptual construct as a theoretical model to explain how learning regulation impacts the success of e-learning. This review offers fresh insights into the function and aspects of learning regulation in online learning, with consequences for both learning processes and learning outcomes.
This study aims at comparing the effect of single- and dual-annotation modes, working memory (WM), and three tasks of different involvement loads (sentence writing, close deletion, and paragraph writing) on passive and active vocabulary development of proficient English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. While listening to an expository text, participants (n = 204) were presented with annotations for twenty lexical items. Paribakht and Wesche’s (1997) Vocabulary Knowledge Scale was employed as the pre and posttests and via a listening span task, the learners’ WM capacities were measured. The results pointed to the efficacy of dual-mode over single-mode annotations concerning both passive and active vocabulary learning. The participants with higher WM capacities significantly performed better regarding active vocabulary learning for both textually and visually annotated words, thus no interaction between WM and input mode was found. The sentence writing task produced the highest scores in the vocabulary tests, whereas the cloze deletion and paragraph writing tasks did not significantly differ. Hence, the results only partially confirmed the Involvement Load Hypothesis. The current study corroborates other studies verifying the modality effect on vocabulary learning and suggests that both WM and task type are significant factors in EFL vocabulary learning.
Cognitive load theory assumes that cognitive demands that arise from the design of learning materials (known as extraneous load) are major obstacles in the learning process with (digital) media. Interactive digital media allow learners to utilize complex learning materials that respond to user input. However, recent research on cognitive load measurement has led to the question whether different survey instruments produce different measurements for extraneous load generated by interactive learning media. In a laboratory experiment, we investigated this question using digital visualizations. Most importantly, we found that two cognitive load questionnaires revealed divergent results regarding the extraneous load involved in learning with interactive visualizations. This finding indicates that different questionnaires may be needed for different types of tasks in technology‐enhanced learning settings. A more fundamental implication is that there needs to be greater consideration of different types of extraneous load.
User control is a characteristic of a medium, which allows users to control the pace and sequence with which information is presented. This study examined the role of user control in recognition memory when media users multitask. More specifically, it was examined whether user control could reduce the negative impact of media multitasking on recognition memory. Results of Study 1 showed that high user control induced greater recognition memory compared to low or moderate user control. In addition, Study 2 and 3 showed that the positive impact of high user control on recognition memory was stronger when structural interference was high (e.g., visual-visual multitasking) than when structural interference was low (e.g., visual-audio multitasking). The theoretical and practical implications are further discussed.
Tujuan - Kajian ini bertujuan untuk menilai kesan animasi bersegmen dengan pelbagai strategi kawalan pengguna terhadap prestasi pelajar. Lima strategi kawalan tersebut ialah strategi Kawalan Pengguna Linear (KPL), Kawalan Pengguna Rawak (KPR), Kawalan Program (KP), Kawalan Berterusan (KB) dan Tanpa Kawalan (TK).
Metodologi - Reka bentuk kajian berbentuk kuasi eksperimen dan data kajian dianalisis melalui pendekatan kuantitatif. Seramai 265 orang pelajar semester 2 kursus Diploma Sistem Rangkaian dari lima buah Politeknik dipilih sebagai sampel kajian. Penilaian dilakukan melalui ujian pos.
Dapatan - Secara keseluruhan, ujian statistik ANCOVA digunakan untuk menjawab persoalan kajian. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dari sudut prestasi ujian pos antara kumpulan pelajar yang menerima strategi kawalan paparan animasi bersegmen yang berbeza.
Kepentingan - Dapatan kajian menunjukkan faktor reka bentuk paparan animasi bersegmen yang disertakan dengan strategi kawalan pengguna yang bersesuaian berkemampuan mengatasi masalah keciciran maklumat. Strategi KPR dan KPL didapati membantu dalam memperuntukkan masa yang bersesuaian bagi memori sensori pelajar untuk mengekstrak maklumat bermakna daripada animasi untuk diproses di dalam memori jangka pendek yang agak terbatas sebelum didaftarkan ke dalam memori jangka panjang. Kedua-dua strategi ini juga didapati berupaya meningkatkan prestasi pencapaian pelajar.
The increasing impact of social media on our lives has led to re-evaluation of the delivery
methods of medical educational content by medical educators and researchers. Social media is being increasingly used for communication, sharing information and media, and having discussions related to the topics of interest by both undergraduate and postgraduate
students. The main objective of this chapter is to analyse the benefits and challenges of using social media as a learning and teaching tool in medical education.
Social media provides an exciting platform for medical communication and discussions.
Educators can enhance the learning of all students by facilitating their engagement with, and
increasing their accessibility to social media. With social media comes a way to provide
students with instant feedback, the significance of which in medical education is well
documented. However, one of the main limitations of social media is its dependence on
internet access; there are many parts of the world in which internet is still not available, easily affordable, or restricted.
