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Training Methods and Horse Welfare
Abstract
Many aspects of horse care and handling are based upon convenience and traditional practices. Many of these methods of management
and practice do not take into account the natural behaviour of horses. This is despite the belief that although domestic horses
are probably more docile, stronger, faster growing and faster moving than their ancestors, they are unlikely to have lost
any natural behaviours. The performance or sport horse is expected to perform a wide variety of movements and tasks, some
of which are unnatural or exaggerated and most of which must be learned. The term ‘training’ is commonly used to describe
the processes whereby the human handler introduces the horse to new situations and associations. Performance horses are often
required to tolerate stimuli that are innately aversive or threatening, such as having a person on their backs. They are also
trained to respond to a stimulus with often unnatural or over-emphasised behaviour, such as some of the dressage movements.
Effective and humane training requires an understanding of the processes underlying behaviour. These include knowledge of
behaviour under natural conditions, learning processes, the influence of early experience and motivational forces. Horses
differ from the other main companion animal species, namely cats and dogs, in that they are a prey species. They most commonly
flee from dangerous and painful situations. Horses readily learn to avoid potentially threatening situations and if their
attempts to avoid associated stimuli are prevented, they will often exhibit problem behaviours. In this chapter the history
of horse training, the application of learning theory and a knowledge of equine behaviour to training, and innovative training
methods are all considered.
... Modern horse training practices are largely based on traditional practices that were primarily utilitarian, often harsh, and had little regard for horse welfare (Waran et al., 2002). Horse training mostly involves applying an unpleasant stimulus to the horse until the horse exhibits the desired response, such as applying pressure to the mouth via the bit by pulling on the reins to signal the horse to stop, and/or the application of an unpleasant stimulus to deter unwanted behavior, such as whipping a horse that refuses a jump (Waran et al., 2002). ...
... Modern horse training practices are largely based on traditional practices that were primarily utilitarian, often harsh, and had little regard for horse welfare (Waran et al., 2002). Horse training mostly involves applying an unpleasant stimulus to the horse until the horse exhibits the desired response, such as applying pressure to the mouth via the bit by pulling on the reins to signal the horse to stop, and/or the application of an unpleasant stimulus to deter unwanted behavior, such as whipping a horse that refuses a jump (Waran et al., 2002). While these stimuli correspond to the operant conditioning principles of negative reinforcement and punishment, respectively, the literature suggests that most equestrians, including qualified equestrian coaches, have a limited understanding of the theory underpinning these principles (Brown & Connor, 2017;Warren-Smith & McGreevy, 2008). ...
... As such, operant conditioning can be leveraged to encourage desirable natural behaviors, as well as teach novel behaviors through reinforcement, and extinguish unwanted behaviors through punishment (Waran et al., 2002). ...
Training and riding directly effects horse welfare, highlighting the potential for training methods to improve both horse welfare and human safety. Learning theory is considered the most appropriate scientific foundation for horse training methods, yet equestrians’ knowledge of learning theory is reportedly low. The relationship between equestrians’ knowledge of learning theory terminology (LT) and horse welfare and rider safety was investigated to determine if rider knowledge of LT contributes to improved horse welfare and human safety. A sample of 394 Australian recreational and sport horse riders completed an online survey. Ridden horse welfare was assessed using validated husbandry and behavioral indicators. Rider safety was assessed by asking participants about ridden accidents and injuries. Rider knowledge of LT was assessed by asking participants to correctly identify scenarios that depicted three key operant conditioning terms: negative and positive reinforcement, and punishment. Only 24.6% of the sample correctly identified all three terms (the criteria for having a basic knowledge of LT), suggesting knowledge of LT has increased among equestrians but remains low. However, rider knowledge of LT was not significantly related to improved horse welfare or rider safety. It is uncertain why knowledge of LT remains so low among equestrians and why rider knowledge of LT did not translate to welfare and safety benefits as predicted. In facilitating the development of workable solutions to address the dual issues of poor horse welfare and human safety, we explore several possibilities, including a proposed new horse training framework that may enable learning theory to be leveraged more fully and deliver expected benefits.
... The anthropomorphization of horses has led to a wide variety of methodologies to be used in handling this animal. Traditions, personal beliefs and experiences distinguish equestrians [1] and their techniques; these frequently exhibit apparent success, but do not consider how a horse learns [2]. A technique's success depends on the animals' life experiences, temperament and learning ability [2]. ...
... Traditions, personal beliefs and experiences distinguish equestrians [1] and their techniques; these frequently exhibit apparent success, but do not consider how a horse learns [2]. A technique's success depends on the animals' life experiences, temperament and learning ability [2]. Misunderstanding of these concepts ...
