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Water Resour Manage (2009) 23:2343–2360
DOI 10.1007/s11269-008-9384-z
Optimal Water Resources Management:
Case of Lower Litani River, Lebanon
J. Doummar ·M. A. Massoud ·R. Khoury ·M. Khawlie
Received: 10 September 2008 / Accepted: 20 November 2008 /
Published online: 9 December 2008
© Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008
Abstract The pressures of human population and patterns of development fre-
quently jeopardize the integrity of river systems worldwide. An integrated approach
to water resources management is essential, particularly in developing countries.
This study presents the results of the water resources optimization conducted for
the Lower Litani River Basin in Lebanon. The overall aim of the project is to
develop, test, and critically evaluate an innovative approach to water resources
management in the Mediterranean region. The method explores the ways in which
multiple environmental, economic, and social benefits can be achieved through
integrated management of water resources. The Water Resources Model was utilized
to assess the efficiency of the baseline model scenario and for the optimization
process of the different scenarios of the Litani Lower Basin. Strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats analysis was applied in order to derive the objectives
and constraints. Results revealed that the potential retained scenarios aim at de-
creasing water consumption and demand, losses, and return flow. These scenarios
mainly include the shift to drip irrigation, awareness campaigns, and losses control
in domestic supply pipes. Other retained scenarios having a higher shortfall rely
on the use of the Channel concrete lining to decrease losses and return flow, in
addition to the awareness campaigns in both domestic and irrigation sectors, and less
consumptive/more efficient irrigation methods such as sprinkler and drip irrigation
J. Doummar ·R. Khoury
Earth Link and Advanced Resources Development (ELARD), Beirut, Lebanon
M. A. Massoud (B)
Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Health Sciences,
American University of Beirut, Riad el Solh 1107 2020, P.O. Box 11-0236, Beirut, Lebanon
e-mail: may.massoud@aub.edu.lb
M. Khawlie
National Center for Remote Sensing (NCRS), Beirut, Lebanon
2344 J. Doummar et al.
at variable application percentages. Hence, most of the interventions or measures
proposed are generally not costly and can be implemented.
Keywords Water resources ·Management ·Optimization ·Litani River ·Lebanon
1 Introduction
Globally, demands on freshwater resources are increasing due to population increase
and increased per capita consumption together with urbanization, industrial growth,
increase in agriculture, growth of large informal settlements along the course of water
bodies, and poor maintenance of the municipal sewage disposal system (Grobicki
2001; Ujang and Buckley 2002; Okun 2002; Massoud et al. 2003,2005; Hao et al.
2008). Worldwide, abstraction rates increased sharply during the last decades of the
twentieth century with agriculture being the predominant consumer (Shiklomanov
1999). Confronted with increasingly severe water shortages in many areas of the
world, policy makers, managers and government authorities are exploring strategies
for managing water resources sustainably (IUCN 2000). The imperative problems
related to water shortages and water resources management, should be solved
taking into account the interaction between environmental, human and technological
factors (Pahl-Wostl 2007). As such, attention to Integrated Water Resources Man-
agement (IWRM) is increasing and is anticipated to continue to increase as water
scarcity intensifies. Conceptually, IWRM strategies support the integrated develop-
ment and management of water resources across water using sectors and incorporate
economic, political, social, legal, and environmental considerations. Although there
is a very high degree of acceptance of the IWRM approach among planners and
decision-makers, its effective implementation remains a major challenge primarily
in developing countries (Biswas 2008). Successful implementation of the IWRM
process can aid developing countries to achieve the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) (Jønch-Clausen 2004).
The IWRM process can be implemented through a number of different insti-
tutional schemes and management measures depending on the scope and scale of
the management program. Given the complexities and uncertainties that exist in
water resources, management measures and methods such as numerical modeling,
environmental risk and economic assessments should all be incorporated within
the integrated water resources management process. Integrated management of
water resources requires the assembly, management, and analysis of large quantities
of information in relation to environment, resource use, pollution and ambient
conditions within given timeframes. The effectiveness of the process depends on the
quality and quantity of data collected in the field, which is usually sparse, particularly
in developing countries (Yarrow et al. 2008). Results of management tools guide
decision makers about the need for intervention and the selection of measures.