Currently, there is more focus on developing guidelines on the use of social media for
educators and students than there is on impact on learning. There is a need to address the
gap in the literature on the beneficial effects of incorporating social media in the learning
process. Additional studies should be conducted to compare the difference between
traditional learning and learning through social media in medical education.
Multimedia principles such as segmentation, learner control, and modality have been proposed to ensure animated demonstrations (AD) effectiveness. However, several studies that apply multimedia principles in different learning contexts with different learners have found boundary conditions for several effects. This study thus aimed to investigate different levels of learner control, segmenting, and modality effects on learning and cognitive load when AD was used as the before-class instructions in the flipped classroom, in which the boundary conditions include self-pacing and sufficient learning time. Two experiments (low control vs. high control) were conducted with a 2 × 2 (segmentation: nonsegmented vs. segmented; modality: narrated vs. captioned) between-subjects ANOVA design. A supplementary analysis across the two experiments was further conducted to distinguish between the main effects of learner control and segmentation. The findings of this study have important implications for the design of before-class instructions to enhance student engagement and understanding.
Computer-based learning environments provide the possibility to present interactive animated pictures, which can be manipulated for active exploratory learning and which allow to display the dynamic behavior of a complex subject matter. Due to the large range of possibilities of exploratory interaction, such learning environments seem to be well suited for cooperative learning, where different learners analyse a subject matter from different perspectives. Knowledge acquisition from interactive animated pictures was compared with knowledge acquisition from static pictures in two empirical studies under the conditions of individual learning (Study I) and of cooperative learning (Study II). In Study I, learning with interactive animated pictures resulted in a better encoding of detail information, but did not have positive effects on performance in mental simulation tasks. In Study II, learning with interactive animated pictures resulted both in lower encoding of detail information and poorer results in mental simulations. These findings and the analysis of discourse protocols of the co-operation suggest that exploratory learning with interactive animated pictures is associated with extraneous cognitive load, which can be further increased by the co-ordination demands of co-operative learning. Although animated pictures provide external support for mental simulations, they seem to be not generally beneficial for learning, as they can prevent individuals from performing relevant cognitive processes.
First, we propose a theory of multimedia learning based on the assumptions that humans possess separate systems for processing pictorial and verbal material (dual-channel assumption), each channel is limited in the amount of material that can be processed at one time (limited-capacity assumption), and meaningful learning involves cognitive processing including building con- nections between pictorial and verbal representations (active-processing assumption). Second, based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, we examine the concept of cognitive over- load in which the learner's intended cognitive processing exceeds the learner's available cogni- tive capacity. Third, we examine five overload scenarios. For each overload scenario, we offer one or two theory-based suggestions for reducing cognitive load, and we summarize our re- search results aimed at testing the effectiveness of each suggestion. Overall, our analysis shows that cognitive load is a central consideration in the design of multimedia instruction.
Students learned about electric motors by asking questions and receiving answers from an on-screen pedagogical agent named Dr. Phyz who stood next to an on-screen drawing of an electric motor. Students performed better on a problem-solving transfer test when Dr. Phyz's explanations were presented as narration rather than on-screen text (Experiment 1), when students were able to ask questions and receive answers interactively rather than receive the same information as a noninteractive multimedia message (Experiments 2a and 2b), and when students were given a prequestion to guide their self-explanations during learning (Experiment 3). Deleting Dr. Phyz's image from the screen had no significant effect on problem-solving transfer performance (Experiment 4). The results are consistent with a cognitive theory of multimedia learning and yield principles for the design of interactive multimedia learning environments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Using schema theory as a framework, we view learning as an active, constructive process. It is affected not only by learners'' internal knowledge structures, but by the external constraints of the learning environment as well (Kozma, 1991). This article examines how different internal learner characteristics (e.g., prior knowledge, self efficacy and interest) and different external constraints (e.g., learner control, instructional design and level of control) influence the learning process. Specifically, we address learning from a variety of multimedia environments such as video, hypertexts, kiosks and other hypermedia within a schema theoretic approach that incorporates a constructivist view.
Computer-based learning environments provide the possibility to present interactive animated pictures, which can be manipulated for active exploratory learning and which allow to display the dynamic behavior of a complex subject matter. Due to the large range of possibilities of exploratory interaction, such learning environments seem to be well suited for cooperative learning, where different learners analyse a subject matter from different perspectives. Knowledge acquisition from interactive animated pictures was compared with knowledge acquisition from static pictures in two empirical studies under the conditions of individual learning (Study I) and of cooperative learning (Study II). In Study I, learning with interactive animated pictures resulted in a better encoding of detail information, but did not have positive effects on performance in mental simulation tasks. In Study II, learning with interactive animated pictures resulted both in lower encoding of detail information and poorer results in mental simulations. These findings and the analysis of discourse protocols of the co-operation suggest that exploratory learning with interactive animated pictures is associated with extraneous cognitive load, which can be further increased by the co-ordination demands of co-operative learning. Although animated pictures provide external support for mental simulations, they seem to be not generally beneficial for learning, as they can prevent individuals from performing relevant cognitive processes.
