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Environmental Changes and Sustainable Development of Water Resources in the Himalayan Headwaters of India
Abstract
The nature of terrain imposes severe limitations on the scale of productive activities as well as on the efficiency of infrastructural
facilities in the Indian Himalaya. As a result, biomass based subsistence agriculture constitutes the main source of rural
livelihood. During the recent past, rural resource development practices have changed in response to population increase and
the resultant increased demand on natural resources as well as increasing socio-economic and political marginalization. This
has brought about rapid environmental changes which have reduced the groundwater recharge in the region. About 36% of springs
have dried, heads of perennial streams have dried and water discharge in springs and streams has decreased considerably resulting
into severe crisis of water for drinking as well as irrigation during the past 20years. In addition to assessing the impact
of recent environmental changes on water resources, this paper attempts to develop a community and user oriented framework
for the sustainable development of water resources with a case illustration of Kosi headwater in Kumaon Lesser Himalaya, India.
KeywordsRural resource use structure–Climate change–Land use changes–Participatory resource management–Spring sanctuaries–Wasteland management
... Further, over 70% of people in this region rely on rainfed subsistence agriculture to support their livelihood (Sati, 2016(Sati, , 2019. Moreover, the Garhwal Himalaya is experiencing rapid changes due to natural and anthropogenic factors, including declining agricultural practices, rising populations, climate change, globalization, infrastructure development, out-migration, and haphazard urbanization (Sati, 2019;Tiwari & Joshi, 2012). As a result of these changes and limitations of livelihoods, many people are migrating to urban areas to seek employment (Biella et al., 2022;Sati, 2021). ...
... According to Sati (2021), the main causes of rural-urban migration in the Garhwal Himalaya are the search for better employment and quality education. Further, Tiwari and Joshi (2012) found that the Garhwal region experienced phenomenal economic growth in the last 2 decades. However, the growth has not been evenly distributed throughout the region, resulting in severe regional inequality (Mamgain & Reddy, 2016). ...
... Growth processes in the hills were unable to provide sufficient employment opportunities to its people, leading to a massive rural-urban migration in the region (Sati, 2021). Moreover, young people are compelled to migrate to urban areas in search of better opportunities for education and employment, as these facilities are not adequately available in the rural hilly areas of the Garhwal Himalaya (Kumar, 2021;Tiwari & Joshi, 2012). Furthermore, outmigration has resulted in many socio-economic problems in the region (Biella et al., 2022;Grau & Aide, 2007;Joshi, 2018;Sati, 2021;Sati & Juyal, 2008). ...
Rural-urban migration is the most adopted strategy in rural areas to overcome the risk associated with subsistence economy and to diversify income. The Garhwal Himalaya has the highest rate of rural-urban migration in India, which has serious repercussions. Despite this, there is a dearth of literature on the implications of rural-urban migration in the region. This paper attempts to fill this void. The objectives of the paper are to investigate various types, patterns, determinants, and implications of rural-urban migration in the Garhwal Himalaya. In order to meet the objectives, 15 villages were studied from five districts of the Garhwal Himalaya. A comprehensive questionnaire with diverse set of questions from various dimensions was employed in the study. Several migration related questions from both origin and destination were considered while framing and conducting the survey. Several focused group discussions and interviews were conducted in the study villages to understand the real drivers and implications of rural-urban migration in the region. The study reveals that rural-urban migration is a serious issue in Garhwal Himalayas, posing various socioeconomic problems. Without immediate action, it will have serious repercussions. Finally, this study suggests minimizing the current rate of rural-urban migration in the Garhwal Himalaya.
... High population growth (Table 1.1) and resultant changes in land use are decreasing the forested area and leading to unsustainability of HKH agriculture. The rapidly changing patterns of land use, the resultant decrease in forest area, and decreasing annual rainfall have also disrupted the hydrological regime, with water resources diminishing rapidly, mainly due to reduced groundwater recharge (Tiwari and Joshi 2012a). Such conditions have an impact on most aspects of food and nutrition security. ...
... A large number of people living in rural areas in the HKH region depend heavily on natural resources for their livelihoods and food security (Rasul 2010;Rasul et al. 2014), but rapid urbanization, changes in land use patterns, and increasing rainfall variability have affected the natural resources across the region. Water resources, especially springs, are being depleted rapidly across the HKH region (Tiwari and Joshi 2012a). Although the causes are not yet clear, a range of factors are thought to be responsible, including reduced infiltration and increased runoff, changes in land use (e.g., mixed forest to plantation, forest to agriculture, agriculture to infrastructure, wetlands to drained land), changes in agricultural practices (leading to soil degradation), and changes in precipitation patterns (e.g., from snow to rain, increase in cloudbursts and extreme events) (Tiwari and Joshi 2012a, b;Gautam and Andersen 2017). ...
... Water resources, especially springs, are being depleted rapidly across the HKH region (Tiwari and Joshi 2012a). Although the causes are not yet clear, a range of factors are thought to be responsible, including reduced infiltration and increased runoff, changes in land use (e.g., mixed forest to plantation, forest to agriculture, agriculture to infrastructure, wetlands to drained land), changes in agricultural practices (leading to soil degradation), and changes in precipitation patterns (e.g., from snow to rain, increase in cloudbursts and extreme events) (Tiwari and Joshi 2012a, b;Gautam and Andersen 2017). The amount of surface runoff is also much higher from built-up land than from other land categories, particularly forest and areas under cultivation. ...
Key Findings
1. Food and nutrition insecurity remains a serious
challenge in the Hindu Kush Himalaya
(HKH) region; more than 30% of the population
suffers from food insecurity and around 50%
face some form of malnutrition, with women and
children suffering the most. The insecurity is more
severe in remote mountain areas. Challenges to food
security in the mountain areas differ from those in
the plains due to inaccessibility, fragility, seasonality, limited economic opportunities, poor market
access, and harsh biophysical conditions.
2. The causes of food and nutrition insecurity in
the HKH are multifaceted and complex, and
influenced by a range of factors including high
poverty, natural resource degradation, climate
change, low level of market development, uncertain food support, and inadequate policy and
institutional support.
3. Traditional mountain food systems are currently
under threat from rapid socioeconomic and
environmental changes including changing dietary habits, changes towards mono-cropping and
commodity crops, loss of water sources, soil
degradation, and decline in market value. Mountain
agriculture is becoming relatively less competitive
and the youth are increasingly abandoning agricultural livelihoods, leading to decreased food production and adversely affecting local food systems strengthening social safety nets, enhancing
knowledge and awareness about nutrition, and
reducing physical and socioeconomic vulnerability.