River basin systems consist of various components including but are not limited to
aquifers, reservoirs, pumping stations, hydroelectric power plants, diversions and de-
mand sites. Hence, optimal design and operation of the components of a river basin
system are hard problems to solve due to their large number of decision variables
and nonlinear governing equations. Considering that water resources planning and
management at a basin scale is a complex problem, the use of effective modeling tools
Optimal water resources management 2345
for optimum management of the river basin is essential (Shourian et al. 2008). The
information obtained from these modeling tools is used more and more frequently
as a decision support in different types of management situations (Alkan Olsson and
Andersson 2007).
2 Description of the Study Area
2.1 Characteristics of the Litani River Basin
The Litani River is the longest and largest river in Lebanon, with a length of 170 km
and an estimated average discharge rate varying from 8 to 9 m3/s (SOER 2001). This
perennial river drains the southern Bekaa plain, crosses the southern periphery of the
Mount Lebanon range and discharge into the Mediterranean Sea in Qasmiyeh north
of Tyre City. The Litani River drains nearly one fifth of the waters of Lebanon and
has a watershed of 2,168 km2. Geomorphologically, the Litani basin is divided into
two sub-basins with the upper one stretching from the Bekaa plain to the Qaraoun
dam. The Qaraoun dam completed in 1956 is 110 m long and 61 m high, forming
Lake Qaraoun. The Lower Litani basin located downstream to the Qaraoun Lake
has a total surface area of 616 km2(Amery 1993;FAO1994;Moss1997). The Litani
River altitude gradually decreases from 300 to 50 m, until it reaches the sea outlet.
The Lower Litani River area is characterized by maximum elevation reaching 500–
600 masl. The lower portion of the Litani River consists of one main river segment
and eight secondary branches. It encompasses eight districts or administrative Caza
hosting a population of about 133,000 persons. A GIS map of the study area showing
the Lower Litani watershed, along the main and secondary River courses is depicted
in Fig. 1.
2.2 Climate, Geology and Hydrology
According to the annual precipitation map, the Litani River falls under two main
rainfall ranges. In its upper sections, the Litani area receives 1,100 to 1,200 mm of
rain per year, while its lower section receives 800 mm of rainfall per year (Atlas
Climatique du Liban 1969). The evaporation coefficient from the Litani River is
estimated to reach 68.2% because of the dry nature of the climate in southern
Bekaa and in the south. This value is probably less significant during wintertime.
With regard to geology, the Lower Basin of the Litani River passes through three
groups of geological formations: the Jurassic, the Cretaceous, and the Eocene groups.
A Geological map of the Litani Lower Basin showing the major geological exposures
along the River is depicted in Fig. 2. A summary of the lithological characteristics of
the Litani Lower Watershed is presented in Table 1. The coefficient of infiltration
of rainfall water from the Litani watershed into the aquiferous formations and other
basins varies according to the nature of the geological formations and the faulting
system (UNDP 1970). The seepage from the Litani River bed into the ground water
was estimated at 22% (UNDP 1970).
There are 23 surveyed springs in the Litani Lower Basin. Some of the springs
do not belong to the Litani Basin; yet contribute significantly to the Litani River.
Monitoring discharge data related to such contribution is not available. A well survey
2346 J. Doummar et al.
Fig. 1 A GIS map of the study area showing the Lower Litani watershed
in the study area revealed the presence of 44 main municipal wells in the Lower
Basin of the Litani River. As indicated by the Litani Water Authority, in terms of
recharge, most of the wells do not belong to the Litani Watershed and are being
used for domestic consumption with approximate yields ranging between 2000 and
4000 m3/day (FAO 1970).
2.3 Land Use Patterns and Water Use
There is no major infrastructure on the Litani River Lower Basin. Some recreational
sites destined for touristic purposes, domestic water pumping station, and an irri-
gation canal are the only structures existing on the Litani River in its Lower basin.
Figure 3depicts the land use and land cover in the Litani lower Basin. About four
small resorts are established along the river and abstracting water from it. These
resorts are withdrawing water from the river at a rate of 2 L/s. The calculation of
resort water demand from the Litani River was performed on the basis of 2 L/s for
4 months. The total touristic water demand from the Litani River is estimated to
reach during the months of June to September about 0.08 Mm3or around 0.008 m3/s.