The cognitive load and learning effects of dual-code and interactivity—two multimedia methods intended to promote meaningful
learning—were examined. In Experiment 1, college students learned about the causal chain of events leading to the process
of lightning formation with a set of words and corresponding pictures (Group WP), pictures (Group P), or words (Group W).
Some students were presented with the organized causal chain of events to study, whereas others were given a self-organization
task. Consistent with a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, Condition WP was the highest in instructional efficiency
for retention and transfer. However, contrary to our predictions, having students organize the multimedia materials was detrimental
to transfer. Two follow-up experiments tested the hypotheses that the negative effects of interactivity were due to students'
lack of time control (Experiment 2) and the form of feedback (Experiment 3). The findings showed that interactivity was effective
when students were asked to evaluate their answers before receiving corrective feedback from the system.
User's mental representations and cognitive strategies can have a profound influence on how they interact with computer interfaces (Janosky, Smith & Hildreth, 1986). However, there is very little research that elucidates such mental representations and strategies in the context of interactive hypermedia. Furthermore, interface design for hypermedia information presentation systems is rarely driven by what is known of users' mental models and strategies. This paper makes three contributions toward addressing these problems. First, it describes a novel cognitive model of comprehension of multimodal presentations for the specific application of explaining how machines work, and proposes guidelines for hypermedia design derived from this model. Since the development of this model draws heavily upon research in both cognitive science and computational modeling, a second contribution is that it contains a detailed review of literature in these fields on comprehension from static multimodal presentations. Third, it illustrates how cognitive and computational modeling are being used to inform the design of hypermedia information presentation systems about machines. This includes a framework for empirical validation of the model and evaluation of hypermedia design so that both theory and design can be refined iteratively.
In 2 experiments, students received 2 presentations of a narrated animation that explained how lightning forms followed by retention and transfer tests. In Experiment 1, learners who were allowed to exercise control over the pace of the narrated animation before a second presentation of the same material at normal speed (part–whole presentation) performed better on transfer but not retention tests compared with learners who received the same 2 presentations in the reverse order (whole–part presentation). In Experiment 2, learners who were allowed to exercise control over the pace of the narrated animation across 2 presentations (part–part presentation) performed better on transfer but not retention tests compared with learners who received the same 2 presentations at normal speed without any learner control (whole–whole presentation). These results are consistent with cognitive load theory and a 2-stage theory of mental model construction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
For hundreds of years verbal messages - such as lectures and printed lessons - have been the primary means of explaining ideas to learners. In Multimedia Learning Richard Mayer explores ways of going beyond the purely verbal by combining words and pictures for effective teaching. Multimedia encyclopedias have become the latest addition to students' reference tools, and the world wide web is full of messages that combine words and pictures. Do these forms of presentation help learners? If so, what is the best way to design multimedia messages for optimal learning? Drawing upon 10 years of research, the author provides seven principles for the design of multimedia messages and a cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In short, this book summarizes research aimed at realizing the promise of multimedia learning - that is, the potential of using words and pictures together to promote human understanding.
This article concerns the effects of learner control in computer-assisted instruction (CAI). After reviewing previous reviews of research on the topic, twenty-four studies of learner control were subjected to meta-analysis. The results of both the review and meta-analysis are equivocal. Several reviews indicate that learner control works less well with younger, less able students. Other reviews indicate that, given optimal conditions, learner control can work with any students. The meta-analysis, however, yielded an average effect size that was small and negative suggesting that the average student would be slightly better off without it. Although learner control has theoretical appeal, its effects on learning seem neither powerful nor consistent.
