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Sex of subject and gender identity as factors in humor appreciation
Sex Roles
Abstract
Appreciation of cartoon humor was examined in male and female college students who had been categorized into one of four gender identity groups (masculine, feminine, androgynous, undifferentiated) on the basis of Bem's Sex Role Inventory. Results indicated that males preferred sexual humor more than absurd humor, while females showed the reverse pattern. Furthermore, gender identity was related to humor appreciation only for females. While feminine females preferred absurd humor more than sexual humor, masculine and androgynous females were more appreciative of sexual humor. Finally, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated males, as well as masculine and androgynous females, showed greater appreciation of sexual humor which portrayed females, as opposed to males, as the sex object or brunt of the joke.
... Prusaczyk and Hodson (2020) argued that humor can "promote prejudice and discrimination against women," thereby hindering improvements in women's social status or in that of other minority groups (Hodson & MacInnis, 2016;Prusaczyk & Hodson, 2020, p. 9). Humorous posts with sexual content have been part of social media, despite their offensive consequences and the fact that women consider humor with sexual content more offensive than men (Brodzinsky et al., 1981;Smeltzer & Leap, 1988). Cisneros and Nakayama (2015) argued that humorous rhetoric can provoke emotional outbursts and serve as a tool of division, violating cultural norms and creating hatred of others. ...
... These findings were consistent with the literature, which indicated that increasing age and being women increased the likelihood that social groups would find humor more repugnant, disturbing and aversive (Bischetti et al., 2021). Women also found humorous sexual content to be more offensive than men (Brodzinsky et al., 1981;Smeltzer & Leap, 1988). Probably, women are perceived as a minority or a weak social group in many traditional and conservative societies. ...
This study examines the effects of humorous posts on Twitter during an uncertain time, such as the Coronavirus pandemic, which brought panic globally. In Kuwait, many Twitter users have posted humorous tweets about the Coronavirus to influence the public’s understanding of the pandemic and exert pressure on government to take measures to stop the spread of the disease. However, the impact of many of humorous tweets was indirect and negative, causing panic and division among social groups. An online survey was employed to examine the effects of humorous Twitter messages on understanding the pandemic, causing hatred toward others and augmenting a sense of negative emotion in society. The response of 1,031 to the survey indicated that humor increased negative emotional reactions and increased understanding of the pandemic. There was no link between Twitter humor and hatred of others. The influence of humor during times of uncertainty and crises is discussed.
... Such humor can offend individuals. Previous research indicates that women tend to feel more offended than men when exposed to sexist humor (Duncan et al., 1990), and that men generally enjoy sexual humor more than women (Brodzinsky et al., 1981). ...
This study examines the forms of sensitive jokes experienced by female workers in the workplace and their responses. Employing a qualitative approach through interviews, the findings identify six categories of sensitive jokes: career ambitions, marital status, gender stereotypes, sexuality, physical appearance, and physical touch. Predominantly made by male colleagues, these jokes adversely affect women's emotional well-being and the workplace atmosphere. Female workers employ various response strategies, including directly reprimanding the perpetrator, reporting to superiors, maintaining professionalism while ignoring the joke, shifting the conversation, or withdrawing from the situation. The study underscores the necessity for organizations to cultivate a professional and safe work environment.
... Notably, women rarely initiated sexist humour -neither about men nor women -indicating that the prevalence of sexist humour originated mainly from men. Our findings align with prior research suggesting that men prefer sexual humour about women more than women do (Brodzinsky et al., 1981) and that men also find such humour more acceptable and enjoyable than women (Parrott & Hopp, 2019. Moreover, sexist humour is often used as a form of discrimination against a lower-status group -in essence, women (Woodzicka & Ford, 2010). ...
(Workplace) humour can have positive effects on interpersonal (workplace) relationships. However, sexist humour – a form of subtle discrimination that communicates disparagement or degradation at the expense of (mainly) women in a humorous manner – might be highly detrimental in various ways. Despite sexist humour being pervasive in the workplace, little is known about when, how, and why sexist humour impacts the recipients and their work relationship with the initiator. With two pre-registered studies, theoretically based on affective events theory and social identity theory, this research advances knowledge on the interpersonal effects and gender dynamics of sexist humour at work. In the experimental Study 1, 255 participants rated an actor telling a (non-)sexist joke. In the field Study 2, 170 participants recalled a (non-)sexist humour event they encountered at work. Both studies produced converging results: Recipients of sexist humour were less willing to collaborate with the humour initiator and perceived them as less competent; this was psychologically explained by elevated negative affect. These detrimental effects particularly emerged when a man (vs. woman) initiated sexist humour toward a woman (vs. man).