According to the South Water and Wastewater Establishment, only one pumping
station exists at the Litani River that is abstracting a volume of 18,000 m3/day. The
agricultural activity is not equally developed all along the Lower Basin of the Litani
Optimal water resources management 2347
Fig. 2 Geological map of the Litani Lower Basin showing the major geological exposures along the
River
River. The land use in the area was retrieved from Ikonos Satellite Images (2000 and
2005). The spatial analysis using GIS allowed to depict the land use change pattern
over 5 years, showing a drastic increase of urban area and a decrease of irrigated
land. Agricultural terrains, grasslands, and non-productive lands have decreased by
an annual coefficient that does not exceed 1%. The urban fabrics have increased of
around 18%, which is equivalent to an annual change of +2.38%. The most important
irrigated crops in the river basin include banana and citrus found at the coastal
stretches from both sides of the Litani River, in addition to olive trees, fruit trees,
Table 1 Lithological characteristics of the Litani Lower Watershed
Major watershed basins Lithology
Karstic formations/aquiferous formations Non-Karstic
formations
Jurassic Middle Cretaceous Eocene
km2%km
2%km
2%km
2%
Lower Basin of Litani 49 8 135 21 263 42 183 29
Infiltration (%)
(UNDP 1970) 41 34.5 38.5–45 4.5
2348 J. Doummar et al.
Fig. 3 Land use and land cover in the Litani Lower Basin
and vineyards. According to the Litani River Authority, the Lower part of the Litani
River is supplying through an irrigation canal a volume of 26 Mm3of water for
the areas located on the coast north and south to the outlet of the Litani River.
Additionally, a volume of 13.5 Mm3of water is provided from the Qaraoun Lake,
which is located outside the area of study to fulfill the water shortage existing in the
summer.
2.4 Water Quality
Water quality in the Litani River is not being monitored yet by the concerned au-
thorities although the Litani River Authority has recently created an environmental
unit that will implement a comprehensive water quality monitoring program. Due
to the lack of water quality data, a campaign of selective sampling on the Litani
River was undergone in October 2005 in order to check the level of contamination at
different locations in the Litani River. The main parameters that were analyzed are
the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), fecal coliform, nitrates nitrogen (NO−
3_N),
orthophosphates (O–PO3−
4), and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). Results revealed
that fecal coliform bacteria increase in the sampling locations that are located
downstream to a touristic resort, as well as wastewater discharge locations. Values of
BOD are relatively below detectable limits, which may be due to the dilution effect
Optimal water resources management 2349
because the sampling has not been performed during river recession period. Levels
of NO−
3_N, O–PO3−
4, and TDS are significantly high in the Litani River at the coastal
end (respectively 6.5, 0.39, and 432 mg/L) which result from high agriculture activity
and irrigated water return flow from surrounding banana irrigated lands.
2.5 Institutional Framework
The management of the Litani River falls under the jurisdiction of three main
institutional bodies: the Ministry of Energy and Water (central authority), the South
Water and Wastewater Establishment (potable water supply), and the Litani River
Authority (irrigation water supply and discharge monitoring). The management of
activities on the Litani River is controlled by the Litani River Authority, which
reports to the Ministry of Energy and Water. The management of exploitation of the
surface water in the Litani River is restricted to the South Water and Wastewater
Establishment. The Litani water quality and quantity is monitored by the Litani
River Authority, which conveys all the data to the Ministry of Energy and Water. The
Ministry of Health monitors the quality of the water that is supplied for domestic use
from the Litani River (Water Decrees 5469/1–5469/16–5469/25–5469/40 1966; Law
121/2001).
3 Research Methodology
The Water Resources Model (WRM) prepared by Environmental Software and
Services Gmbh, Austria was utilized to assess the efficiency of the baseline model
scenario and for the optimization process of the different scenarios of the Litani
Lower Basin. The WRM model describes the water flow and availability, demand
and supply balance on a daily basis across the basin and its elements, based on
conservation and continuity laws. Its uses a topological network representation of a
river basin consisting of various nodes as well as river reaches and canals connecting
them. These nodes may represent sub-catchments, reservoirs, wells, diversions and
confluences, and areas of water demand (cities, tourist resorts, irrigation districts and
large industries) (Cetinkaya et al. 2008). Different node types representing a number
of basin features are summarized in Table 2.
