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A Review of Catch-and-Release Angling Mortality with Implications for No-take Reserves
Abstract and Figures
Management agencies have increasingly relied on size limits, daily bag or trip limits, quotas, and seasonal closures to manage
fishing in recreational and commercial fisheries. Another trend is to establish aquatic protected areas, including no-take
reserves (NTRs), to promote sustainable fisheries and protect aquatic ecosystems. Some anglers, assuming that no serious harm
befalls the fish, advocate allowing catch-and-release (C&R) angling in aquatic protected areas. The ultimate success of these
regulations and C&R angling depends on ensuring high release survival rates by minimizing injury and mortality. To evaluate
the potential effectiveness of these practices, we review trends in C&R fishing and factors that influence release mortality.
Analysis of Marine Recreational Fishery Statistic Survey (MRFSS) data for 1981–1999 showed no statistically significant U.S.
trends for total number of anglers (mean 7.7 × 106), total catch in numbers (mean 362 × 106), or total annual catch/angler (mean 42.6 fish). However, mean total annual landings declined 28% (188.5 to 135.7 × 106), mean total catch/angler/trip declined 22.1% (0.95 to 0.74 fish), and mean landings/angler/trip declined 27% (0.42 to 0.31
fish). The total number of recreational releases or discards increased 97.1% (98.0 to 193.2 × 106) and as a proportion of total catch from 34.2% in 1981 to 58.0% in 1999. Evidence indicates that the increased releases and
discards are primarily in response to mandatory regulations and to a lesser extent, voluntary releases. Total annual catch
and mean annual catch/angler were maintained despite declines in catch per trip because anglers took 30.8% more fishing trips
(43.5 to 56.9 × 106), perhaps to compensate for greater use of bag and size limits. We reviewed 53 release mortality studies, doubling the number
of estimates since Muoneke and Childress (1994) reviewed catch and release fishing. A meta-analysis of combined data (n=274)
showed a skewed distribution of release mortality (median 11%, mean 18%, range 0–95%). Mortality distributions were similar
for salmonids, marine, and freshwater species. Mean mortality varied greatly by species and within species, anatomical hooking
location was the most important mortality factor. Other significant mortality factors were: use of natural bait, removing
hooks from deeply hooked fish, use of J-hooks (vs. circle hooks), deeper depth of capture, warm water temperatures, and extended
playing and handling times. Barbed hooks had marginally higher mortality than barbless hooks. Based on numbers of estimates,
no statistically significant overall effects were found for fish size, hook size, venting to deflate fish caught at depth,
or use of treble vs. single hooks. Catch and release fishing is a growing and an increasingly important activity. The common
occurrence of release mortality, however, requires careful evaluation for achieving fishery management goals and in some cases,
disturbance, injury, or mortality may conflict with some goals of NTRs. Research is needed to develop better technology and
techniques to reduce release mortality, to assess mortality from predation during capture and after release, to determine
cumulative mortality from multiple hooking and release events, and to measure sub-lethal effects on behavior, physical condition,
growth, and reproduction.
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... Global overfishing, driven by both commercial and recreational practices, has resulted in widespread declines in fish populations, destabilized ecosystems and poses significant threats to the sustainability of aquatic resources [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. To mitigate the overexploitation of fish stocks in recreational fisheries, catch-andrelease (C&R) angling, where captured fish are returned to the water, has emerged as a widely adopted management strategy [9][10][11][12]. For C&R to serve as a truly sustainable and ethical alternative to catch-and-keep practices, ensuring the survival and well-being of released fish is crucial. ...
... This exposure leads to additional challenges, including lactate accumulation, increased acidosis, exacerbated osmoregulatory disruption and poses a risk for anoxia, which could potentially lead to cell death through necrosis or apoptosis, and in the worst case, result in the fish's death [17][18][19]. While numerous studies indicate that mortality rates following C&R can be minimized with best practices, such as limiting air exposure [9,10,17], there remains significant concern regarding the sublethal risks associated with brief air exposure post-exhaustion, including impacts on growth, reproduction and behaviour [16,17,20,21]. ...