Efforts are also needed to diversify livelihood
options and develop non-farm sectors such as
tourism and handicrafts to enhance household food
purchasing power. Attention also needs to be given
to increasing the productivity of traditional crops
and local breeds of livestock, and to the development of non-timber forest products (NTFPs),
medicinal and aromatic plants, mountain niche
cash crops, and organic agriculture.
3. Increased investment in the management of
natural resources, including soil, water, and
energy, is critical to increase agricultural production, diversify local food systems, and
improve nutrition. Major investments are needed
in soil and water management to revitalize springs,
ponds, and other water bodies and to develop
irrigation facilities and improve the domestic water
supply in an environmentally responsible manner
in hill and mountain areas.
... The important geological sequences comprise of Siwalik group (sandstones and mudstones), Amritpur granite, Ramgarh group (slates, phyllites, quartzites, and marble integrally associated with highly sheared or mylonitized porphyritic granite and quartz-porphyry), Almora group (mica schists, micaceous quartzites, and graphite schist, interbedded with augen gneisses), and Bhimtal Volcanics intimately associated with quartzites and subordinate slates (Bhawali Quartzite). The headwater of the Kosi River basin in Kumaun Himalayas has been studied by Tiwari and Joshi (2012), Pant and Rawat (2015), and Grover (2015). The elevation varies between 1405-2720 m and the master-stream discharges approximately 4.73 × 10 5 L day −1 during dry seasons (at its mouth near Someshwar). ...
... The headwater region comprises of Precambrian metamorphic rocks (garnetiferous mica-schist interbedded with micaceous quartzites, augen gneisses and carbonaceous phyllites interbedded with black metagrawackes and graphitic schists) and associated granite. The neotectonics activity results in good aquifer systems with springs discharge ranges between 600 to 49700 L day −1 with an average flow of 16,950 L day −1 (Tiwari and Joshi 2012). ...
... The statistics mentioned in Table 6 shows that population density has increased rapidly by 70.21% and forest area has been converted to agriculture at a rate of ~26% which is quite high for the mountainous terrain. Population pressure, deforestation, reduced recharge zone, and declining rainfall trends in the Kumaun Himalayas is affecting the headwater recharging sites (Tiwari and Joshi 2012). The flow of Kosi River in the headwater region have also been reported to have declined from 550 m 3 s -1 in 2001 to 220 m 3 s -1 in 2007. ...
The climate change and unsustainable anthropogenic modification can intensify the vulnerability of the Himalayas. Natural springs are the principal source of potable water security for the Himalayan population. The changes in the trend of precipitation, temperature and glacier melt are expected to impact the quantity and quality of spring water significantly. This review presents an insight to unravel the effects of climate change and land use land cover changes on the spring resources and outline the essential elements of spring hydrology in the Himalayas. The sensitive response of spring flow to the climate has been observed to follows an annual periodic pattern strongly dependent on snowmelt, rainfall, and evapotranspiration. Among all types, Karst aquifers were found to be highly vulnerable. The changes in the forest and urban landscapes are affecting the recharging sites in the headwater region. In the Central Himalayan region (Kosi River basin, Kumaun), the number of perennial springs is decreasing at a rate of three springs year−1, and non-perennial springs are increasing at the rate of one spring year−1. The high concentration of NO3−, Cl−1, SO42−, and coliform counts reported from the spring water evidence a high susceptibility of shallow aquifers to the non-point source of pollution. Future projections indicate high surface-runoff and occurrence of extreme events such as floods, glacial lake outbursts, and landslides can affect the flow and water quality of springs. As the impact of climate change and anthropogenic activities are expected to increase with time remarkably, there is an urgent need to promote regional scientific studies on springs targeting hydrogeochemical evolution, vulnerability assessment, recharge area dynamics, and development of springshed management program.
... High population growth (Table 1.1) and resultant changes in land use are decreasing the forested area and leading to unsustainability of HKH agriculture. The rapidly changing patterns of land use, the resultant decrease in forest area, and decreasing annual rainfall have also disrupted the hydrological regime, with water resources diminishing rapidly, mainly due to reduced groundwater recharge (Tiwari and Joshi 2012a). Such conditions have an impact on most aspects of food and nutrition security. ...
... A large number of people living in rural areas in the HKH region depend heavily on natural resources for their livelihoods and food security (Rasul 2010;Rasul et al. 2014), but rapid urbanization, changes in land use patterns, and increasing rainfall variability have affected the natural resources across the region. Water resources, especially springs, are being depleted rapidly across the HKH region (Tiwari and Joshi 2012a). Although the causes are not yet clear, a range of factors are thought to be responsible, including reduced infiltration and increased runoff, changes in land use (e.g., mixed forest to plantation, forest to agriculture, agriculture to infrastructure, wetlands to drained land), changes in agricultural practices (leading to soil degradation), and changes in precipitation patterns (e.g., from snow to rain, increase in cloudbursts and extreme events) (Tiwari and Joshi 2012a, b;Gautam and Andersen 2017). ...
... Water resources, especially springs, are being depleted rapidly across the HKH region (Tiwari and Joshi 2012a). Although the causes are not yet clear, a range of factors are thought to be responsible, including reduced infiltration and increased runoff, changes in land use (e.g., mixed forest to plantation, forest to agriculture, agriculture to infrastructure, wetlands to drained land), changes in agricultural practices (leading to soil degradation), and changes in precipitation patterns (e.g., from snow to rain, increase in cloudbursts and extreme events) (Tiwari and Joshi 2012a, b;Gautam and Andersen 2017). The amount of surface runoff is also much higher from built-up land than from other land categories, particularly forest and areas under cultivation. ...
The mountain people of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) face large challenges in food and nutrition security. Although progress has been made in calorie intake, malnutrition remains a serious challenge (well-established). About 50% of the population suffers from malnutrition, and women and children suffer more. Ending hunger and achieving food and nutrition security—as articulated in the Sustainable Development Goals—is an urgent need for the governments of the region.
... Springs in the mid-hills of the Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH), crucially important for the survival of the 240 million hill and mountain people residing in the region [1], are drying [2][3][4][5][6][7]. The mid-hills are located at a lower elevation compared to the largest reserves of snow and ice outside the North and South Poles (the HKH sometimes referred to as the 'Third Pole'). ...
... Development of densely populated settlements and large mountain towns in the same catchment as the springs under consideration, resulting in increasing demand for water [5] The proximity of each spring to the nearest census town. The greater the proximity, the lesser the impact of the town on the spring. ...