Preliminary activities included the familiarization with the Water Ware software
and the identification of key issues and data needs. Various stakeholders involved
in the decision making process provided valuable information on the baseline
conditions of the Litani basin along with the various existing and planned activities
on the Litani River, including agricultural, recreational, industrial, domestic, and
environmental. Reconnaissance visits were conducted in order to collect data needed
Table 2 Major nodes
conceptualized on the Litani
Lower Basin
Basin nodes Demand
Aquifer node (input/output) Touristic (output)
Sub-catchment node Agricultural (output)
(springs/streams; input)
Control nodes (calibration) Domestic (output)
Geometric nodes Discharge nodes/effluent (input)
Start–end nodes (input) Diversion nodes
2350 J. Doummar et al.
as input to prepare a preliminary topology model for the Basin. Major inflow (input
flow) and outflow (demand) points were determined on the River, based on which
the topology model was further updated. Application of the WRM entailed the
integration of the collected data in the model through nodes, reaches, and Time
Series files. The model along with the statistical information provided by the stake-
holders helped identify the strengths and weaknesses of the resource management
scheme of the Litani Lower Basin. The water resource model topology along with its
associated models aim at conceptualizing the real model of the Lower Litani Basin,
and subsequently run optimization scenarios taking into account the economic factor
along with the water supply, availability, demand, and quality.
The main objectives and constraints that were set for the future scenarios were
derived from the strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities (SWOT) analysis.
The SWOT analysis method is a practical tool used for planning development and
decision making. It is used to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats involved in a project. Thus, it maximizes strengths and opportunities,
minimizes external threats, transforms weaknesses into strengths, and makes the
most of opportunities (Saaty 1987; Valentin 2001; Arslan and Deha Er 2008;
Diamantopoulou and Voudouris 2008; Mylopoulos et al. 2008). In our SWOT analy-
sis, available resources and their potential utilization are studied taking economic,
ecological and social factors in to consideration in order to facilitate the sustainable
development of water resources. The basic dimensions or parameters of the analysis
as reported in several studies are depicted in Fig. 4.
The major points of water discharge, recharge, diversion, demand, and control on
the River were input into different types of nodes to form a baseline WRM for the
Litani Lower Basin. This baseline scenario was updated following the first partici-
patory workshop. The model topology is depicted in Fig. 5. Sixty-two input–output
nodes were conceptualized on the Litani Lower Basin. A summary of the major
nodes conceptualized on the Litani Lower Basin is presented in Table 3. Calibration
of discharge rates along the main River was performed based on daily data input in
the four available control nodes (Qasmiyyeh end node; Khardale, Ghandouriyyeh
and Qelia start node). Given that the Sub-catchment streams contributing to the
main River lack monitoring data, sub-catchment hydrographs were computed using
the Rainfall–Runoff model (as part of the Water Ware model). The Rainfall Runoff
model relies on geomorphologic data and on observed time series of daily data
such as temperature, evaporation, precipitation, etc. In the model results, Model
calibration/validation is reflected in the overall Mass Budget Error not exceeding
5%. Moreover, modeled daily hydrographs matched the observed daily hydrographs
input at the control points.
Fig. 4 The basic dimensions
or parameters of the analysis
as reported in several studies
(Andrews 1987;Richards2001;
CIPD 2008)
External Factors
Opportunities Threats
Strengths
• Exploit
• Make the most of these
• Exploit
• Resist
• Restore strengths
• Confront
Internal Factors
Weakness
• Explore
• Watch competition closely
• Search
• Forget
• Strategic turn around required
• Avoid
Optimal water resources management 2351
Start Node
Demand Node
Control Node
Geometric Node
Return Node
Fig. 5 The topology water resource model baseline scenario
Ten surface water sub-catchments contributing to the Litani Lower basin lack
monitoring stations. As such, a Rainfall Runoff Model was attributed to each sub-
catchment in order to compute the daily contribution. The main required data for
the Rainfall Runoff Model is grouped into two data sets: the variable basin specific
parameters such as the basin and the model parameters and the basin constant
parameters. The basin parameters including the basin size, maximum and minimum
elevations, channel characteristics, land use/land cover, and elevation distribution
were calculated and deduced from the digital elevation model, the topographic
contour map, and the recent generated land use/land cover map (2005). The model
parameters were also calculated from literature related to the Litani Lower Basin.
Conceptualization of the real model topology helps assess the economical effi-
ciency of the baseline model scenario, such as the supply to demand ratio and the
cost/benefit ratio. The calculation of the economic value of the currently existing
infrastructures on the Litani River was based on local cost of water imposed by the
local authority.
As part of the project participatory approach, stakeholders were involved in the
identification of issues of concern in the basin, data collection, conceptualization of
the basin, identification of objectives and constraints, and the optimization process.
