Urban Waste Pollution in the Korle Lagoon, Accra, Ghana

Abstract

The Korle Lagoon in Accra, Ghana, has become one of the most polluted water bodies on earth. It is the principal outlet through which all major drainage channels in the city empty their wastes into the sea. Large amounts of untreated industrial waste emptied into surface drains has led to severe pollution in the lagoon and disrupted its natural ecology. The increased levels of industrial activity and consumption by the urban population lead to the generation of copious quantities of waste. Managing the volume of wastes poses a major challenge for the city authorities, particularly, ensuring that all the waste generated is collected for disposal. In Accra, the Waste Management Department is currently capable of collecting only 60 percent of the waste generated daily. The rest is dumped in open spaces, in surface drains, and into water bodies which end up in the Korle Lagoon. High eutrophication levels have developed in the shallow water body. The net effect is that, at the slightest downpour, the lagoon overflows its banks causing regular flooding in parts of the city.
The Government of Ghana, having realized the adverse impacts of pollution in the lagoon on the physical and economic environment of Accra, with the support of donor agencies, is implementing measures to restore the lagoon to its natural ecology. Attempts are also being made to get the communities in the catchment area to become involved in managing their environment through environmental education and awareness programes.

Full text

The Environmentalist, 22, 301–309, 2002
©2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Manufactured in The Netherlands.
Urban waste pollution in the Korle Lagoon, Accra, Ghana
KWASI OWUSU BOADI
∗
and MARKKU KUITUNEN
Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Mathematics and Science,
University of Jyvaskyla, Finland
Summary. The Korle Lagoon in Accra, Ghana, has become one of the most polluted water bodies
on earth. It is the principal outlet through which all major drainage channels in the city empty their
wastes into the sea. Large amounts of untreated industrial waste emptied into surface drains has led
to severe pollution in the lagoon and disrupted its natural ecology. The increased levels of industrial
activity and consumption by the urban population lead to the generation of copious quantities of waste.
Managing the volume of wastes poses a major challenge for the city authorities, particularly, ensuring
that all the waste generated is collected for disposal. In Accra, the Waste Management Department is
currently capable of collecting only 60 percent of the waste generated daily. The rest is dumped in open
spaces, in surface drains, and into water bodies which end up in the Korle Lagoon. High eutrophication
levels have developed in the shallow water body. The net effect is that, at the slightest downpour, the
lagoon overflows its banks causing regular flooding in parts of the city.
The Government of Ghana, having realized the adverse impacts of pollution in the lagoon on the phys-
ical and economic environment of Accra, with the support of donor agencies, is implementing measures
to restore the lagoon to its natural ecology. Attempts are also being made to get the communities in the
catchment area to become involved in managing their environment through environmental education and
awareness programes.
Keywords: freshwater pollution, Korle Lagoon, Ghana
Introduction
The Korle Lagoon in Ghana, once relished for its
attractive scenery, and its abundant stock of fish,
is virtually dead, and thus, has lost its significance
for both commercial exploitation (Biney, 1982)
and recreation. Its auxiliary function as a central
drainage system emptying its contents into the sea,
has resulted in it becoming shallow over time due
to excess siltation and waste finding their way into
the water body with runoff (Biney, 1982). The
lagoon is the principal outlet to the sea, and all
major drainage channels of the city of Accra are
connected to it to empty their contents ultimately
into the sea (Biney, 1982; Mensah, 1976) (Fig. 1).
∗
Kwasi Boadi is a research worker in the Department of
Biological and Environmental Sciences (e-mail: kwaboad@
hotmail.com), where Markku Kuitunen is a Professor.
Water hyacinths and other vegetation have pro-
liferated rapidly, depriving the lagoon water of
oxygen. This has resulted in a reduction in the
population of aquatic vertebrates, and the com-
plete disappearance of some species in the lagoon.
As the lagoon is heavily silted, the outlet is often
blocked, and the water fails to flow into the sea
fast enough to avoid becoming stagnant (Fig. 2).
Apart from the dreadful stench, the lagoon is a
serious health hazard for the adjacent areas, espe-
cially during periods of flooding.