The Indian Himalayan Region is home to nearly 50 million people, more than 50% of whom are dependent on springs for their sustenance. Sustainable management of the nearly 3 million springs in the region requires a framework to identify the springs most vulnerable to change agents which can be biophysical or socio-economic, internal or external. In this study, we conceptualize vulnerability in the Indian Himalayan springs. By way of a systematic review of the published literature and synthesis of research findings, a scheme of identifying and quantifying these change agents (stressors) is presented. The stressors are then causally linked to the characteristics of the springs using indicators, and the resulting impact and responses are discussed. These components, viz., stressors, state, impact, and response, and the linkages are used in the conceptual framework to assess the vulnerability of springs. A case study adopting the proposed conceptual model is discussed for Mathamali spring in the Western Himalayas. The conceptual model encourages quantification of stressors and promotes a convergence to an evidence-based decision support system for the management of springs and the dependent ecosystems from the threat due to human development and climate change.
... Several studies had been conducted using a sustainable development approach on water resources development [LIU et al. 2012;NEL et al. 2011;TIWARI, JOSHI 2012], and water resources management [LOUCKS 2000;MARIO-LAKOS 2007;PAHL-WOSTL et al. 2008]. Majority of the studies were conducted with the vision and mission to sustain the quality and quantity of water resources which are important for continuous survival in the future generation. ...
... Majority of the studies were conducted with the vision and mission to sustain the quality and quantity of water resources which are important for continuous survival in the future generation. Most of the studies carried out on water resources to identify the environmental issues that exist when water pollution is detected, together plus with the drastic climate change (the frequent dry and flood season) as well as the increased demand for water supply for the rapid population growth and socio-economic view, resulting to the crisis of water for drinking and irrigation activities [LIU et al. 2012;LOUCKS 2000;MARIOLAKOS 2007;NEL et al. 2011;PAHL--WOSTL et al. 2008;TIWARI, JOSHI 2012]. Therefore, this study suggested for a sustainable development in water resources development by (1) increasing the area for forest with the purpose of recharging, replenishing and regenerating freshwater which are involved with the issues of dwindling water resources; (2) conversion of marginal and submarginal cultivated land into forest would facilitate the desired conservation of water and other natural resources; ...
River water pollution has been reported globally. In suggestion to adapt sustainability approach, this study carry out to tests the structural equation model between sustainable development and water resources management in the Malacca River basin (Malaysia). The model consists of six latent constructs (anthropogenic activities; law, regulation and policy; land and water ecosystem; Malacca River; river water pollution; sustainability) and twenty four items based on 400 questionnaires which were completed and returned by the local residents of Malacca state. Selected study area is within Malacca River basin. The result show the Malacca River is influenced by water law-regulation-policy ( β = 0.546, p < 0.001), anthropogenic activities ( β = 0.145, p < 0.001), river water pollution ( β = 0.142, p < 0.001), land and water ecosystem ( β = 0.105, p < 0.01), as well as sustainable approach ( β = 0.127, p < 0.5). It was found that a sustainable approach and water law-regulation-policy have a direct influence on anthropogenic activities, river water pollution, as well as the land and water ecosystem. In conclusion, this study suggests developing an earlier approach of the model involved with water resources management and sustainable development.
... This is because fertile soil is vital in converting solar energy into food energy via the photosynthesis process of plants. As a matter of fact, water is needed for these processes and is the most limiting factor in the Mandara hills (Sahel zone) [44][45][46][47]61,179]. Soil and water have an immediate impact on agriculture and other primary economic activities, as well as secondary, tertiary, and quartile activities [138,139,[185][186][187]. In the age of global climate change (e.g. ...
... This is causing water to become a scarce resource, even with abundant rainfall. The shortage is measured in terms of the amount of water available for economic and social purposes (Tiwari and Joshi, 2012). The current demand and supply of water are insufficient to meet the growing population's needs. ...
... This is causing water to become a scarce resource, even with abundant rainfall. The shortage is measured in terms of the amount of water available for economic and social purposes (Tiwari and Joshi, 2012). The current demand and supply of water are insufficient to meet the growing population's needs. ...
Introduction. Human activities cause ongoing disruption to natural systems and affect the way rivers behave in mountain ecosystems. Growing population, depletion of resources, changes in consumption, economic expansion, and unsustainable farming practices put immense pressure on natural and water resources. Objective. This paper examines the impact of water resources on natural resources and the livelihood of local people using traditional and new scientific techniques adopted by the locals. Methodology. A Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) involved research in different villages to understand the actual conditions of natural resource management and the livelihood options of key stakeholders. Results. The Dewal Block, Uttarakhand, India, has abundant natural resources that can meet the daily needs of local people. While the area receives sufficient rainfall, water drains to foothills due to steep slopes, lack of vegetation, and inefficient use of modern technology. Local communities have developed innovative techniques that are culturally accepted, economically feasible, and highly efficient. These include the chal-khal system, pit technology, guls/kuls, among others. Conclusion. The techniques help to enhance the living standards of the locals by actively involving them in the water resource management process. This facilitates ecological restoration, stream rejuvenation, and sustainable livelihood generation.
... Highly erratic rainfall in terms of spatial distribution and intensity, possibly due to global Climate Change (CC), coupled with unplanned human interventions like an increase in built-up/settlement area, increased incidents of wildfires, overgrazing, and clearing of canopy cover to accommodate regions fast-growing population, especially over recharging zones, has backed-up the overall relative imperviousness of surface stratum at the landscape level towards arresting the surface runoff. This creates an overbalance between the spring discharge and recharging processes, with the recharge process lagging substantially, hence diminishing the spring's overall resurgence [21][22][23][24]. Additionally, Barbieri et al. [25] suggested that CC may also act as a driver towards groundwater pollution. ...
Accounting potential zones for recharging groundwater is a prerequisite before the implementation of the springshed conservation program. Many studies have suggested that the resurgence of the springs in the Himalayan region is waning due to anthropogenic and Climate Change impacts. Typical physical methods of recharge zone explorations are manpower & fiscal-intensive and find limited applicability in areas with steep slopes and undulating topography. The deliberated study is an attempt towards the identification of potential recharge zones using topographical and meteorological indices via two MCDM methods, namely, AHP and Fuzzy AHP for the Saryu watershed of Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand. Twelve thematic layers following the assignment of suitable weights were overlayed for the development of the groundwater recharge potentiality map. The findings indicated that following AHP 6%, 86.89%, 7.10% & 0.01% of the study area demonstrates low, moderate, high, and very high potentiality for groundwater recharge, while, FAHP suggests these indices to be 19.23%, 76.77%, 3.55%, & 0.45%, respectively. Further, FAHP demonstrates the redundancy of a few input layers for the adopted scale of the input data. The study also furnishes a brief description of opportune recharge structures based on the groundwater recharge potentialities.