Participatory approaches are crucial in the management of water resources both
from the management and information perspective (Timmerman 2005;Giordano
2352 J. Doummar et al.
Table 3 WRM node types and model dynamics
Node Description
Start Provides the input flow at the beginning of a water course
Qj=βIj+QIj
Where
Qj=outflow from start node in day j[m3/day]; Ij=inflow at a start node in
day j[m3/day]
QIj=input flow to a strat node in day j[m3/day]
β=is zero in the case where the start node represents a head water source
Confluence Provides for the joining of several reaches
Qj=n
i=1
Ii
j
Where
Qj=outflow from a confluence node in day j[m3/day]
Ii
j=ith channel inflow to a confluence node in day j[m3/day]
Diversion Represent branching of flow to several channels
Qj=Ij,ADj=0...when ...Ij<DWT j
Qj=DWTj,ADj=Ij−DWTj...when ...DWTj≤Ij≤DWTj+TDj
Qj=Ij−TDj,ADj=TDj...when ...Ij>DWT j+TD j
Where
Qj=actual downstream flow from a bifurcation node in day j[m3/day]
Ij=inflow to a bifurcation node in day j[m3/day]; ADj=actual diversion flow
in day j[m3/day]
DWTj=downstream target flow in day j[m3/day]; TDj=diversion target flow
in day j[m3/day]
Demand Describes the consumptive use of water including irrigation, domestic and
industrial nodes
Irrigation node
ADj=0...when ...Ij≤DWT j
ADj=Ij−DWTj...when ...DWTj≤Ij≤TDj+DWTj
ADj=TDj...when ...Ij>TD j+DWT j
IRj=(1−ε)ADj;GWj=(1−κ)Rj;Qj=Ij+ADj+εAD j+βκ Rj
Rj=(1−Cu)IRj+Pj
Where
Ij=inflow to an irrigation node in day j[m3/day]; ADj=actual diversion flow
in day j[m3/day]
DWTj=minimum downstream target
flow in day j[m3/day]
TDj=diversion target flow in day j[m3/day]; ε=the conveyance loss
coefficient
Rj=amount of flow available after
consumptive use by the crop
GWj=flow percolated to groundwater; k=river return flow
coefficient
β=flag for different cases of irrigation;
Demand Domestic and industrial water supply nodes
ADj=0...when ...Ij≤DWT j
ADj=Ij−DWT ...when ...DWTj≤Ij≤TDj+DWTj
ADj=TDj...when ...Ij>TD j+DWT j
Qj=Ij−ADj+εADj+Rj
Rj=(1−Cu)ADj
Optimal water resources management 2353
Table 3 (Continued)
Node Description
Where
Ij=inflow to a MI node in day j[m3/day]; ADj=actual diversion flow
in day j[m3/day]
DWTj=minimum downstream target Cu =consumptive use
flow in day j[m3/day]; coefficient
TDj=diversion target flow in day j[m3/day]; Rj=return flow to the river
available
Reservoir Represents natural or controlled storage systems with a set of rules that prescribe
outflow from the reservoir as a function of time, its flow and storage
Storage reservoir Where
Wj=Sj+Ij+Pj−EVjIj=inflow to reservoir
Pj=αprjRAjin day j[m3/day]
EVj=αevjRAjQj=reservoir in day j
Qj=Wj...when ...Wj≤TR j[m3/day]
Qj=TRj...when ...TRj<Wj≤TRj+VjWj=available water
Qj=Wj−Vj...when ...Wj>TR j+Vjin day j[m3/day]
Sj+1=0...when ...Sj+Ij≤TR jSj=reservoir storage at the
Sj+1=Wj−TRj...when ...TRj<Wj≤TRj+Vjbeginning of day j[m3/day]
Sj+1=Vj...when ...Wj>TRj+VjSMAXj=reservoir maximum
Vj=SMAXj−SMINjstorage [m3]
SMINj=reservoir minimum
storage [m3]
Vj=reservoir storage
capacity [m3]
TRj=target reservoir release
in day j[m3/day]
Pj=total reservoir area
precipitation in day j
[m3/day]
EVj=reservoir evaporation
in day j[m3/day]
prj=daily precipitation
coefficient [mm/day]
evj=daily evaporation
coefficient [mm/day]
RAj=reservoir surface
area at the beginning
of day j[ha]
α=unit conversion
coefficient
Storage routing in tributaries
ds
dt=I−QI=rate of inflow [m3/day]
S=KσI+(1−σ)QQ=rate of outflow [m3/day]
Qj+1=C1Ij+C2Ij+1+C3QjK=storage coeffi cient [day]
σ=weighting factor
Control Does not change the flow but impose an in-stream flow demand
Auxiliary Does not affect the flow directly, but is used to start a new reach or serve as a place
holder to provide a network structure consistent with other models
Terminal Represents outlets from the basin considered in the model, including outflow to the sea