... The lack of a relationship between personality type and age raises the question of whether this is due to habituation's effect on the exercise process. Habituation is a form of learning in horses where the animal stops responding to frequent stimuli [2]. The workouts and all they entail are newer to young horses than stall and groundwork interaction with humans. ...
Equitation is a cause of physiological stress in the equine athlete, and personality is a factor generally associated with the different responses of equines to stressors. This study explored ocular temperature, measured via infrared thermography, associated with personality and stress in horses submitted to dressage exercising in riding lessons, ridden training and lunging. Infrared thermograms of 16 horses were taken before and after sessions using an FLIR F4 camera (FLIR Systems AB, Sweden) to determine maximum eye surface IRT temperature (IRTmax), and total training time was registered (T). A novel-stimulus test was conducted for personality assessment, and the ridden behavior was scored (mRBS). The results showed that T was statistically different (p ˂ 0.001) between modalities, but no differences were found in any IRTmax tests. Statistical correlations were found between mRBS and personality groups, sex and age (all p < 0.001). Additionally—and with caution, given the sample—no association was found between mRBS and post-workout IRT readings and modality, or between pre-workout IRT readings and personality groups. We conclude that trained horses show little stress when working in a familiar environment and when the workout plan is submaximal. The personality test was adequate and positively correlated with ridden behavior.
... The deficiencies in the Thoroughbred racing industry are sometimes due to a lack of facilities, especially as old racecourses are increasingly surrounded by suburbia and lack adequate training and housing facilities for the TBR. Racetrack design (track shape, size and surface); appropriate housing (allowing adequate space and physical and visual contact for the TBRs); training methods; performance-related clinical problems; and transportation, including an adequate and safe area for horse transports on racecourses [1,2], are all welfare issues which need to be addressed. ...
... Waran et al. [68] advocate the early handling and education of the foal to adulthood in order to prevent the development of problem behaviours, provoked by fearful situations [28,70,71]. Early education and handling provide the basis for subsequent "foundation training" [1,28,72]. ...
We validated a Thoroughbred racehorse welfare index, developed initially from expert opinion, by relating it to horse behaviour recorded in a range of training stables and surveying trainers to investigate the environment and management systems for Thoroughbred racehorses. Relationships between the index scores and horse behaviour were observed. Then, an Australia-wide survey of racing industry stakeholders was conducted to identify which parameters are important for welfare in a training stable. Trainers performed well on horsemanship and health/disease aspects. Provisions for ventilation, transportation and nutrition were also scored at high levels. However, provisions for weaning, wastage, assisting horses in coping with heat stress, stabling and the education of racehorses were not as well covered, indicating a need for improvement in these welfare issues. We concluded that our Thoroughbred Racehorse welfare index is able to discriminate between trainers offering differing levels of welfare for the major issues in racehorse training stables.
... Requiring a horse to perform the behaviours the human desires with limited choice, and often at the threat of an aversive stimulus being applied or intensified if compliance is not achieved, is not specific to undertaking HVPs; this is the cultural norm within the horse handling and training sector [19,22,23,54,65,66]. ...
... Although punishment is quite common in the horse sector, it is not recommended; punishment not only presents a welfare concern, but frequently leads to horses performing dangerous behaviours in an attempt to escape or defend themselves against the aversive stimulus [23,53,54,73]. ...
Husbandry and veterinary procedures have the potential to generate fear and stress in animals. In horses, the associated responses can pose a significant safety risk to the human personnel involved in the procedure, as well as to the animal itself. Traditionally, physical restraint, punishment, and/or threat of an aversive, have been the most common strategies used to achieve compliance from the horse. However, from a welfare perspective, this is less than ideal. This approach also has the potential for creating a more dangerous response from the horse in future similar situations. When caring for companion animals, and captive animals within zoological facilities, there has been a steady transition away from this approach, and toward strategies aimed at reducing fear and stress during veterinary visits and when undertaking routine husbandry procedures. This review discusses the current approaches to horse care and training, the strategies being used in other animal sectors, and potential strategies for improving human safety, as well as the horse’s experience, during husbandry and veterinary procedures.
... pressure and release) and positive reinforcement techniques (e.g. clicker training); see for example Foley (2007), Grandin and Johnson (2009), Karrasch et al. (2000), Kurland (2007), Waran et al. (2002) and Warren-Smith and McGreevy, (2007). This has given rise to intense discussion about the relative merits of goalfocussed versus process-focussed approaches 6 . ...