Presents a critique of published learner control studies that highlights problems with definitions of learner control, theoretical foundations, treatment duration, outcome measures, sample sizes, and conclusions. Recommendations are made concerning the exploration of alternative models for research focused on learner control and other aspects of computer-based instruction. (Contains 40 references.) (LRW)
In order to investigate the influence of learner-controlled pacing in educational animation on instructional efficiency, three versions of an audio-visual computer animation and a narration-only presentation were used to teach primary school students the determinants of day and night. The animations were either system-paced using a continuous animation, learner-paced using discrete segments or learner paced using ‘stop’ and ‘play’ buttons. The two learner-paced groups showed higher test performance with relatively lower cognitive load compared to the two system-paced groups, despite the fact that the ‘stop’ and ‘play’ buttons were rarely used. The significant group differences regarding test performance were obtained only for more difficult, high element interactivity questions but not for low element interactivity questions. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The construction of a high quality mental model from a complex visual display relies the capacity of learners to extract appropriate information from that display. Beginning students of meteorology complied written records of generalisations extracted from animated weather map sequences in order to prepare themselves for a subsequent prediction task. Analysis of these records revealed that much of the information extracted was perceptually salient rather than thematically relevant. This perceptual dominance effect was found for both visuospatial and temporal aspects of the display. The statements produced were deficient with regard to the causal explanations that would be necessary to build a satisfactory mental model of the depicted situation. These deficiencies involved both the proportion of causal material recorded and the attribution of causality on an everyday rather than a domain-appropriate basis. The limitations of the information extracted were interpreted as evidence of subjects' use of selective attention to control cognitive load in a complex, demanding processing situation and the effects of their lack of domain-specific background knowledge. Contrary to prevailing orthodoxies, the results raise the possibility that in some circumstances, animations may not be instructionally superior to static depictions because the processing demands involved can have negative effects on learning.
Computer-based multimedia technologies allow designers to construct interactive and animated graphical presentations to communicate dynamic information. The conventional wisdom is that such presentations are more effective than printed materials. This paper presents research that critically examines this assumption. Design guidelines and principles were derived from a cognitive process model of multimodal comprehension. These guidelines and principles were used to create several expository presentations in two domains—the concrete domain of mechanical systems and the abstract domain of computer algorithms. A series of experiments evaluated the efficacy of these presentations and compared them with other kinds of presentations such as books, CD-ROMs and animations. The experiments also compared computer-based interactive graphical presentations and static printed presentations containing the same information. Experimental results suggest that the communicative efficacy of multimodal presentations is more related to their match with comprehension processes than with the interactivity and dynamism of the presentation media. The results support a model-based approach to the design of multimodal expository presentations of dynamic information. The comprehension model and corresponding design guidance should aid designers in building interactive graphical presentations that are more effective than intuitive designs in communicating dynamic content.
Because animations can depict situational dynamics explicitly, they have the potential to help learners build coherent, high-quality mental models of complex change processes. Further, interactive animations provide opportunities for learners to deal with available information selectively and so avoid excessive processing demands. However, to be instructionally effective, the selected subsets of information must have high domain and task relevance. Approaches used by domain novices to interrogate an interactive animation of a complex dynamic system as they prepared for a subsequent prediction task were explored. Subjects searched the animation in order to learn generalizations upon which to base their predictions. Spatial and temporal strategies employed tended to be narrowly focused upon individual graphic features or localized groups while broader relational aspects required for coherence were neglected. The findings suggest that in order to build satisfactory mental representations from interactive animations, learners may require specific guidance regarding search strategies and targets.
Graphics have been used since ancient times to portray things that are inherently spatiovisual, like maps and building plans. More recently, graphics have been used to portray things that are metaphorically spatiovisual, like graphs and organizational charts. The assumption is that graphics can facilitate comprehension, learning, memory, communication and inference. Assumptions aside, research on static graphics has shown that only carefully designed and appropriate graphics prove to be beneficial for conveying complex systems. Effective graphics conform to the Congruence Principle according to which the content and format of the graphic should correspond to the content and format of the concepts to be conveyed. From this, it follows that animated graphics should be effective in portraying change over time. Yet the research on the efficacy of animated over static graphics is not encouraging. In cases where animated graphics seem superior to static ones, scrutiny reveals lack of equivalence between animated and static graphics in content or procedures; the animated graphics convey more information or involve interactivity. Animations of events may be ineffective because animations violate the second principle of good graphics, the Apprehension Principle, according to which graphics should be accurately perceived and appropriately conceived. Animations are often too complex or too fast to be accurately perceived. Moreover, many continuous events are conceived of as sequences of discrete steps. Judicious use of interactivity may overcome both these disadvantages. Animations may be more effective than comparable static graphics in situations other than conveying complex systems, for example, for real time reorientations in time and space.
In contrast to their traditional, non-interactive counterparts, interactive dynamic visualisations allow users to adapt their form and content to their individual cognitive skills and needs. Provided that the interactive features allow for intuitive use without increasing cognitive load, interactive videos should therefore lead to more efficient forms of learning. This notion was tested in an experimental study, where participants learned to tie four nautical knots of different complexity by watching either non-interactive or interactive videos. The results show that in the interactive condition, participants used the interactive features like stopping, replaying, reversing or changing speed to adapt the pace of the video demonstration. This led to an uneven distribution of their attention and cognitive resources across the videos, which was more pronounced for the difficult knots. Consequently users of non-interactive video presentations, needed substantially more time than users of the interactive videos to acquire the necessary skills for tying the knots.
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Marketing scales handbook: A compilation of multi-item measures
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