or inflow to lakes
2354 J. Doummar et al.
et al. 2007). Several tools were used to involve stakeholders including questionnaires,
one-to-one meetings, individual presentations and multi-stakeholder participatory
workshops. Stakeholders involved at the decision-making level also contributed to
the identification of potential development schemes of the lower basin of the Litani
River, helped set objectives, potential future scenarios, and potential problems of
optimization of the Lower Basin of the Litani River.
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Strengths and Weaknesses
According to the stakeholders, being the longest River exclusively running in
Lebanon, the Litani River presents advantageous topological features and is of
significant interest for all researchers and public authorities. The volume of water
supplied by the Litani River is relatively significant. The Litani provides work oppor-
tunities in many sectors, especially the irrigation and touristic sectors. Considering
the remoteness of the lower portion of the Litani River from the major villages
and cultivated lands, it is expected that the water is not significantly polluted. On
the other hand, the weaknesses of the Basin reside in the lack of management and
negligence of government enforcement concurrent with public disregard of existing
decrees or laws. This leads to numerous violations on the river and to the imbalanced
exploitation of its water. During wintertime, the water of the Litani River is lost
to the sea because of the decrease of water consumption especially for irrigation
purposes in the period from December to March. The improper disposal of solid
waste and the unsanitary and uncontrolled methods for the discharge of wastewater
resulting from the absence of treatment plants in the area contribute to river water
pollution. The use of water consuming irrigation techniques leads to an imbalanced
distribution of water on the River Basin. While some villages are not being provided
domestic water, cultivated areas are being supplied with an excess volume of water.
The Lower Litani River lacks useful infrastructure that enable efficient use of water,
such as hydroelectric stations and dams.
4.2 Threats and Opportunities
The threats and opportunities pointed out by stakeholders and deduced from
questionnaires allowed the definition of the major fields to account for during the
selection of constraints and objectives for optimization scenarios of the Litani Lower
Basin. Opportunities for irrigation and development of the agricultural sector and
electricity generation were highlighted. Major threats included:
•Increase of surface water and ground water pollution
•Population increase resulting in the increase of water demand
•Decrease of crop productivity
•Unbalanced exploitation
•Lack of funding and management resources
•Lack of citizenship spirit and coordination
Optimal water resources management 2355
4.3 Objectives and Constraints
The main objectives and constraints that were set were derived from the strengths,
weaknesses, threats, and opportunities. These objectives that were set for the future
scenarios target the following issues:
1. Adopting practices in the different sectors that can ensure efficient use of water.
2. Balanced exploitation of the River that can be achieved by confronting the use
of minimum amount of water and the benefit to cost ratio.
3. Control sources of pollution such as construction of wastewater treatment plants.
4. Decrease losses to the sea which can be achieved by storage infrastructure such
as dams.
Infrastructure, legal, awareness, and management measures were used to meet the
aforementioned objectives. Infrastructure measures include irrigation canal that
allows the distribution of water to upstream areas, two dams, wastewater treatment
plant(s), hydroelectrical plant(s). Updating existing legislation and ensuring en-
forcement are legal measures that decrease violations. Promoting public awareness
of efficient water devices such as drip or sprinkler irrigation or alternative crops
reduces water consumption. Water pricing and improvement of the canalization at
the domestic pumping station are the major management issues. A summary of the
advantages of each measure that was used in the future scenario model is presented
in Table 4.
4.4 Optimization Scenarios
Various practical measures (dams, channels etc.) were introduced into the model.
Objectives and constraints such as water shortage and water pricing were set in the
model. The optimization entailed the evaluation of the economical and technical fea-
sibility of the identified alternatives and the selection of the most suitable scenarios
that meet the set constraints and objectives as well as the best set of criteria. Two
main Scenarios could be identified: the Infrastructure and Demand Change based
Scenarios.