... While much of the extant research on gender and humor appreciation and production looks at the perceived gender attribution of unlabeled cartoon captions or written jokes, the same dynamic can be applied to perceptions of televised satirical humor (Brodzinsky et al., 1981;Hooper et al., 2016;Mickes et al., 2012). Based on stereotypes alone, viewers may expect greater humor from a male TV satire host (e.g., Trevor Noah) than a female satire host (e.g., Samantha Bee), irrespective of which comedian is actually more humorous or has a higher joke to fact ratio (Fox, 2018). ...
Extending previous research on comedy processing in new theoretical directions, the experimental study (N = 206) considers the differential impact of varying comic and audience member gender when exposing viewers to politically salient satire content on message discounting, perceived informativeness, and message elaboration. As a first step, the analysis confirms that exposure to political satire on a serious topic encourages less message discounting, is perceived as more informative, and results in greater message elaboration than exposure to less serious political satire content. Furthermore, the results suggest that female viewers are less likely to engage in message discounting when presented with salient comedy on the issue of COVID-19, childcare, and economic participation. Variation in message discounting is impacted more by viewer gender than variation in the gender of the comic program host. The implications of the findings are discussed as well as the need for greater host diversity in late-night comedy and political satire programming.
... One possibility is that these results are due to the humorous content of our stimuli and how boys and girls in our cohort experienced them. While there is evidence that males and females find different content humorous [70,71], our behavioral results suggest that the boys and girls in this study did not differ in their subjective ratings of the videos. Another possibility is that these results reflect different neuro-developmental trajectories in boys and girls not related to the humorous content. ...
Humor is crucial for social development. Despite this, very few studies have examined the neurodevelopment of humor in very young children, and none to date have used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to study this important cognitive construct. The main aim of the current study was to characterize the neural basis of humor processing in young children between the ages of 6–8 years. Thirty-five healthy children (6–8 years old) watched funny and neutral video clips while undergoing fNIRS imaging. We observed activation increases in left temporo-occipito-parietal junction (TOPJ), inferior-parietal lobe (IPL), dorsolateral-prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and superior parietal lobe (SPL) regions. Activation in left TOPJ was positively correlated with age. In addition, we found that coherence increased in humor viewing compared to neutral content, mainly between remote regions. This effect was different for boys and girls, as boys showed a more pronounced increase in coherence for funny compared to neutral videos, more so in frontoparietal networks. These results expand our understanding of the neurodevelopment of humor by highlighting the effect of age on the neural basis of humor appreciation as well as emphasizing different developmental trajectories of boys and girls.
This chapter of Women Scientists in American Television Comedy: Beakers, Big Bangs and Broken Hearts discusses the analysis of 47 episodes from Never Have I Ever, The Big Bang Theory and Zoey’s Extraordinary Playlist focusing on how humor types such as irony and satire are used to portray women scientists. These humor types, aligning with the Superiority Theory, often involve outwitting others and ridiculing male characters, highlighting the women scientists’ intellectual and social superiority and reflecting feminist humor’s subversive nature. The study found that satire and irony, more appreciated by a general and adolescent audience, were prevalent, with farcical humor also commonly used to depict scientific work humorously. Humor is also used to address gender biases in workplace dynamics, with male colleagues often dismissing women scientists, thereby mirroring real-world gender biases in STEM fields. The portrayal of work-life balance struggles for women scientists frequently employs schadenfreude and ironic humor, emphasizing the stereotype that women must choose between a career in STEM and their personal life. Additionally, humor derived from traditional gender stereotypes challenges their femininity and reinforces the incongruity of motherhood and STEM careers. The concept of the comic frame is used to examine how these shows employ humor as a tool to distance the audience, allowing viewers to engage critically with gendered stereotypes of women in science. Despite some positive portrayals, the humor often perpetuates stereotypes, potentially influencing young girls’ perceptions of STEM careers negatively. However, feminist humor in these shows also serves to critique and subvert patriarchal norms. This chapter illustrates both the empowering and limiting potential of comedic representation in shaping societal attitudes toward women scientists.