... This coincides with the timeframe in which we noted cognitive impairments. This recovery period potentially increases predation risk, as the fish's diminished executive function and physical coordination could render them more susceptible to predators, and may also negatively impact competition and feeding efficiency [10,54]. ...
Vertebrate brain function is particularly sensitive to the effects of hypoxia, with even brief periods of oxygen deprivation causing significant brain damage and impaired cognitive abilities. This study is the first to investigate the cognitive consequences of hypoxia in fish, specifically induced by exhaustive exercise and air exposure, conditions commonly encountered during catch-and-release (C&R) practices in recreational fishing. Angling exerts substantial pressure on inland fish populations, underscoring the need for sustainable practices like C&R. While C&R survival rates are generally high, understanding its sublethal impacts is crucial for evaluating the practice’s ethical and ecological sustainability. We examined the effects of these stressors on the cognitive function of 238 rainbow trout, using the free movement pattern Y-maze method to assess working memory through navigational search patterns during free exploration sessions. Our results showed that air exposure led to short-term (3–4 h post-treatment), but transient impairments in working memory, with no long-term cognitive deficits observed at one week and one month post-treatment. These findings emphasize the high tolerance of fish to hypoxia and support the sustainability of C&R as a tool in fisheries management.
... These not only include the angling practices (bait type, hook/lure type, body size, and anatomical location of the injury) but are also significantly affected by the environment (water temperature, depth, and dissolved oxygen) (Gale et al., 2013) and the angler behavior during hooking, playing, landing, and/or handling the fish (Danylchuk et al., 2018;Ferter et al., 2013). In the past two decades, a significant body of evidence was collected in an attempt to understand immediate and delayed mortality associated with C&R (Bartholomew & Bohnsack, 2005;Cooke & Suski, 2005;Meka & McCormick, 2005;Pollock & Pine III, 2007;Skov et al., 2023;Stone, 2020), and to develop improved fishing regulations to support both recreational fishing and the environment (Ayllón et al., 2019). ...
... In North America, C&R is increasing continuously, as fisheries agencies are promoting initiatives for the 3 R's: recruit new anglers, retain existing ones, and re-engage those who have stopped (Rempel et al., 2024). The average C&R mortality, however, was estimated at 18% (Bartholomew & Bohnsack, 2005), suggesting that C&R continues to have a significant impact on the environment, even when C&R best practices are being followed (Danylchuk et al., 2018). Trout is typically found on the F I G U R E 3 Impairment of the individual physiological reflexes after the simulated catch and release (C&R) event as quantified by the reflex action mortality predictor (RAMP) scores. ...
This study investigated the impact of an oxygen‐rich spray on rainbow trout subjected to short‐term air exposure episodes. These episodes can be due to sampling procedures or catch‐and‐release (C&R) practices, focusing on behavioral, haematological, and physiological responses. For this, 12 rainbow trout were divided into two groups: control and oxygen‐rich sprayed fish. The fish were chased for 3 min and exposed to air for 6 s, and blood and behavior parameters were assessed. Simulated C&R resulted in partial physiological reflex impairment across groups. However, sprayed fish exhibited significant differences during recovery in head complex reflex and faster tendencies to regain orientation compared to control. Haematological analyses revealed that the treated group displayed reduced erythrocyte swelling and maintenance of red blood cell (RBC) counts, indicating reduced need for compensatory responses to hypoxia. Meanwhile, stress‐related indicators, including cortisol, glucose, and lactate, remained unaffected by the treatment, suggesting no interference of spraying with the fish ability to launch a healthy stress response. No adverse effects were observed on skin surfaces or gills after an exploratory analysis. Overall, the oxygen‐rich spray exhibited favorable effects, indicating potential benefits in protecting rainbow trout during C&R practices or sampling episodes. Moreover, there is a possible wider application of this methodology to benefit other species of fish subjected to stressors such as aquaculture, research, and fisheries management.
... Although the practice of catch-and-release fishing is advocated in recreational fisheries, questions remain about levels of post-release mortality [8,9] as well as more cryptic sub-lethal effects on growth and fitness due to stress, injuries, and increased susceptibility to predation [9][10][11][12]. While some studies have examined the physiological stress caused by catch-and-release fishing on sharks using other fishing techniques (e.g., longlining or drumlining) [13][14][15], there have been comparatively fewer studies evaluating the physiological stress response of sharks to common recreational angling gears or methods [16,17]. ...