4.4.1 Scenario 1: Infrastructure Based
This scenario focuses on adding new infrastructure aiming at reaching the aforemen-
tioned objectives. Based on a series of meetings with the Litani River Authority,
the main proposed infrastructure in addition to the pre-existing ones such as the
Canal are mainly two dams. The dams (Khardale and Kfar Sir) are planned to be
built on geological formations characterized by a coefficient of infiltration ranging
between 35% and 45%. Nevertheless, the dam lakes are designed to be relatively
impervious in order to avoid River water infiltration/losses induced ground water
recharge. Therefore theoretically interaction between the dams and groundwater is
intended to be minimal, especially that the River Basin Watershed is independent
from the groundwater watershed. Both dams allow the retention of water during
wintertime for drought seasons, decrease losses to the sea, and secure water needs
during summer time “high irrigation season”. Following the installation of the two
dams along the river, at least two touristic resorts were removed from the scenario.
Consequently, this lead to decreasing violations, local water quality degradation, and
2356 J. Doummar et al.
Table 4 Advantages of the various measures and their role in meeting the set objectives
Increase Increase Decrease Decrease Decrease Increase Direct
in water of water of water in water losses to water increase
availability supply pollution demand the sea demand of benefit
efficiency
Infrastructure
Irrigation canal √√√
2 Dams √√√
Waste water
treatment
plant(s) √√
Hydroelectrical
plant(s) √
Hill lakes √√√
Legal
Update legislation/
ensure
enforcement √√√
Decrease violations
on River √√ √
Management
Water pricing √√
Improvement of the
canalization √√
Awareness
Alternative Irrigation
technologies √√
Alternative crops
(less water)
consuming) √√
illegal water consumption from the Litani Lower Basin, in addition to saving water
for low flow periods by reducing losses to the sea.
Water quality analysis during low flow periods did not show major contamination
in the River that could be modeled. The values of fecal coliform bacteria increased in
the sampling locations that are located downstream to touristic resorts, as well as in
the location of wastewater discharge. Values of BOD were below detectable limits,
which may be attributed to dilution effect. Despite this fact, a potential wastewater
treatment plant was planned in order to reduce the level of contamination. This
node is expected to redirect approximately 70% of received wastewater as treated
water. The Canal that is located on the coastal end of the Lower Litani River was
maintained in the infrastructure Scenario. Rehabilitation of the canalization of the
domestic water station was applied in order to decrease losses, and consequently
decrease water consumption or provide the same amount to a larger population.
4.4.2 Scenario 2: Demand Change Based
The demand scenario is an infrastructure scenario based on a future (10-years time
span) decrease of water consumption in irrigation following the use of advanced
irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation. This decrease of water consumption
Optimal water resources management 2357
could also be achieved following awareness campaigns. An increase of the population
of 2.5% (based on demographic annual change estimate) was accounted in the water
domestic consumption.
The set constraints/objectives were input quantitatively under the form of nodes
in the WRM model future scenario, along with the identified measures. The WRM
results related to the infrastructure and the demand scenarios are summarized in
Table 5. A comparison with the baseline scenario results is also presented. The results
of both scenarios matched with most of the set objectives. Thus, results showed an
increase of the supply to demand ratio, a decrease in the losses to the sea by 50%, a
benefit to cost ratio almost equal to 1, and a decrease of the period of shortfall.
An optimized scenario which is a combination of the infrastructure and demand
scenarios, resulted in 82 alternatives (over 1,000 runs) consisting of a combination
of some the proposed measures. The best alternatives are mainly those including
one of the dams and the awareness campaigns, in addition to the leakage control,
and awareness campaign for the domestic water plant. The benefit to cost ratio
was for all the selected alternatives greater than 1 ranging between 1.13 and 2.2.
According to generated statistics, there is a linear inverse correlation in plots of the
water cost versus cost-benefit ratio, and supply/demand ratio and water shortfall. A
linear correlation exists between supply to demand ratio and benefit to cost ratio
in most of the analyzed alternatives. A first screening of the 82 solutions consisted
in selecting the alternatives having the supply/demand ratio equals to 1. A second
screening consisted in the selection of alternatives combining low shortfall and high
benefit to cost ratio exceeding 1.5. It is worth noting that the benefit to cost ratio and
the cost of water are negatively correlated in the selected alternatives (Fig. 6).