This chapter introduces the book Women Scientists in American Television Comedy: Beakers, Big Bangs and Broken Hearts, focusing on the representation of women scientists in popular media and the role of humor in shaping cultural perceptions of science. The chapter emphasizes how popular culture, including comedy shows, influences public attitudes toward science by constructing perceptions of scientists. Despite the increasing presence of women in STEM, their representation in media remains limited and stereotyped, often conforming to traditional gender roles. The chapter explores how humor and comedy have historically been male-dominated, with women marginalized in the production and consumption of public humor. It also discusses the “Matilda Effect”, where women’s scientific achievements are often ignored or miscredited to men. The chapter sets the stage for the book’s analysis of how TV comedies portray women scientists, focusing on series like Never Have I Ever, The Big Bang Theory and Zoey’s Extraordinary Playlist. It outlines the research questions and methodologies used to examine the humor types characterizing these portrayals and their impact on cultural ideas of women in STEM. The chapter highlights the importance of understanding humor’s role in communicating science and shaping public perceptions of women scientists.
Cet article vise à exposer les différentes facettes de l’usage de l’humour comme mécanisme de résilience. Malgré ces risques, faire de l’humour, faire rire, soulage grandement les tensions qui existent inévitablement en entreprise, avec les autres ou face à soi-même en période d’incertitude. Pratiquer l’humour est une façon de prendre de la distance avec un problème, c’est aussi le moyen de tisser du lien social, de renforcer la relation avec des collègues et des clients. L’humour est un levier de performance… Cette recherche nous permet d’identifier ce qu’est l’humour, ce qu’il représente au travers de quatre principaux types. Ces types orientent ensuite notre recherche sur les effets positifs ou négatifs que l’humour peut créer ou souligner, dans un environnement managérial. Oser l’humour serait donc une recette efficace pour créer du lien avec ses collaborateurs, et instaurer des échanges plus fluides et productifs entre eux en cette période de crise.
Discusses the drawbacks of S. L. Bem's (see record
1974-27631-001) Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) which provides separate Femininity and Masculinity scale scores and uses their t-ratio difference as a measure of psychological androgyny. Descriptive and inferential problems associated with the application of Student's t are discussed. The resolution of these problems (e.g., whether observations are independent) is suggested through the use of the simple difference score rather than the t-ratio. Some additional measurement procedures are also recommended (e.g., including the Femininity and Masculinity scales as independent variables in a factorial analysis of variance). Interpretive problems of test items are also noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Hypothesized that 1 of the functions of humor is its role in providing a means of communication between individuals. 60 male undergraduates were given cartoons to rate by an attractive female E. It was hypothesized that where possible, Ss would use appreciation of sexual humor as a means of communicating sexual interest in the female E. Since motivation arousal has also been reported to affect humor preferences, a 2 * 2 design was employed to permit independent evaluation of the arousal variable and the communication variable. Both independent variables were found to be effective, with communication the more potent 1. (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent trends in conceptualizing sex role behavior have emphasized the independent development of masculinity and femininity. This has required a logical extension of sex role outcomes from the bipolar alternatives of being masculine or feminine to a quadripolar typology in which sex roles could develop as masculine and feminine, masculine and not feminine, feminine and not masculine, or neither masculine nor feminine. Investigation of this extended typology requires a masculinity-femininity scaling technique that provides independent measures of the 2 dimensions. The present study, employing 1,383 college Ss, presents evidence regarding the psychometric properties of the Masculinity and Femininity scales of the Adjective Check List, developed from the parent Masculinity-Femininity Scale by F. Cosentino and A. B. Heilbrun especially for the purpose of independent measurement. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