Before the onset of this severe pollution, and
in the early 1950s, the lagoon supported a thriv-
ing fishery of both fin and shellfish, which served
as a source of employment and income for some
people in the nearby shantytown, which inciden-
tally derives its name from the lagoon. However,
due to the grossly polluted state of the waters,

302 Boadi and Kuitunen
Figure 1. A drainage channel at Abose-Okai, connecting into
the Korle Lagoon, Accra, Ghana.
the lagoon has lost its fishery (Biney and Amuzu,
1995), and it is hard to believe that this black, nau-
seating muddy water could ever have supported
any such life. The Korle Lagoon is the major
basin into which the greater proportion of the
flood waters of Accra flow before entering the sea
(Biney and Amuzu, 1995). The lagoon receives
water from a total catchment area of 400 km
2
.
It receives discharges from three main sources—
the Odaw River and two major drains on its east-
ern and western sections (Fig. 3). These major
drains are mostly uncovered and usually collect
silt and debris which are transported into the
lagoon (Mensah, 1976). Waste discharges, includ-
ing industrial effluent, are the major sources of
pollution. The wastes originate from residential,
commercial and recreational areas, offices and
institutions, such as hospitals and schools. They
Figure 2. The Korle Lagoon’s outlet is almost chocked with
human waste debris.
include food waste as well as paper, batteries,
glass, plastics, textiles, excreta aerosol cans, and
much more (Biney, 1982; Mensah, 1976).
The pollution problem
The Korle Lagoon has become one of the most
polluted water bodies on earth, serving as a
cesspool for most of Accra’s industrial and munic-
ipal wastes (Fig. 4). Its stench travels far to engulf
the adjoining shantytowns, which are home to
thousands of people, who for lack of sanitation
facilities have turned the shores of the lagoon into
a giant latrine (Anderson, 1996). Due to the lack
of sanitation facilities in various communities in
the immediate area, people continue to use the
isolated bushes along the lagoon for open range
defecation. Biney (1982) has identified sewage and
garbage as the main source of pollution. These
are composed of 70–80 percent organic matter.
It has been estimated that a biochemical oxy-
gen demand (BOD) load of 10500 kg day
−1
is
generated within the slums and shantytowns of
the Odaw-Korle Lagoon complex, with apprecia-
ble quantities of this reaching the lagoon due to
the general inadequacy of waste disposal facilities
(Biney and Amuzu, 1995). Mean daily BOD loads
attributed to land runoff and landfill leachate into
the lagoon has been also estimated at 16100 and
2000, respectively (Ministry of Works and Hous-
ing, 2001). The water quality changes towards the
seaward end, where tides help in making this part
of the lagoon less polluted (Amuzu, 1976) (Fig. 5).
The water in the upper part of the lagoon
is muddy, and the stench emanating from it is
unbearable. An abundance of saw mill dust from
the timber market industrial area at Korle Dudor
is disposed into this part of the lagoon. Also,
the Waste Department’s dump which is covered
with industrial sawdust, is gradually encroaching
into the water body. Sediments in this part of
the lagoon trap effluents from upstream. These
include industrial, domestic, and hospital wastes
which have further deteriorated the water qual-
ity upstream. According to Laing (1994; 141), a
survey of manufacturing industries in the Greater
Accra Region showed that the metal industry
creates 16 percent of the total industrial waste,
garment and textiles—30 percent, chemicals and

Urban waste pollution 303
Figure 3. Map of the Korle Lagoon, Accra, and its environs (Source: Survey Department of Ghana, Accra).
Figure 4. The worst polluted upper part of the Korle Lagoon,
Accra, Ghana.
Figure 5. The less polluted seaward end of the Korle Lagoon,
Accra, Ghana.

304 Boadi and Kuitunen
cosmetics—20 percent, electricals and electronics
at 1 percent and mineral products at 0.7 per-
cent. Most of the untreated industrial waste waters
are discharged into surface drains which flow into
the Odaw River and Korle Lagoon. Since the
upstream part of the lagoon is the usual point
of discharge, and the receptor of wastes, it is the
most affected (Fig. 4).