Table 5 Summary of WRM results of the baseline, infrastructure and change in demand scenarios
Criterion Scenario Comments
(per hydrological year) Baseline Infrastructure Change in demand
Municipal demand (Mm3)2.5 2.5 19 Increase of municipal
supply/demand
Irrigation demand (Mm3)29 94 65 Increase of irrigation
supply/demand
Touristic demand (Mm3)0.4 0.3 0.1 Decrease of touristic
demand
Total demand (Mm3)32 96 84 Better exploitation of
the River water
Net supply (Mm3)26 108 101
Total consumptive 21 94 83
use (Mm3)
Total losses (Mm3)327 22
Shortfall (Mm3)10.2 2.5 1.6 Decrease of shortfall
Supply/demand (%) 68 98 98 Increase of supply to
demand ratio
Reliability (%) 82 95 82 Increase of the
reliability
Economic efficiency 0.01 – 0.02 Increase in demand
(Euro/m3)scenario
Water cost (Euro/m3)0.1 0.06 0.07 Decrease of water cost
Benefit/cost ratio 1.1 0.9 1.2 Ratio wandering
around 1
2358 J. Doummar et al.
The potential 13 retained scenarios fulfilling all the set constraints aim at de-
creasing water consumption and demand, losses, and return flow. These scenarios
mainly include the shift to drip irrigation, awareness campaigns, and losses control
in domestic supply pipes. Other retained scenarios having a higher shortfall, rely
on the use of the Channel concrete lining to decrease losses and return flow, in
addition to the awareness campaigns in both domestic and irrigation sectors, and less
consumptive/more efficient irrigation methods such as sprinkler and drip irrigation
at variable application percentages.
Efficient and effective water resources management requires a multidiscipli-
nary approach, integration of key stakeholders and multi-criteria decision making
processes. Better allocation strategies, suitable planning and policy implementation
result in increased efficiency of use, reduced levels of pollution, enhanced treatment,
and reduced demand. It is important that environmental policies are integrated with
development planning and regarded as a part of the overall framework of economic
and social planning. Given the huge differences between developed and developing
countries in political structures, national priorities, socio-economic conditions, cul-
tural traits, and financial resources, adoption of developed country’s strategies for
river basin management is neither appropriate nor viable for developing countries.
Strengthening the knowledge base of environmental problems and solutions in
developing countries, reflecting scientific thought and country empirical experience,
is required. To succeed, a management strategy requires a delivery mechanism and
resources to support change (Blackmore 1995). Participatory approach in watershed
management is a key factor for success. It is very crucial to account for the needs, con-
straints and practices of local people in order to define problems, set priorities, select
technologies and policies and monitor and evaluate impacts (Johnson et al. 2001).
Generally, problems arise when environmental requirements target economically
important activities particularly those owned by the government. Thus, institutional
arrangements would be needed to implement these environmental control policies.
5 Conclusions
The majority of the identified constraints and problems for the Lower Litani River
are also common to other rivers in Lebanon and developing countries. While there
Fig. 6 Negative correlation
between benefit/cost ratio
and water cost
Optimal water resources management 2359
are many impediments and challenges towards integrated water resources manage-
ment, these can be overcome by suitable planning and policy implementation. The
results of the optimization using the WRM revealed that most of the interventions
or measures proposed are generally not costly and can be implemented. Promoting
the use of advanced irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and sprinkler is very
essential. Public awareness relating to water scarcity issues is minimal in developing
countries. Providing local people with access to resources, education and information
necessary to influence environmental issues that affect them is a crucial step toward
sustainable management of water resources.
The application of the WRM faces few limitations such as the reliability of the
collected data and the absence of additional monitoring stations to assist in the
calibration of input and output data. Gathering hydrological data remains a problem
due to the relatively advanced and expensive technology required. Reliable records
need to be collected over a 10-year period to enable a comprehensive assessment and
the determination of the sustainability of proposed projects. This can be achieved by
establishing an extensive and integrated network of meteorological and hydrological
stations to provide systematic monitoring and control. The insufficiency of data about
pollution sources, natural conditions, and water-quality conditions, as well as the
lack of information related to cultural, social and economic factors often hinder the
development of effective management strategies for rivers in developing countries.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the European
Union of this 3-year regional research study as part of the project entitled “Optimization for
Sustainable Water Resources Management” (OPTIMA), which started on July 1, 2004, and is
implemented in Lebanon by Earth Link and Advanced Resources Development (ELARD) s.a.r.l.
and the National Center for Remote Sensing (NCRS).
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