The welfare of working equines is born of the relationship co-created with humans and the relational practices humans bring to this work. Our understanding of this relationship remains elusive, however, for it involves attending to that which arises both within and between the equine and the human. Attempts to study such relationships have, arguably, been confounded by the liminalities of relational practices, power literacy and the limitations of language, propositional knowing and the dualistic thinking that characterises many scientific disciplines. This paper presents the theoretical framework that underpins an experiential awareness-based Action Research approach to transforming human-equine relations within the international mountain tourism industry. This approach privileges curiosity, compassion and primary or contemplative knowing and the development of self-awareness. Drawing on the work of Martin Buber on genuine dialogue and of Otto Scharmer on generative dialogue, this paper provides insights into what can arise in the between when attitudinal shifts are encouraged and facilitated that allow humans and equines to meet genuinely and be fully present to each other. This ultimately involves surrendering control, letting go, the dissolution of subject-object awareness and access to non-dualistic ways of knowing. An awareness of the importance of such shifts and of the source from which we operate is of fundamental importance to the realisation of the co-creative project that humans and equines can engage in. Failure to appreciate this distinction, arguably, leads and gives rise to relationships, whether human-to-human or human-to-horse, characterised by domination rather than partnering, absencing rather than presencing, by monologue rather than dialogue. The ethical and practical implications of this awareness are profound, with implications felt at the level of the individual, for whom the I deepens the more you pay attention, and at the level of the relationship, but also at the level of communities, whether these be constituted locally, nationally, internationally or indeed globally.
... As with many facets of equestrianism, such as farriery or saddlery, much current knowledge and practice on lorinery has its roots in traditional techniques, and is often predicated upon replicating the actions of peers, forefathers and word-of-mouth, as opposed to empirical science. Whilst peer-reviewed science and evidence-based practice is growing in equine science and equestrian topics, such as farriery (e.g., [71][72][73]) and equine training methodology (e.g., [74][75][76][77]), a contemporary evidence base of peer-reviewed science for lorinery, and harnessing more broadly, remains relatively scarce. It is encouraging to see greater focus in recent years on the welfare implications of equid harnessing, aids and related aspects, such as the impact of nose-bands on the welfare of performance horses [78,79] or of whips in racing [80][81][82]. ...
Bits used for cart horses in Senegal are typically made of recovered construction iron and often have defects related to design, shape, fit and metal quality. Consequently, there is widespread presence of bit-related oral injury amongst these equids. It was hypothesised that improving bit design would ameliorate bit-related welfare issues for working cart horses. This study aimed to develop locally made alternative bit prototypes and test their efficacy as less harmful to working horses, and their acceptability to their drivers. Eight animal-based welfare indicators (four physical and four behavioural) were designed to measure positive or negative effects of the new bits. Following a testing phase to appraise and mitigate potential animal welfare risk associated with the alternative bit designs, a total of 540 driver/horse combinations were opportunistically selected across five municipalities in Senegal. Welfare indicators were observed when new bits were introduced and again after 21 weeks of daily use. The results indicated statistically significant improvements in all welfare indicators measured (i.e., lesions on lip commissures, tongue, buccal mucosa and bars; and open mouth, tongue loll, head toss/shake, and head tilt/turn behaviours). None of the drivers reported any difficulty with horse control, nor chose to revert back to their original bits. Whilst acknowledging the limitation of inability to control all potential confounding variables, these preliminary findings suggest the bit itself as an important contributor to oral injury, and the possibility to improve this through alternative bit design that is low-cost, locally produced and acceptable to drivers.
... However, time and financial pressures often cause young horses to be rushed through their training ( Ödberg and Bouissou, 1999 ;Heuschmann, 2018 ). Many training methods used today are derived from traditional methods used when the horse was first domesticated and fail to incorporate consideration of equine welfare or learning theory ( Waran et al., 2007 ). Pain may be an underlying factor that goes undetected. ...
In the equestrian discipline of dressage, the behavior encouraged through judging should be based on correct and welfare-centered training techniques. Certain behaviors in the ridden horse result from unclear or conflicting cues from the rider and can be referred to as conflict behaviors. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of these behaviors during Preliminary, Novice and Elementary level British Dressage (BD) tests, and to examine their relationship with performance evaluation by the judge. Data were collected from 75 dressage tests in November and December 2019. Each test was filmed, and the judges’ scores collected. Between five and seven movements (i.e., small numbered sections into which dressage tests are divided) within each test were analyzed and the frequency of conflict behaviors displayed used to derive a behavior score for each movement. These behaviors were recorded in six subsections: head, ears, mouth, tail, auditory and whole body. Conflict behaviors were seen in 97.6% of the movements analyzed, with horses displaying two or more such behaviors in 83% of movements. There was no significant association found between judge score and overall behavior score but there was a negative correlation between whole body scores and judge score (Spearman's rank correlation: p<0.001). Horses with their nasal plane in front of the vertical were awarded lower judge scores than those with their nasal plane either vertical (Wilcoxon rank sum test: p<0.01), or less than 30° behind the vertical (p<0.001). Judge scores were significantly higher for movements in which horses had their ears forward compared to those in which ears were held back (Wilcoxon rank sum test: p<0.05) or to the side (p<0.05). No association was found between judge score and mouth or tail behavior. Significantly higher mouth behavior scores were seen within downwards transitions (e.g. canter to trot) compared to movements which involved changing the rein (Wilcoxon rank sum test: p<0.05) or circling to the right (p<0.05). Conflict behaviors occurred in almost all the dressage movements analyzed, but the only association with performance score was when the behavior involved the horse's whole body and/or the head and neck. Behavioral signs of conflict are indicative of compromised welfare in ridden horses and the results of this study suggest that a greater focus on such behavior should be included in dressage judge training and performance evaluation.