The excess loads of nutrients in the lagoon have
caused serious eutrophication, and the growth of
blue-green algae (Biney, 1982). The resultant fall
in oxygen levels within the lagoon has led to the
extinction of most aquatic life forms and an eco-
logical imbalance within the lagoon and along its
shores. According to Biney and Amuzu (1995),
studies on migratory birds indicated that three
species occurred in the environs of the lagoon,
with the mangroves along the shores serving as
roosting places for wild ducks, egrets, and herons.
However, some birds which used to feed on fish
in the lagoon, like hawks, are gradually becoming
extinct due to the break in the food chain. The
mangroves along the lagoon have been lost due to
mangrove clearing and an increase in the salinity
of the water and soil.
Causes of pollution
The increasing pollution of Korle Lagoon is a
result of the rapid urbanization of Accra. This has
been unaccompanied by a significant increase in
sanitation facilities. The process has been assisted
by rapid industrialization without regard for envi-
ronmental safety. The population of Accra has
grown from a mere 450000 in 1960 to 1.3 million
in the 1984 census. The estimated population for
the metropolis was 1.6 million in 1990 (Leitman,
1993), and it currently stands at 1.8 million. Rapid
population growth, enhanced by the facilities and
job opportunities, continues to draw people into
Accra. This has resulted in considerable stress on
the already inadequate urban facilities including
the housing and basic sanitation amenities. This
situation has led to the development of slums and
shantytowns, and the consequent degradation of
the urban environment.
Residents of Accra, in total generate an esti-
mated 1200 t of waste per day (Benneh, 1994;
162), with an estimated annual increase of 6
Figure 6. An unmanaged dump along a drainage channel
flowing into the Korle Lagoon, Accra, Ghana.
percent (Clay, 1994). With little equipment to
manage the refuse, garbage is collected only in
high-income areas. In Accra in 1992, only 11 per-
cent out of a possible 1.4 million residents, had
access to door-to-door collection of waste (Song-
sore, 1992). The remaining 89 percent disposed of
their garbage in public containers, in open spaces,
streams, canals, and drainage systems (Fig. 6).
Exacerbated by rapid urbanization, poverty
remains the primary cause of pollution in the
Korle Lagoon. The catchment area is surrounded
by shantytowns, including Korle Gonno, Korle
Dudor, Adadinkpo and James Town, among many
others (Fig. 3). The population in these shanty-
towns is approximately 200000 (Doe, 2000). These
communities are poor (Table 1) and lack basic
sanitation facilities, such as toilets and refuse col-
lection points. Prominent among these slums is
Sodom and Gomorra, a growing squatter set-
tlement. The site exhibits poor housing condi-
tions and consists mainly of wooden shacks. There
are no sanitation facilities, and people defecate
directly into the lagoon with all kinds of waste
Table 1. Population density according to social class in the
Korle Lagoon catchment area, Accra, Ghana
Class Population/hectare (density)
High class 50
Medium class 50–150
Low class 150–350
Poor 350
Source: Aryeetey and Anipa, 1989.

Urban waste pollution 305
Figure 7. A drainage channel connecting into the Korle
Lagoon, filled with garbage at Sodom and Gomorra, Accra.
being disposed of into the water body (Fig. 7).
The site has few drains and experiences flooding
throughout the year (Doe, 2000).
A major environmental problem occurred in
the early 1990s when the Metropolitan Authority,
for lack of landfills, decided to turn the shores of
the lagoon into a refuse dump. This decision had
disastrous effects. Within a matter of days, tonnes
of wastes were dumped and a huge mountain of
garbage was formed. The stench emanating from
this site and its threat to public health, resulted in
a public outcry from residents in the neighbour-
hood of the catchment area. This halted further
dumping, but the harm had already been done.
This action on the part of the authority has fur-
ther encouraged most residents, lacking access to
waste collection, to dump their waste along the
lagoon. Runoff water is gradually eroding this
mountain of rubbish into the lagoon, and if no
serious restoration measures are taken, the lagoon
will soon disappear and become marshy. Another
major source of pollution is the continuous exis-
tence of the Waste Department’s raw human waste
disposal site at the beach near Korle Gonno, pop-
ularly called ‘Lavender Hill’. This site pollutes
both the beach and lagoon, and has almost choked
the lagoon outlet reducing the capability of the
sea to flush effluent from the lagoon through tides
(Fig. 2).