Nurse sharks (Ginglymostoma cirratum), especially juveniles, are often encountered by near-shore and shore-based recreational anglers and are suggested to exhibit minimal behavioral and physiological responses to capture, largely based on studies of adults using commercial or scientific fishing methods. To quantify the sub-lethal effects of recreational angling on juvenile nurse sharks, 27 individuals (across 31 angling events) were caught using hook-and-line fishing methods. Over a 30-min period, 4 blood samples were taken with variable time intervals between sampling (i.e., randomized ordering of an interval of 5, 10, and 15 min between each sampling event). Lactate increased by 611% (6.7 ± 2.17 mmol/L) on average over the 30-min fight, and significant relationships were identified between lactate and blood draw number, fight time, and temperature, with large effect sizes. Significant relationships were also detected between blood draw number, glucose, and hematocrit, while osmolality was only affected by fishing site. These results suggest juvenile nurse sharks may exhibit a greater physiological stress response when exposed to recreational angling than adults captured with other fishing methods.
... Whether mandated or voluntary, C&R aims to lower fishinginduced mortality (Cooke and Schramm 2007) and, in theory, can help promote economic prosperity and achieve conservation outcomes (Granek et al. 2008;Wood et al. 2013;. Despite its conservation-oriented intentions, when not appropriately implemented, C&R can lead to negative consequences, such as post-release mortality (Muoneke and Childress 1994;Bartholomew and Bohnsack 2005) and sublethal effects, which have the potential to alter vital rates (Cooke et al. 2002;Cooke and Suski 2005;Arlinghaus et al. 2007). If C&R is high, it can also make it difficult to structure fish populations, especially when fish population size is low, which may not meet management and angler desires (Miranda et al. 2017;Hessenauer et al. 2018; Sass and Shaw 2020). ...
By combining acoustic telemetry, mark-and-recapture, and location-specific catch logs, we tested whether angler-fish interactions altered the behavior, space use, and catchability of giant trevally (Caranx ignobilis) (GT) in coastal waters of the Alphonse Island Group, Seychelles, Indian Ocean. Adult GT near a high human use area with limited provisioning showed restricted movements during the tourism fishing season and had home ranges nearly 50% smaller than that of adult GT from other parts of the atoll group. Despite angler catch maps overlapping with 30% of non-habituated adult GT core use areas, recaptures were infrequent, suggesting that GT became hook shy. Although there was no change in movement patterns during a temporary fishing closure caused by COVID-19, non-habituated GT movement patterns shifted toward wider ranging movements with each successive fishing season, potentially to avoid shallow water areas where angler activities occurred. Our findings highlight how angler interactions and catch-and-release fisheries have the potential to modify the behavior, space use, and catchability of targeted species, and may influence the viability of the fishery by exceeding its capacity.
... Considering the annual C&R of billions of fish by anglers (Cooke and Cowx 2004), scientific findings should guide development of best practices for anglers (Elmer et al. 2017). Indeed, when science-based best handling practices are followed and fish to be released are in a good welfare state, sub-lethal stressors (disease resistance, growth, fitness) and mortality can be reduced relative to fish that are mishandled (Bartholomew and Bohnsack 2005;Arlinghaus et al. 2007). Yet, much guidance provided to anglers (see Pelletier, Hanson, and Cooke 2007) or shared within the This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made. ...