... This flooding represents the region's surplus water, which represents a potential food security solution if the water can be transferred to where it's needed. To alleviate water shortages in northwestern China, northern India, and Pakistan, while simultaneously fighting flooding, many governments and researchers have suggested harvesting of this surplus water resource (Feng and He, 2009;Tiwari and Joshi, 2012). ...
... 4,7 The Himalaya is the water tower of Asia which is home of plenty of fresh water resource in the form of snow/glaciers, lakes and mighty rivers. 5,8 Several studies reveal that climate change has affected various sectors in mountain ecosystem such as regional spring-fed hydrology, 9,10,11,12 agriculture, 13 groundwater, 14,15,16 biodiversity, 17 horticulture 18 and animal husbandry. 19 Work on the impact of climate change on the hydrological system in the Himalaya region is still less than the other sectors. ...
In the age of climate change, the hydrological cycle is the most sensitive cycle which is being adversely affected. The natural water sources such as natural springs, rivulets, rivers etc of non-glacial fed watershed in Uttarakhand are drying and dying steadily disturbing society's economy, and environment and creating threat on livelihood and ecosystem of the region. The basic goal of the current paper is to evaluate the impact of climate change on the gravity flow drinking water resource of the study area, Lesser Himalaya, Uttarakhand. For this objective, the hydrometeorological data is analyzed in this paper. The meteorological data, i.e., mean temperature (y = 0.059x + (-) 102.07) and average annual rainfall (y = 2.759x + (-) 4546.41) shows an increasing trend while the hydrological data shows a decreasing trend over the time. The study shows that in spite of an increasing trend in the annual rainfall pattern, the groundwater resource has been depleted significantly in the study area caused by change in rainfall rhythm which has disturbed the water recharging capacity of soil into the aquifers and the baseflow discharge of the gravity flow sources. Due to all these changes, the baseflow water discharge capacity of gravity flow sources have perturbed badly which is imposing threat on drinking water supply in the villages of the study area. At present, there are 93 gravity flow drinking water schemes in the study area. On an average, the baseflow water discharge of these schemes at their establishment year was recorded 40.11 l/m which has decreased to 23.46 l/m in 2018. Thus, on an average, about 16.65 l/m baseflow water discharge capacity of each scheme has been decreased since their establishment year. These data shows that how alarmingly the baseflow water discharge capacity at the sources of gravity flow schemes is depleting in the study area. Therefore, the study suggests a water source rejuvenation program for the sustenance of water sources, livelihood and ecosystem of the region.
... It is a dangerous sign that aquifers are depleting in a state where majority of the population in hills is dependents on springs for drinking water. These effects are being observed in nearly all mountainous regions of India (Tiwari et al., 2011). VPs of Uttarakhand are the unique example of people's institution that has been in existence since 1930, for managing their natural resources and efficient environmental governance. ...
The Himalayan ecosystem is one of the most important and threatened life support systems on the earth. Ruthless exploitation of vegetal cover from steep hill slopes of Uttarakhand hills is adversely affecting the various natural resources. About 36% of springs have dried resulting into severe crisis of water for drinking as well as irrigation during the past 20 years. It is a dangerous sign that aquifers are depleting in a state where majority of the population in hills dependents on springs for drinking water. Women drudgery is high and bulk of their time is spent in collecting fodder, fuel-wood and water for which walking 4-6 Km/ day is common resulting in neglect of children and personal health. The present study was conducted at two villages (1646 -1715 m elevation) to evaluate the effect of various activities directed towards using a mix of traditional and scientific know how in reviving /improving the water discharge of springs, reducing women drudgery by planting fodder grasses in areas close to villages. The milk production increased by 0.8 to 1.2 liter/ cattle/household. Establishment of micro-reservoirs at each spring shed increased thedischarge of water during lean period.
... There is a need to identify vulnerable springs due to biophysical and socio-economic reasons for their judicious management. Many springs in the mid-hills of the Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH) are drying (Valdiya and Bartarya 1991;Tiwari 2008;Tiwari and Joshi 2011;Kulkarni 2012, Chapagain et al. 2017), and so, their proper management is necessary for the survival of the population residing in the area (Scott et al. 2019). The HKH region has the largest deposit of ice and snow in the world (Barnett et al 2005;Bajracharya and Shrestha 2011;Schickhoff et al 2016). ...
The HKH Region can conveniently be divided into four distinct zones such as the outer southern part called “Shiwaliks”, the lesser Himalayas, the higher Himalayas, and the Tibetan-Tethys. The Shiwalik Hills form the southern stretch of the Himalayas starting from the Indus River to about 2,400 km eastwards, spanning across the northern parts of Pakistan, India, and Nepal. It is 10–50 km wide with an average elevation of 1,500–2,000 m. The Lesser Himalaya lies in between the Sub-Himalayas and Higher Himalayas separated by the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and the Main Central Thrust (MCT), respectively. The total width ranges from 60 to 80 km. The rocks in the lesser Himalaya range in age from Precambrian to Miocene. The northernmost boundary of the Shiwaliks Group is marked by the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), over which the low-grade metasedimentary rocks of the Lesser Himalaya overlie. The higher Himalayas extend from the main central thurst to Tibetan-Tethys Zone and consists of about 10 km-thick succession of crystalline rocks, known as the Himal Group. The Tibetan-Tethys Himalayas generally begins from the top of the Higher Himalayan Zone and extends to the north of Tibet. This zone is about 40 km wide. The Himalayas are the tallest mountain ranges in the world spread across 8 countries and can conveniently be categorized as (a) Western Himalayas (Afghanistan, Pakistan, India), (b) Central Himalayas (India, Nepal, Tibet Autonomous Region of China), (c) Eastern Himalayas (India, China, Bhutan), and (d) Far-eastern Himalayas (India, Myanmar, China, Bangladesh). The Hindu Kush Himalayas mountain ranges function as water towers, providing water to people throughout much of Asia. The glacier-fed rivers originating from the Himalayan mountain ranges surrounding the Tibetan Plateau comprise the largest river runoff from any single location in the world. The rivers shape the landscape and ecosystems and are important in terms of biodiversity. The high mountain ranges strongly influence atmospheric circulation and meteorological patterns across the region. As a result of its varied topography, the HKH is endowed with rich biodiversity and diverse ecosystems, which provide a basis for the livelihoods of the many people who live there. Its physical characteristics, however, also make the Hindu Kush Himalayas one of the most hazard-prone regions in the world. Heavy rains, steep slopes, weak geological formations, accelerated rates of erosion, and high seismicity contribute to serious flooding and mass movements of rock and sediment affecting the lives and livelihoods of millions. The rivers flowing from the Hindu Kush Himalayas provide the region with one of the most valuable resources, that is, freshwater. Besides huge water resources, the HKH Region is endowed with sufficient human, animal, land, soil, vegetation, rangelands, grasslands, pasture, and mineral resources.KeywordsAgro-ecological zonesDemographic featuresNatural resources of HKHPermafrostPhysiography
... Developed countries neglected the study of the carrying capacity of water resources because they were abundant. Therefore, studies on the carrying capacity of water resources in the world are limited, and most discussions are included in the theory of sustainable development [2][3][4][5][6]. The North American Lakes Association has defined the carrying capacity of lakes. ...