About 80 percent of the pollution in the lagoon
comes from waste water (Fig. 8). Water use
is virtually unregulated so there is little incen-
tive to conserve this resource (Laing, 1994). The
expansion of the municipal sewerage system has
Figure 8. A wastewater channel flowing into the Korle
Lagoon, Accra, Ghana.
failed to keep pace with population growth. Storm
drains are frequently misused for wastewater dis-
posal. The sanitation system in the metropolis con-
sists of a network of open ditches which con-
vey wastewater into the lagoon. In poor income
areas like those along the shores of the lagoon,
many households use pit, pan or bucket latrines
which are emptied into the lagoon (Doe, 2000).
Accra’s wastewater problems have become very
complex and serious due to the lack of physi-
cal planning policy guidelines in the developmen-
tal process. More than 95 percent of wastewa-
ter, including raw sewage in the city, is discharged
into open gutters and drains which flow into the
Korle Lagoon, making it grossly polluted. None
of the approximately 20, small-scale sewerage sys-
tems and sewage treatment plants in the city are
operated or maintained in accordance with engi-
neering designs (Akuffo, 2001). In Accra, only 16
percent of households use flush toilets; such mod-
ern facilities are only found in high-income areas
(Benneh, et al. 1993).
Another source of water pollution is from the
Korle Bu Teaching Hospital and Polyclinic, the
biggest of its kind in Ghana. The hospital is a
self-contained, with a town medical school and
other health care related institutions, including a
nursing training college and a school of hygiene.
Rapid urbanization has put too much pressure on
existing hospital facilities and increased the waste
problems. In recent years it has not been uncom-
mon to see patients sleeping on floors or benches.
Since the hospital does not have any waste treat-
ment systems, its central drainage system has

306 Boadi and Kuitunen
Figure 9. A factory situated on the eastern bank of the upper
Korle Lagoon, Accra.
been constructed to empty its contents (contain-
ing dirt, detergents and other cleaners) into the
lagoon. Wastewater from the hospital’s mortuary
for instance, flows directly into the lagoon. While
such pollution is not so much of a health haz-
ard as human waste, it still presents some dan-
gers. Detergents, for instance contain phosphorus,
which further promotes algal growth in the lagoon.
Industrial activity constitutes a major factor
of pollution in the lagoon (Fig. 9). About 32
percent of all manufacturing activities in Ghana
are located in Accra. Many of these industries
are located within the immediate surroundings of
the Odaw River and the Korle Lagoon (Figs. 9
and 10).
Effluents from factories containing various
kinds of chemicals and compounds from asbestos
sludge to harmful dyes are emptied into sur-
face drains flowing into these two water bodies,
THE MAIN FORMS OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE KORLE LAGOON
CATCHMENT AREA (%)
5
6
6
8
10
65
0 10203040506070
Commercial
Civic and Cultural
Open Space
Industrial
Educational
Residential
Figure 10. The main forms of development in the Korle
Lagoon catchment area, Accra (Source: Environmental Man-
agement Associates, 1989.)
polluting the whole stretch of the Odaw-Korle
Lagoon complex. Garages discharge about 50 gal-
lons (225 liters) of spent fuel oil per day into
the network of drains and other streams which
ultimately end up in the Korle Lagoon (Biney
and Amuzu, 1995). Food processing industries,
including breweries, have their commonest efflu-
ents from fruits, vegetables, juice, pulp, mineral
acids, sugar, dirty washings, slops containing yeast,
and residues from alcoholic fermentation all of
which are discharged into surface drains. In 1976,
Accra Brewery’s waste load alone was 25 million
litres per month and most of this ended up in
the Korle Lagoon (Ayibotele, 1984). Even though,
some of the waste is safely broken down by marine
organisms, the truth is that the lagoon does not
have an infinite capacity to absorb waste. As most
organic waste is attacked by microbes and decays
in the lagoon, it uses oxygen. The result is that the
water and the sludge in the lagoon have turned
black and emanate a nauseating stench. Effluents
from most of the agrobased industries are not sub-
jected to any form of treatment before discharge
and they have further disrupted the lagoon’s ecol-
ogy (Biney and Amuzu, 1995).