Recreational anglers have access to a diverse range of rod and line strengths that enable them to choose equipment that can enhance their ability to effectively target and capture specific fish of a given body size. However, anglers may not always select the appropriate gear type for the targeted species. Here, we assessed the effect of gear setup on immediate reflex impairment and short‐term post‐release swimming behavior of Smallmouth Bass ( Micropterus dolomieu ) for 10‐min. Smallmouth Bass were caught by angling in water temperatures of 22.7°C–26.2°C using ultralight or medium spinning gear. Fight times were longer for fish captured on ultralight gear than medium gear, and fight times were longer for larger fish. Generally, fight times > 18 s resulted in one or more immediate reflex impairments, while fish with fight times < 18 s had no immediate reflex impairments. Post‐release swimming activity was only influenced by gear type used. Upon release, Smallmouth Bass captured using ultralight gear spent more time sustained swimming than those caught using medium gear type that spent more time resting. Given that fight times were longer for Smallmouth Bass captured using ultralight gear, they were conceivably more exhausted. This increased post‐release swimming activity indicates that fish may need to engage in sustained swimming to facilitate physiological recovery. Our findings suggest that anglers should select gear types that minimize fight times to avoid reflex impairments and extended periods of post‐release sustained swimming needed for recovery.
... Individuals may receive physiological and psychological benefits, such as increased self-esteem, reduced anxiety, and relief from depression and stress (Freudenberg and Arlinghaus 2009;Hughes 2014;Pita et al. 2022;Pretty et al. 2007), whereas societal benefits may relate to economic revenue totaling ~40 billion dollars globally and 6-billion EUR in Europe alone (Cisneros-Montemayor and Sumaila 2010; Hyder et al. 2018). Recreational fisheries can also negatively impact ecosystems and fish populations through fishing mortality, post-release mortality, decreased genetic diversity, spread of invasive species, and disturbance of habitats (Bartholomew and Bohnsack 2005;Coleman et al. 2004;Lewin, Arlinghaus, and Mehner 2006;Weir et al. 2022). ...
Citizen science platforms are an alternative to traditional survey methods for collecting data from recreational fisheries. However, to supplement data collection, challenges associated with these platforms must be addressed, such as lack of recruitment and sustained engagement. Some platforms distinguish between recruitment and data contribution in that participants might register on a platform, but only a subset starts contributing data, and even fewer continue to do so. To further understanding of drivers behind data contribution, we first assessed the willingness to share information, using response rates to optional questions asked during account registration, among three distinct groups of participants on an electronic citizen science platform for anglers: (i) registered and did not contribute data (registrants); (ii) registered and contributed data in a single year (contributors); and (iii) registered and contributed data in multiple years (sustained contributors). We next modeled demographic and fishery‐specific questions to determine specific drivers of data contribution and sustained contribution. Willingness to share information upon registration was lowest among registrants, intermediate among contributors, and highest among sustained contributors. The answer to the question “How important is angling as a hobby for you?” was the main driver in moving from registrant to contributor and from contributor to sustained contributor (i.e., participants who considered angling a more important hobby were more likely to be contributors and sustained contributors). Additionally, the probability of being a contributor declined over time, and angler residence (postal codes) was a driver of sustained contribution. Our findings indicated temporal and spatial instability in the participant base.
Objective:
Muskellunge Esox masquinongy fisheries in Ohio are almost exclusively catch and release. Catch and release is expected to benefit anglers via recaptures of previously caught fish (i.e., recycling). We used mark–recapture techniques to evaluate catch-and-release dynamics over multiple years in two stocked Muskellunge fisheries in Ohio.
Methods:
Muskellunge were collected and tagged each spring by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Wildlife (ODNR-DOW) at Clearfork Reservoir (1991–2006) and Leesville Lake (2016–2022). A total of 4139 Muskellunge were tagged, of which 38% (n = 1575) were recaptured at least once by either the ODNR-DOW or anglers. A total of 252 anglers reported 1339 catches of tagged fish. Multistate modeling was used to estimate survival and transition probabilities across years for the following marked fish states: at large (L, ODNR-DOW marked fish not reported caught by anglers); catch and release (C, those fish reported caught and released by anglers); and recycled (R, catch-and-release fish caught and reported by anglers again). Transition probabilities between states L to C and C to R estimated Muskellunge catch and release and recycling, respectively.
Result:
Raw angler catch reports indicated that intra-annual recycling was rare, with the median time between recapture events exceeding a year. Modeled annual survival probability of L fish at Clearfork Reservoir and Leesville Lake was 0.67 and 0.87, respectively. About a quarter of these fish were caught and released by anglers at both reservoirs. Survival of C fish was lower than L fish at both reservoirs (Clearfork Reservoir = 0.58; Leesville Lake = 0.67), suggesting a “catch-and-release effect” on survival. Joint probability of catch-and-release fish surviving and being recycled annually was 0.24 and 0.23 for Clearfork Reservoir and Leesville Lake, respectively.