With the development of the economy and society, the importance of water as a necessary resource has increased. The resource attribute capacity of groundwater is limited, and excessive consumption depletes groundwater resources. The extremely serious and highly integrated groundwater problem necessitates the determination of the carrying capacity of groundwater resources. Based on the research findings of the carrying capacity of groundwater resources in China and other parts of the world, in this study, we proposed a new method to determine the carrying capacity of groundwater resources. We evaluated the carrying capacity of groundwater resources in Xi’an by using the probabilistic neural network method based on the ‘W–F extension law’. The results showed that the extremely low and low bearing capacity areas of groundwater in Xi’an are located in the southern plain area of Zhouzhi county and Huyi district, the southern suburbs of Xi’an city, and the loess platform source area. Due to the constant supply from the riverside water source, the groundwater associated with the Bahe river, Fengzaohe river, and Weibin water sources have a higher bearing capacity than other evaluation areas. Compared to the traditional evaluation method, in this study, we redefined the evaluation index standard of the carrying capacity of groundwater. The groundwater carrying capacity is only related to groundwater and its storage medium. The pressure index of groundwater carrying, such as the population, economy, and environment in the traditional evaluation method, is considered overexploitation. The interaction between surface water and groundwater can be distinguished, and the level limit of the evaluation index can be determined more accurately. Additionally, the probabilistic neural network method of the ‘W–F extension law’ does not allocate weights but calculates the clustering center. Thus, to avoid subjectivity, parameter weighting is not required. This method does not have regional restrictions and can reflect the non-linear relationship of the groundwater system. It can reflect the sensitivity and recovery ability of groundwater under the same future exploitation load. The evaluation results of this method were consistent with the evaluation results of the third groundwater resources survey in Xi’an in 2019, and the evaluation results were very similar to the actual situation. The accuracy and practicability of the evaluation method were verified.
... The aquatic systems in the Indian Himalaya provide critical ecosystem services for sustainable development regionally (Singh 2006;Tiwari and Joshi 2012). Renuka Lake is a RAMSAR site (wetland site designated to be of international importance under the Ramsar Convention from 8 th November 2005) in the Lesser Himalaya sustaining substantial biodiversity. ...
The knowledge of distribution and sources of organic matter (OM) in aquatic systems is important to understand the biogeochemical cycling of carbon in terrestrial environments. In this study, we have evaluated quantitative contributions of OM sources and their distribution using bulk geochemical parameters (TOC and δ¹³Corg), n-alkane indices and source specific biomarkers (C20 highly branched isoprenoid (HBI)) in Renuka Lake in Lesser Himalaya. The principal sources of OM in the sediments were aquatic productivity with minor input from terrestrial plants, which varied from littoral to central part of the lake. The microbial community in Renuka Lake were established using short chain n-alkanes and C20 HBI, whereas pristane/phytane (Pr/Ph) depicts depositional condition of the lake system. The land use/land cover changes and grain size analysis were used to investigate the multiple reasons and processes that govern the spatial heterogeneity of the distribution of sedimentary OM. The results show that human activities and alterations of the aquatic landscape can significantly affect the composition and distribution of OM in aquatic systems. The present study shows that elucidating the sources and distribution of OM in an aquatic system is crucial for constraining the ecological status and aiding conservation measures.
... One of the primary causes of the decline in spring and stream discharge is the land-use change associated with anthropogenic activities. Deforestation, urbanisation, tourism, agriculture, mining and quarrying, hydropower development and increasing water demands have caused significant land use/ cover changes and altered the natural dynamics of water resources (Panwar, 2020;Tiwari et al., 2018;Tiwari & Joshi, 2012). The Indian Himalayan region, which is home to 60 million people, receives approximately 100 million domestic tourists annually. ...
Springs are a significant source of high quality and perennial freshwater supply for remote communities and sustain rich biodiversity and ecosystems in the Himalayas. About 60–70% of the Himalayan population directly depends on springs to meet their domestic and livelihood needs. Despite that, decline in approximately 60% of low discharge springs have been reported in the last couple of decades. In addition, nitrates and faecal coliform contamination linked to septic tanks, open defecation, and fertiliser application have been reported. A high degree of urbanization with 500 growing townships and 8–10 large cities has further threatened the sustenance of these vital resources, causing a severe water crisis in the Himalayas. Spring rejuvenation can enhance water access and livelihoods and help achieve several sustainable development goals (SDGs). However, multiple challenges hinder the success of such initiatives. A fundamental limitation is the poor understanding of complex groundwater (spring) systems and their interactions with human societies. This review identified crucial knowledge gaps by synthesizing available knowledge on springs and revival efforts from peer-reviewed journals and reports by practitioners and governing bodies. The review also highlights the limitations of spring revival approaches and recommends future management options. There is a critical lack of comprehensive data as a large research on the Himalayan spring systems results from small-scale spring centric studies focussing primarily on hydrology. In contrast, the impacts of hydrogeology, ecology, socio-economics and developmental activities on springs are less explored. Lack of scientific inputs on the hydrogeological regime and limited support by the state is a barrier to scaling spring rejuvenation programs. Long term monitoring, location-specific mapping of local hydrogeological and socio-economic settings at aquifer scale and collaborations among different stakeholders are essential to facilitate holistic knowledge development on spring systems and successful spring revival. The authors recommend ensuring sustenance by recognizing the value of springs in the mainstream programs and policies and develop appropriate management framework for the management of spring systems.
... The depletion of water resources is visible in many areas of Garhwal, especially in the hilly districts which entirely depend on rainfed agriculture. More than one third of the natural springs that contribute to the Ganges river system are drying up, and several once perennial streams have now become seasonal (Tiwari and Joshi 2012). ...