The process of urbanization and the increasing
influences of western culture have influenced the
urban population, especially the youth. These are
seen to be responsible for the breakdown of tradi-
tional customs. In the past, there was a strong spir-
itual importance attached to the Korle Lagoon.
The water itself was seen as sacred, and tradi-
tional beliefs dictated a code of conduct which
was strictly observed. For instance, fishing in the
lagoon was traditionally forbidden at certain times
of the year. During these times rites were per-
formed by the traditional chief priest to honor
the lagoon for providing a livelihood for the peo-
ple. These times coincided with the fish spawning
seasons. With urbanization, western beliefs have
taken hold. The worship of nature is discouraged
and people are encouraged to worship human cen-
tered gods. The lagoon, which was once sacred,
has thus lost its spiritual importance and eventu-
ally turned into a cesspool for all kinds of waste.
In addition to the above issues, the environ-
mental problems in the Korle Lagoon are also
related to a lack of policy planning and to the non-
enforcement of existing legislation on discharges
of domestic and industrial wastes. There are many

Urban waste pollution 307
pieces of legislation relating directly, or indirectly,
to marine areas. These cover, among others, pol-
lution control, environmental assessment, tourism
and development and general conservation. The
lack of co-ordination has however led to sectoral
interests and non-implementation of decisions.
Effects of pollution
Waste dumped into the lagoon has assisted in the
shallowness of the water body. This has reduced
its capacity as a central drainage system, such that
with the slightest downpour it overflows its banks
resulting in flooding in parts of Accra. Low-lying
areas are flooded frequently by waters carrying
garbage and sewage. In 1991, 41 percent out of
a total population of 183978 affected by flooding
in Accra lived, within the immediate surroundings
of the Korle Lagoon (Biney and Amuzu, 1995).
The devastation which occurred to lives and prop-
erty in Accra, in 1995 due to floods, were partly
attributed to the accumulation of garbage which
blocked the city’s drainage channels, particularly
in the Korle Lagoon which serves as the major
outlet to the sea (Daily Graphic, 1995).
Pollution in the lagoon has a negative impact
on tourism in Accra. The Korle Lagoon is a wet-
land, with a potential for development into a
major tourist attraction. However, the severe pol-
lution has resulted in the reduction of aquatic
invertebrates and the complete disappearance of
some species from the lagoon’s environs. The
diversity of aquatic macro-invertebrates in the
lagoon is poor, with diversity indices ranging from
0 to 0.69. The highest diversity for aquatic macro-
invertebrates in the top 10 cm of the water occurs
in the southern sector of the lagoon near the out-
let to the sea where water quality is relatively less
polluted (Ministry of Works and Housing, 2001).
The break in the food chain has resulted in the
near extinction of both resident and non-resident
birds, which feed and roost in the mangroves and
mudflats along the lagoon. The pollution has also
resulted in a fowl stench, which in itself is a disin-
centive for tourism development.
Domestic and industrial pollutants have con-
tributed to increased biochemical oxygen demand
and concentration of toxic chemicals in the water
body. A study by the Environmental Protection
Agency (Ministry of Works and Housing, 2001)
on sediments from the lagoon revealed helminth
identified as Ascaris eggs, which require an ample
supply of oxygen for development. This parasite
is usually found where human waste disposal and
sanitation practices are poor, a common feature
of virtually all the communities in the catchment
of the lagoon. Nyarko and Evans (1998) have
also done studies on four marine molluscs, Thais
haemastoma, T. nodosa, Nerita senegalensis, and
Perna perna. These studies involved the assess-
ment of levels of heavy metal pollution from a
point source in the lagoon, and the determination
of the extent to which these metals are transported
by long-shore currents to neighboring areas. The
results indicated that the levels of some metals,
notably lead, copper, and cadmium exceeded the
World Health Organization’s recommended levels.
Since coastal communities harvest some molluscs
for food, they are clearly under threat. There is
also some evidence of biomagnification of zinc and
copper in the food chain with possible threats to
human health.