2 studies investigated the relationship between the expressive behaviors of smiling and laughing (mirth) and the evaluations of the funniness of cartoon stimuli. Study 1 replicated past findings that suggest that feedback from mirth reactions directly influences funniness ratings in female Ss but does not directly influence funniness ratings in male Ss. Study 2 provided evidence of a sex difference in the link between mirth and evaluation. It was hypothesized that making Ss aware of their mirth, by asking them to self-observe and rate their own smiling and laughing, isolates the mirth reactions and reduces their influence upon evaluations of funniness. The elimination of the influence of mirth should lower funniness ratings of female Ss and eliminate any increase in rated funniness produced by canned laughter. No such effects were predicted for males. The data support the hypotheses. A wider range of possible causes for self-observation effects is given than is mentioned in most recent theories of self-observation. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In his book Jokes a?& their relation to the unco?zscioas ( 1960), Freud presents the view that humor and wit serve fundamentally different functions. He describes humor as an attitude by which the ego converts potential distress into triumphant pleasure, whereas wit takes an object and thus symbolically fulfills an aggressive or sexual aim. Since the distinction between the two forms is based on underlying psychological processes, it follows that the use of diverse media, such as jokes, cartoons, or stories, should be less important than the thematic content and structure. O'Connell (1964) illustrates this point in his demonstration that a given verbal anecdote may be provided with an ending alternatively representing Freud's definitions of humor, hostile wit, or resignation. Rather than positing different processes within the same media, the present study was designed to assess the generality of the humor response, or the extent to which diverse media reflect common underlying processes. METHOD Thirty men and 30 women served as Ss at a small, eastern liberal arts college, where their participation was credited toward a laboratory requirement in introductory psychology. The humor stimuli were presented in the context of a larger study concerned with humor and aesthetics, while the present report is restricted to a consideration of cartoons, jokes, literary selections, and photographs. Four types of cartoons were distinguished: (1) purposive wit with an aggressive object, (2) purposive wit with a sexual object, (3) innocent (absurd) wit serving the purpose of amusement, and (4) displacement humor, which follows Freud's view that unpleasure is transformed into pleasure through displacement of affect. Twenty-four cartoons were selected from magazines to meet the definitions of aggressive, sexual, absurdity, and displacement themes.
Résumé On a fait un test où l'on emploie un papier et un crayon, lequel indique des certaines choses sur l'humour. Le résultat obtenu par l'emploi de ce test montre que c'est le sampling et qu'on donne les résultats relatifs de quelque facteur indépendant. La manière dont on place les plaisanteries dans des classifications catégoriques a quelque relation avec l'intelligence et l'introversion. Les jugements qui placent les plaisanteries dans les diverses catégories de l'humour indiquent de vraies différences d'exécution, entre les individus, entre les divers groupes sociaux, et entre les sexes. On a trouvé des différences de sexe dans le résultat total de l'humour, dans les groupements catégoriques et dans les évaluations catégoriques des plaisanteries. Referat Es ist eine, mit Bleistift und Papier ausführbare, Prüfung erfunden worden, die in Bezug auf den Humor gewisse Anweisungen gibt. Das durch Verwendung dieses Tests erhàltene Resultat erweist, dass der Test irgend eine selbständige Einwirkung [independent factor] erprobt [samples], und die relative Stärke dieser Einwirkung berechnen lässt. Die Weise, auf die Witze gewissen kategorischen Gruppen zugewiesen werden [are assigned to categorical classifications] steht bis zu einen gewissen Grade mit Intelligenz und mit der Stärke der Introversion in Beziehung. Die Urteile, durch die die Witze als gewissen Gruppen angehörig klassiert werden, weisen auf echte Unterschiede in Bezug auf Leistung hin,—Unterschiede sowohl zwischen Individuen wie zwischen verschiedenen sozialen Gruppen und zwischen den Geschlechtern. Es zeigten sich Geschlechtsunterschiede in Bezug auf die berechnete Humorleistung [total humor score], die kategorische Gruppierung, und die kategorische Bewertung der Witze.
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Discusses the findings obtained in 2 studies of the role of gender in disparagement humor. In the Study 1 by D. Zillmann and the author (see record
1973-04460-001), 68 college students rated the funniness of jokes depicting hostile encounters between a male and a female individual of equal social status. The male had the last laugh at the female's expense in one version of the jokes, while in the other version the situation was reversed. Study 2 utilized a similar procedure with 121 similar Ss, added male-dominates-male and female-dominates-female versions, and obtained ratings of the dominator in each joke. Study 1 showed that both males and females found male-dominates-female jokes funnier than female-dominates-male jokes. Similar results were obtained in the Study 2, and it was further determined that the greater funniness of a female than a male being ridiculed was independent of whether the dominating agent was a male or a female. The ratings of the dominator failed to disclose the mechanisms underlying this effect. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)