Set amidst the Indian western Himalayan belt, Garhwal has been identified through the ages as a distinct geographical, socio-economic, historical, and cultural landscape. The region lies between latitudes of 29o26′N to 31o28′N and longitudes of 77o49′E to 80o6′E, covering a total area of 29,089 sq. km. Bordered by Tibet to the north and the Kumaon region in the east, it belongs to the state of Uttarakhand, which is often referred to as the “Abode of Gods,” widely known as the home of sacred ancient sanctuaries. Administratively, Garhwal comprises seven districts, namely, Chamoli, Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri, Rudraprayag, Tehri, and Uttarkashi.
... Determination of a progressive water supply development plan in achieving the reservation of land, water, and forest supplies has been done in northern India [61]. Tiwari and Joshi's suggested strategy deliberates on ecological sustainability, socio-economic preferences, and consumer necessities (2011). ...
Your article is protected by copyright and all rights are held exclusively by Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.. This e-offprint is for personal use only and shall not be self-archived in electronic repositories. If you wish to self-archive your article, please use the accepted manuscript version for posting on your own website. You may further deposit the accepted manuscript version in any repository, provided it is only made publicly available 12 months after official publication or later and provided acknowledgement is given to the original source of publication and a link is inserted to the published article on Springer's website. The link must be accompanied by the following text: "The final publication is available at link.springer.com". Abstract In order to balance between financial and social constraints of water and respond to competing for water requirements, it is important to sustain and manage essential water systems. Therefore, this paper aims to evaluate sustainable water management in specific sectors: urban, agricultural, and environmental and addresses questions, such as (1) how is sustainable water management described and assessed? (2) what challenges occur in sustainable water development in different sectors? (3) which aspects/ elements of sustainable water developments are important in agricultural and urban water management? and (4) how do different countries improve sustainable water management? Depending on the complexity of water systems, water users and sources of water, techniques for estimating performances of water management can be simple (such as indicator techniques) or complex (such as several models). The techniques are analyzed in this study. The findings from implementing sustainable water management suggest that all water users consider which source of water (e.g., usable and reusable) is more suitable to use. They also state that increasing agricultural water use efficiency can significantly reduce total water consumption, which can lead to global food security. In addition, results showed that the level of local infrastructure conditions and financial capabilities are more important in sustainable water management than is the level of regional development.
... The mountain biomes are considered sensitive to climate change (Nogués-Bravo et al. 2008). The climate change affects directly or indirectly different key features (ecosystems, agriculture, biodiversity, snow cover, glaciers, run-off processes, and water availability) of the mountains (Bharali and Khan 2011;Tiwari and Joshi 2012;Joshi et al. 2012;Bhagawati et al. 2017;Lamsal et al. 2017a;Tewari et al. 2017;Bajracharya et al. 2018). There are growing evidences that the rate of warming is amplified with elevation . ...
... Additional to the impacts of changing cryosphererelated run-off on agriculture, the Himalayan agroecosystems have been stressed through higher mean annual temperatures, altered precipitation patterns and frequent extreme weather events 12,21,204 . However, a variety of changes have emerged in traditional resource utilization patterns mainly in response to population growth and rapid urbanization in the region 205,206 . These changes have sharply accentuated pressures on food and livelihood systems through disruption of ecosystem services and collapsing of conventional production systems, where subsistence agriculture in the Himalayan region often constitutes a main source of rural food and livelihood 207,208 . ...
Climate change and related impacts over the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) remains poorly quantified. The present study reviews observed and modelled changes in the climate, cryosphere and impacts related to hazards, agriculture and ecosystems. An increasing temperature trend over the IHR is reported, which over a few locations is found to be higher than the global average. For precipitation, a complex and inconsistent response with considerable variation in the sign and magnitude of change is observed. Future projections show significant warming. Climate-driven changes and impacts are clearly observed. Snow cover has declined since the 1960s, with an enhanced decreasing trend during the 1990s and variable trends since 2000. Glaciers are losing mass and retreating at varying rates since the early 20th century, with an exception over the Karakoram region. An observed heterogeneous response of glaciers to atmospheric warming is controlled by regional variations in topography , debris cover, circulation and precipitation. Initial assessments of permafrost extent of 1 million km 2 across the IHR roughly translate into 14 times the glacier area. Extreme floods represent the most frequent natural disaster in the IHR. Studies have highlighted the significant threat from glacial lakes. Landslides occur in combination with heavy rainfall and flooding, with poor land-use practices such as road-cutting and deforestation being additional drivers. Climate change has also stressed traditional subsistence agriculture and food systems. Improving systematic and coordinated monitoring of climate and related impacts is crucial to contribute to effective climate change adaptation and response strategies.
... So, mostly springs water has been used as domestic purpose (such as drinking, washing), for cattle care, agricultural use [5] and ponding of water for fish farming. So, it is a proven fact that local communities are fully dependent on spring water for domestic uses [6,7]. Apart from humans use springs helps to maintaining baseflow of perennial rivers [8], maintaining the Himalayan ecosystem and providing drinking water for the wild animals. ...
Springs are the lifeline of the Himalayan region. Local Communities are fully depended on spring water for drinking and household use. At present climate change scenario, majority of springs are either dried or have become seasonal. Water demand is also increasing day by day in this region with an increasing population. To sustain in this changing scenario, communities are fulfilling their water needs by developing seepage spring using traditional knowledge. Seepage springs are normally not of sufficient volume of water to be flowing beyond their above-ground location due to very low permeability which may or may not have high porosity. The seepage discharge can be enhancing by increasing the seepage surface by excavating caves of suitable dimensions. Developed seepage spring discharge rate is less but an optimum designed harvesting spring water collection box will be providing the assured water supply to local communities. It may full fill the 30-40 villager's daily requirement of water in the dry period (i.e., December to April). In the present paper, steps of spring development including the design of the spring box are described. The development cost of spring is cheap if locally available material is used and tapping the water for distribution is also cheap due to gravity flow water supply system. The developed spring provide assured supply of clean drinking water to residents, livestock and wildlife throughout the year. The development technique of spring can be valuable for survival purpose human and helps the local wildlife by adding another source to the region.
... The depletion of water resources is visible in many areas of Garhwal, especially in the hilly districts which entirely depend on rainfed agriculture. More than one third of the natural springs that contribute to the Ganges river system are drying up, and several once perennial streams have now become seasonal (Tiwari and Joshi 2012). ...