Pollution in the lagoon has turned it into breed-
ing grounds for disease causing agents, especially
mosquitoes, which pose both environmental and
human health risks. The prevalence of parasites,
cholera, diarrhea, and malaria among other dis-
eases, has been attributed to the unsanitary con-
ditions of the lagoon. According to Songsore and
McGranahan (1993), common infectious diseases
like malaria, intestinal worms, and upper respira-
tory tract infections were among the most com-
mon health problems reported at out-patient facil-
ities in Accra. In Accra, the major health problem
facing people is disease attributed to environmen-
tal sanitation, which is exacerbated by poverty and
ignorance (Ababio, 1992).
Restoration
In light of these problems and the severe pol-
lution of the lagoon, its dredging has now com-
menced and has received strong political support
in recent times. This project was started in March,
2000 with funding from the OPEC Fund for Inter-
national Development, the ARAB Bank for Eco-
nomic Development in Africa, the Kuwait Fund

308 Boadi and Kuitunen
for Arab Development, and the Ghanaian govern-
ment. The project, which aims to restore the ecol-
ogy of the lagoon, involves the dredging of silted
material, in addition to improving the Odaw chan-
nel for flood control measures. It also includes
sanitation control measures, the construction of
a sewage treatment plant with a total capacity of
1300 m
3
day
−1
. The project also includes the laying
of a 3100 m network of drains for the diversion of
dry weather flows, as well as the construction of a
new sea outfall pipe of 1.5 km in length.
The Korle Lagoon also features prominently
in the Accra Sustainable Project (ASP) signed
in 1994 between the government of Ghana and
the United Nations Center for Human Settle-
ment (Habitat). The ASP is aimed at support-
ing an environmentally sustainable development
and the growth of Accra by strengthening the
capacity of the Accra Metropolitan Authority
to plan, co-ordinate and manage the environ-
ment/development interactions. The objective is
to provide implementation capacity through initial
focus on the system-wide complex factors which
have led to the severe pollution of the Korle
Lagoon. Among these issues are the management
of both solid and liquid waste along the streams
and drains feeding the lagoon, the discharge of
industrial waste, and poor environmental sanita-
tion in the neighborhood of the lagoon. The ASP
has since prepared a Strategic Environmental Plan
for the Korle Lagoon and its surrounding areas.
The plan included the study of the squatter set-
tlement of Sodom and Gomorra, and the collec-
tion of data to facilitate decisions for the planning
and implementation of a resettlement package for
Sodom and Gomorra. The data collected was used
to organize a consultation in 1995 that brought
together all stakeholders to discuss options for
the resettlement of the affected people, and sup-
port working groups to formulate action plans
and strategies. The objective of the consultation
was capacity building as a measure of sustaining
attained achievements. This involved the active
participation of the people in making decisions
that affect their lives directly. The project is tar-
geted at first and second cycle school children in
the catchment area of the lagoon. Children are
considered to be one of the most important agen-
cies of societal change. The project, therefore,
proposes to create an awareness of sanitation and
environmental hygiene in children, as a long term
measure to sustain the Korle Lagoon restoration
objective (Doe, 2000).
Conclusions
For the Korle Lagoon restoration project to be
successful there must be the necessary political
will to invest enough resources to make the project
sustainable. Various attempts in the past to restore
the lagoon have been ad hoc due to lack of
political will to provide enough resources for the
project, and failure to involve the communities in
the catchment area in such projects. Although the
Accra Sustainable Project is mainly targeted at
community mobilization for environmental man-
agement as a means of finding a long-lasting solu-
tion to pollution in the lagoon, much still needs to
be done. Communities must be provided with both
economic and social incentives that will enable
them to contribute meaningfully to the project’s
success. Since pollution in the lagoon is related to
lack of basic sanitation facilities, providing com-
munities with such facilities will reduce the pollu-
tion and make the project sustainable.
The success of the project also depends heavily
on the capacity of the Environmental Protection
Agency to effectively monitor and regulate indus-
trial activities in the Odaw-Korle Lagoon complex.
Laws and regulations must be combined with eco-
nomic incentives to reduce industrial pollution.