Behaviour-related issues are common in horses. Many 'undesirable behaviours' pose important safety concerns for the human handlers / riders / carers, as well as welfare concerns for the horse. Undesirable behaviours can also devalue a horse, or result in the horse being re-homed, relinquished, or euthanased. Undesirable behaviours occur for a range of reasons. These include physiological causes, poor management, and the use of inappropriate or poorly applied handling and training techniques. The potential contribution of each of these aspects must be considered when attempting to reduce or eliminate undesirable behaviours. Effectively modifying the existing behaviour includes investigation and treatment of potential physiological causes, assessing and adjusting existing handling, husbandry and management, and undertaking behaviour modifying training. Unlike in the treatment of dogs and cats, the use of psychotropic agents is uncommon in equine behaviour medicine but the benefits of using these agents in appropriate cases is gaining recognition. This review discusses potential causes for the development and maintenance of undesirable behaviours in horses and highlights the various considerations involved in determining the most appropriate course for reducing or eliminating these behaviours. There is also a brief discussion about the potential role of psychotropic agents as an additional component of an overall behaviour modification plan to reduce or eliminate undesirable behaviours in horses.
In the framework of its Farm to Fork Strategy, the Commission is undertaking a comprehensive
evaluation of animal welfare legislation. This opinion deals with the protection of horses and donkeys
during transport. While the opinion focuses primarily on road transport of horses, there are specific
sections dealing with the transport of horses on roll-on–roll-off ferries, horses transported by air and
the transport of donkeys. In addition, the opinion covers welfare concerns in relation to a specific
scenario identified by the European Commission related to the transport of horses on long journeys to
slaughterhouses. Current practices related to transport of horses during the different stages
(preparation, loading and unloading, transit and the journey breaks) are described. Overall, 13 welfare
consequences were identified as being highly relevant for the welfare of horses during transport based
on severity, duration and frequency of occurrence: gastro-enteric disorders, handling stress, heat
stress, injuries, isolation stress, motion stress, prolonged hunger, prolonged thirst, respiratory
disorders, resting problems, restriction of movement, sensory overstimulation and separation stress.
These welfare consequences and their animal-based measures are described. A variety of hazards
were identified related to factors such as inexperienced/untrained handlers, lack of horse training,
structural deficiencies of vehicles/facilities, poor driving skills/conditions, horse separation/regrouping,
unfavourable microclimatic and environmental conditions and poor husbandry practices. The opinion
contains general and specific conclusions in relation to the different stages of transport.
Recommendations to prevent hazards and correct or mitigate welfare consequences have been
developed. Recommendations were also developed to define quantitative thresholds for microclimatic
conditions within the means of transport and for space allowance. The development of welfare
consequences over time was assessed in relation to maximum journey time.
See 5th edition 2015, Preface attached.
1. This experiment represents an attempt to distinguish effects of social facilitation which may be caused by mutual mimicry of goal-directed behavior, and those which may be caused by competition. 2. Unfamiliarity should interfere with mutual mimicry but should intensify competition. 3. Sixteen dogs of five different breeds were run in familiar and unfamiliar pairs as well as alone. 4. Dogs run repeatedly with the same unfamiliar animal showed no important differences in either mutual mimicry or social facilitation as compared with runs with familiar animals. 5. Dogs run with a. different animal on each day showed lessened mutual mimicry and social interference amounting to 73%. 6. It is concluded that the results are consistent with the hypothesis that one factor which may produce social facilitation is mutual mimicry of goal-directed behavior, and that this factor may act independently of competition. 7. As a further hypothesis, it is proposed that this factor may exist in any species which shows allelomimetic behavior, and that it may modify the effects of competition in such species. 8. Certain comparisons with human situations are discussed.