Set amidst the Indian western Himalayan belt, Garhwal has been identified through the ages as a distinct geographical, socio-economic, historical, and cultural land- scape. The region lies between latitudes of 29o260N to 31o280N and longitudes of 77o490E to 80o60E, covering a total area of 29,089 sq. km. Bordered by Tibet to the north and the Kumaon region in the east, it belongs to the state of Uttarakhand, which is often referred to as the “Abode of Gods,” widely known as the home of sacred ancient sanctuaries. Administratively, Garhwal comprises seven districts, namely, Chamoli, Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri, Rudraprayag, Tehri, and Uttarkashi. Garhwal is widely cited in ancient Sanskrit scripts as the home of some of the most important Hindu deities and is richly dotted by prominent shrines and religious centers. The most prominent include Badrinath, Kedarnath, Yamunotri, and Gangotri. The two later are situated on the springs of Yamuna and Ganges, two of the most sacred rivers of India with immense ecological, cultural, and economic significance. Apart from being an important pilgrimage destination, it is in this region of the Himalaya where the foundations of Ayurveda and Yoga can be traced (see also Sakarkar et al. 2003). As a result, every year Garhwal is attracting hundreds of thousands of visitors from India and abroad, who come to admire the great natural beauty of the region and enjoy the numerous treks traversing its forests, valleys, and snow covered Himalayan peaks. The area represents a distinct phytogeographic region and provides natural habitat to the majority of medicinal and aromatic plants recorded in the Indian Himalaya.
... Bhangalis feel that the reduced snowfall and precipitation coupled with increasing temperature do not allow for water recharge and are leading to drying of springs which pose a threat to freshwater availability (Parry et al. 2007;Tiwari and Joshi 2012;Pandey et al. 2018). Tambe et al. (2012) reported a decline in spring discharge to the tune of 35-48% in Sikkim Himalaya. ...
The high-altitude regions of Himalaya are among the best indicators of climate change yet noticeable for the lack of climate monitoring stations. However, they support ethnic communities whose livelihood activities are climate driven. Consequently, these communities are keen observers of the same and documenting their perception on changing climate is now an important area of global research. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the prime objective of documenting the climate change perception of Bhangalis—a resident community of western Himalaya, and analyzing variation in their perceptions in relation to age and gender. For this, respondent surveys (household, n = 430; individual interviews, n = 240) were carried out and the collected data were subjected to statistical analyses. The study also validated the perception of Bhangalis using the available weather data (1974–2017) through the Mann-Kendall test. The results reveal that Bhangalis perceived 11 indicators of changing climate, of which decrease in snowfall was the most prominent (reported by ~ 97% of the respondents). The perceptions varied between the two genders with males having significantly higher proportion of responses for all the 11 indicators. Similarly, differences in perception among the age groups were also observed, elderly people reported higher proportion of climate change indicators as compared to respondents of lower age. Notably, patterns of temperature and rainfall perceptions by the Bhangalis agreed with the trends of meteorological data. This highlights the importance of the study in documenting knowledge of ethnic communities especially from areas that lack monitoring stations. It argues for involving them in climate change programs.
... Determination of a progressive water supply development plan in achieving the reservation of land, water, and forest supplies has been done in northern India [61]. Tiwari and Joshi's suggested strategy deliberates on ecological sustainability, socio-economic preferences, and consumer necessities (2011). ...
In order to balance between financial and social constraints of water and respond to competing for water requirements, it is important to sustain and manage essential water systems. Therefore, this paper aims to evaluate sustainable water management in specific sectors: urban, agricultural, and environmental and addresses questions, such as (1) how is sustainable water management described and assessed? (2) what challenges occur in sustainable water development in different sectors? (3) which aspects/ elements of sustainable water developments are important in agricultural and urban water management? and (4) how do different countries improve sustainable water management? Depending on the complexity of water systems, water users and sources of water, techniques for estimating performances of water management can be simple (such as indicator techniques) or complex (such as several models). The techniques are analyzed in this study. The findings from implementing sustainable water management suggest that all water users consider which source of water (e.g., usable and reusable) is more suitable to use. They also state that increasing agricultural water use efficiency can significantly reduce total water consumption, which can lead to global food security. In addition, results showed that the level of local infrastructure conditions and financial capabilities are more important in sustainable water management than is the level of regional development.
... The global environment has changed rapidly in recent years, in response to the increased demand on natural resources [1]. Because water resources are one of the most important natural resources, their shortage has become a development constraint impeding the economic growth of many countries [2,3]. ...
The sustainable utilization of water resources is a significant factor in the development of the national economy and society. Regional water resources carrying capacity (RWRCC) is an appropriate method for evaluating the balance in such utilization. In this paper, we combined time difference correlation analysis and set pair analysis firstly to identify the early warning sign index (EWSI) for RWRCC, and warning limits were determined using a logical curve. Analytic hierarchy process based on the accelerating genetic algorithm (AGA-AHP) method was used to improve the KLR model by determining weights objectively. We took advantage of the new improved model to build the aggregate warning index (AWI). Then, according to the corresponding relationship between EWSI and AWI, the early warning system for regional water resources carrying capacity (EWS-RWRCC) was established, and a case study was carried out in Anhui Province. The results showed there are eight effective EWSI obtained through the early warning analysis process of RWRCC in Anhui Province, among which the repetitive use rate of industrial water and average daily coefficient have a greater impact on AWI. Basically, the EWS-RWRCC can describe RWRCC changes in Anhui Province. From 2006 to 2014, more than half the signal lights in Anhui Province were yellow and orange, which indicated a poor state. It has been proved that the constraints of population, GDP growth and water supply capacity on the utilization of water resources in the future will be further tightened, which should be considered for future monitoring and early warning. The early warning method we used here can be widely applied into other fields; the results will enhance monitoring capacity and scientifically guide regional water resources management.
... A large number of studies from India emphasized importance of hydropower and renewable natural resources to minimize dependence on coal-and petroleum-powered plants (Singh 2003b;Datt and Mahajan 2008). However, the hydropower of India is concentrated more in the northern and NE regions, and construction of large HEPs in mountainous region affect ecological balance, vegetation and wildlife (Tiwari and Joshi 2012;Mukherji et al. 2015), and may result in loss of forest cover, biodiversity, soil erosion, landslides, water logging, changes in water quality, increase in salinity, siltation, sediment loading, earthquakes and flash floods (Bhatt et al. 1985;Sahani 1988;Srivastava and Goel 2000). In view of the same, it has been suggested that mini and micro hydel projects be planned in the region (Monga and Lakhanpal 1988). ...