Finally, environmental education and awareness
must form the basis of the project. People must
be made aware of the impacts of pollution in the
lagoon on their health and the need to appreciate
the beauty of nature. All hope is not yet lost for
the lagoon. Given the necessary sustained politi-
cal support and investment, the lagoon could be
restored to its natural ecology and developed into
a major tourist attraction.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to acknowledge the valuable
contributions, comments, and suggestions made by
Dr Timo Vuorisalo of the Department of Ecology,
University of Turku, Finland.

Urban waste pollution 309
References
Ababio, B.M. (1992) Urban primary health care: Accra healthy
cities project (draft). Accra, Ghana, Accra Planning and
Development Program.
Akuffo, S.B. (2001) Wastewater problems in Accra: The tale of
two parallel projects. Accra Mail, 31 May. Accra, Ghana.
Amuzu, A.T. (1976) A Survey of the Water Quality of the Korle
Lagoon. Accra, Ghana: Water Resource Research Institute.
Anderson, T. (1996) Ghana: Nightmare Lagoons. Ottawa,
Canada: International Development Research Center.
Aryeetey, E. and Anipa, J.R. (1981) Planning for a Distressed
African City, the Accra Experience. Accra, Ghana: ISSER.
Ayibotele, N.B. (1984) Report on the Evaluation of Water
Resources Assessment Activities in Ghana. Accra, Ghana:
Water Resources Research Institute.
Benneh, G., Songsore, J., Nabila, J.S., Amuzu, A.T., Tutu, K.A.,
Yangyuori, Y., and McGranahan, G. (1993) Environmen-
tal Problems and the Urban Household in the Greater Accra
Metropolitan Area (GAMA)—Ghana. Stockholm, Sweden:
Stockholm Environment Institute.
Benneh, G. (1994) Environmental consequences of different
patterns of urbanization. In: Population, Environment and
Development, Proceedings of the UN Expert Group on Pop-
ulation, Environment and Development, 20–24 January, pp.
159–65. New York: The United Nations.
Biney, C.A. (1982) Preliminary survey of the state of pollution
of the coastal environment of Ghana. Oceanologia Acta No.
SP, 39–43.
Biney, C.A. and Amuzu, A.T. (1995) Review of Korle Lagoon
Studies. Accra, Ghana: Institute of Aquatic Biology.
Clay, R. (1994) A continent in chaos: Africa’s environmental
issues. Environmental Health Perspectives 102(12), 1018–23.
Daily Graphic. (1995) July 5, Accra, Ghana.
Doe, B. (2000) Accra Sustainable City Project, Ghana: Case
Study No. 1. Pretoria, South Africa: Melissa Project.
Environmental Management Associates (EMA). (1989) Envi-
ronmental Study of Accra Metropolitan Area. Government of
Ghana, UNDP, UNCHS. 236.
Laing, E. (ed.) (1994) Ghana Environmental Action Plan, 2.
Accra, Ghana: Environmental Protection Agency.
Leitman, J. (1993) Rapid urban assessment: lessons from
cities in the developing world (Vol.2. Tools and outputs).
Urban Management and the Environment, No.15. Washing-
ton, D. C: The World Bank.
Mensah, G.G. (1976) Water Quality and Pollution Survey of
Inland and Coastal Waters in Ghana. Accra, Ghana: Water
Resource Research Institute.
Ministry of Works and Housing. (2001) Korle Lagoon Eco-
logical Restoration Project: Environment and Social Impact
Statement. Final Report. Accra, Ghana: Government of
Ghana.
Nyarko, E. and Evans, S.M. (1998) Heavy metal pollution in
marine molluscs from the coastal waters of Accra, Ghana.
Journal of the Ghana Science Association 1(1), 105–12.
Songsore, J. (1992) Review of Household Environmental Prob-
lems in Accra Metropolitan Area. Stockholm, Sweden: Stock-
holm Environment Institute.
Songsore, J. and McGranahan, G. (1993) Environment, Wealth
and Health: Towards an Analysis of Intra-Urban Differen-
tials within the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area. Stockholm,
Sweden: Stockholm Environment Institute.