Conclusion:
Integration of survival and catch probabilities over the long-term provides a comprehensive evaluation of catch-and-release dynamics. Estimates suggest that post-catch-and-release survival and probability of recycling may be lower than anticipated, which may have implications for managing Muskellunge fisheries and angler expectations.
Recreational fishing is an important part of the world’s aquatic ecosystems; it provides ecological, social, and economic advantages but also presents obstacles to the preservation of biodiversity. This chapter highlights the significance of sustainable management approaches by examining the dual effects of recreational fishing on fish populations and habitats. Angler stewardship and economic contributions are important assets, but there are still vulnerabilities in the form of hazards from invasive species and gaps in our understanding of ecology. Opportunities exist for reducing threats from overfishing and habitat degradation, as well as for community engagement and conservation education. The integration of scientific research and local knowledge is emphasized in the guiding principles for sustainable development, which aim to promote mutually beneficial outcomes for conservation and fishery initiatives.
Angling is a popular recreational activity worldwide, cherished for its relaxation and connection with nature. The practice of catch-and-release has emerged as a critical conservation strategy advocated by environmentalists and fishery managers to sustain fish populations. Proper fish handling techniques are essential to minimize stress, injury, and mortality post-catch. This chapter explores effective strategies such as minimizing fight time, using low-impact equipment, avoiding air exposure, gentle handling, managing barotrauma, and reviving fish before release. Adhering to these techniques not only enhances the survival rates of released fish but also promotes sustainable angling practices crucial for the preservation of aquatic ecosystems.
Catch‐and‐release (C&R) angling is becoming more common worldwide for managing stream‐resident salmonids but has only recently been introduced in Japan. However, few studies have examined effects of C&R regulations on fish populations through adequate experimental designs. We estimated effects of implementing a C&R regulation on stream‐resident salmonids. The western part of the Agatsuma River system in Japan is a fishing area with standard regulations under which anglers can harvest white‐spotted charr or masu salmon of > 15 cm total length. In contrast, the eastern part is a fishing area with a C&R regulation requiring release of all caught fish, owing to radiocesium contamination caused by a nuclear accident at Fukushima. Density and total length of stream‐resident salmonids were examined in these areas in several tributaries. Fish density was significantly higher in the C&R area, whereas total length did not differ significantly between areas. Implementing a C&R regulation may be effective for conserving salmonid populations in mountainous streams.
Electronic serial mode of access: World Wide Web via the Michigan DNR, Institute for Fisheries Research site.
The fishing characteristics of circle hooks and straight shank or "J" hooks were investigated in the pelagic longline fishery during two successive trips. In one trip, circle hooks and J-hooks of comparable size were alternated along the length of the longline on six sets of approximately 400 live-baited hooks each, allowing a preliminary comparison of catch per unit effort (CPUE), hooking location, and mortality between the two hook types. On a previous trip, records of hooking location and mortality were obtained for J-hooks on nine additional longline sets. Yellow fin tuna Thunnus albacares accounted for 60% of the catch; the remainder was composed of 15 other species, none of which was represented by more than eight individuals. There was higher CPUE for all species combined, using circle hooks (5.05 fish/100 hooks) as compared with using "J" hooks (2.28 fish/100 hooks). Similar results were observed with the catch of the target species (yellowfin tuna), for which CPUE was approximately 2.5 times higher with circle hooks (3.33 tuna/100 hooks) as compared with J-hooks. Circle hooks also resulted in a lower mortality for all species (31% versus 42%) and for the target species (21 % versus 39%). For all species, 95% of the fish taken on circle hooks were hooked in the jaw. Hooking location varied by species, but for all species combined, circle hooks consistently had a higher frequency of jaw hooking and a lower frequency of gut hooking than J-hooks. These preliminary results suggest that use of circle hooks in the pelagic longline fishery targeting yellowfin tuna may not only increase CPUE and survival of this species but also improve the survival of incidental catch and bycatch.