In recent years, while developed countries are decommissioning hydroelectric projects (HEPs)/dams at a higher rate than constructing new ones, developing economies are doing the opposite. Although HEPs are regarded green, renewable and cheap, recent studies reveal that they do more harm than good. The impacts of HEPs are multiple, including socio-economic, environmental and geopolitical. India’s Northeastern (NE) region is a part of the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna river basin, and has immense hydropower potential. A large number of HEPs are planned or under construction in the region, mainly in the hilly states of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim and Mizoram. One such mega project is the Tipaimukh multipurpose HEP, to be constructed on the Barak river in the state of Manipur. The project is highly controversial, and is being protested against by the locals, academicians, researchers, social activists, NGOs, as well as Bangladesh. Further, a serious cost–benefit analysis, judicious environmental impact assessment and democratic public hearings have been questioned. The area submergence of the project is disproportionately high compared to other such projects of NE India, and the project site and the adjoining areas form a part of Indo-Burma global biodiversity hotspot. The present study details the impacts of the project from multidisciplinary perspectives, categorized into bio-physical, socio-economic and geopolitical impacts, including impacts on the downstream riparian nation—Bangladesh. Based on the study, we have provided recommendations, if ever the construction of project is actualized. Since there is lack of any such analysis, the present study is of immense significance on the decision making of the project, and paves a guideline for impact analysis of the upcoming large number of projects of the region.
... The mountain biomes are considered sensitive to climate change (Nogués-Bravo et al. 2008). The climate change affects directly or indirectly different key features (ecosystems, agriculture, biodiversity, snow cover, glaciers, run-off processes, and water availability) of the mountains (Bharali and Khan 2011;Tiwari and Joshi 2012;Joshi et al. 2012;Bhagawati et al. 2017;Lamsal et al. 2017a;Tewari et al. 2017;Bajracharya et al. 2018). There are growing evidences that the rate of warming is amplified with elevation (Shrestha et al. 1999;Sun et al. 2017). ...
During the past few decades, our understanding of the potential risks from
climate change to mountain ecosystem has increased. The Hindu Kush
Himalayas (HKH) is characterised by diverse climate due to diversity in
geology, monsoon influence and ecosystems. Though paucity in studies, it
was observed that the HKH ecosystems witnessed changes in climate over the
period with evidence of change in phenology and species range shift altering
ecosystem functions. During 1901–2014, annual mean surface air temperature
significantly increased in the HKH at a rate of about 0.104 °C per decade
showing significant upward trend. The intense precipitation also showed
increasing trend in annual intense precipitation amount, days and intensity
with 5.28 mm per decade, 0.14 day per decade and 0.39 mm/day per decade
respectively. The elevation dependent warming has also been prominent in the
HKH with higher warming with the increasing elevation. Higher warming is
projected during winter and the projected warming differs by more than 1 °C
between the eastern and western HKH, with relatively higher values during
winter. The highest warming is projected to be over the central Himalaya for
the far-future period with the RCP8.5 scenario. The projections made by the
study for the near-future
and far-future periods for HKH are relatively higher
than the seasonal global means. These changes have indicated that rapidly
changing climatic conditions could significantly thwart efforts for ecosystem
resilience at a national and regional scales. There have been a wide range of
interpretation from observed and people’s perceptions impacting on a wide
range of ecosystems and biodiversity at different scales.. However, there is
still a major gap in understanding the cross-linkages among areas of research,
for example, linking social-ecological knowledge on resilience contributing
to evolutionary adaptation. Although numerous important contributions have
emerged in recent years, synthesis of such practices and its consequences has
not yet been achieved. This chapter is an attempt to relate the climate change
science with ecosystem resilience in the HKH, identify gaps, and understand
the social-ecological interaction and contribute towards social-ecological
resilience.
... Determination of a progressive water supply development plan in achieving the reservation of land, water, and forest supplies has been done in northern India [61]. Tiwari and Joshi's suggested strategy deliberates on ecological sustainability, socio-economic preferences, and consumer necessities (2011). ...
In order to balance between financial and social constraints of water and respond to competing for water requirements, it is important to sustain and manage essential water systems. Therefore, this paper aims to evaluate sustainable water management in specific sectors: urban, agricultural, and environmental and addresses questions, such as (1) how is sustainable water management described and assessed? (2) what challenges occur in sustainable water development in different sectors? (3) which aspects/elements of sustainable water developments are important in agricultural and urban water management? and (4) how do different countries improve sustainable water management? Depending on the complexity of water systems, water users and sources of water, techniques for estimating performances of water management can be simple (such as indicator techniques) or complex (such as several models). The techniques are analyzed in this study. The findings from implementing sustainable water management suggest that all water users consider which source of water (e.g., usable and reusable) is more suitable to use. They also state that increasing agricultural water use efficiency can significantly reduce total water consumption, which can lead to global food security. In addition, results showed that the level of local infrastructure conditions and financial capabilities are more important in sustainable water management than is the level of regional development.
... Research on glacier runoff indicates diverse effects on the generation of hydroelectricity (Terrier et al. 2011;Bavay, Gr€ unewald, and Lehning 2013;Beniston and Stoffel 2014). Glacier runoff variability in the greater Himalayan region, for instance, will likely have farreaching effects on hydropower, water storage, dry season flows, and related geopolitical and economic concerns (Qureshi 2011;Tiwari and Joshi 2012;Molden et al. 2014). Impacts could be particularly potent in regions dependent on hydropower such as Nepal and the Andes, in areas without access to other energy sources, and in countries diversifying energy sources for economic productivity or pursuing sustainable energy (Gardarsson and Eliasson 2006;Einarsson and J onsson 2010;Bliss, Hock, and Radi c 2014). ...
... Groundwater depletion is an emerging problem and is reported in many parts of Kumaun Himalaya (Kar et al. 2009). The reason documented for depleting groundwater is temporal and spatial variability in rainfall, forest degradation, and changing land use pattern (Negi et al. 2012;Tiwari and Joshi 2012). The level of management can be visualized as there is plenty of water in monsoon and people cry for drop of water in summer. ...
Increasing water use and climatic variability threaten thousands of springs and spring-fed watersheds in the mid-Himalayan region. The decline in spring discharge resulted in shrinking cropland, out migration and is adversely affecting the economy of the region. Shallow aquifer and short retention time emphasize on need of disposition of site suitable artificial measures to recharge groundwater. Complex geological and tectonic formations and lithological and chronological variations on one hand and impact of undulated terrain and land use pattern on the other put obstruction in finding suitable recharge sites in Himalaya. In this study, a GIS-based weighted sum analysis approach was used to identify suitable sites for artificial recharge of groundwater in Upper Kosi basin of Indian Himalayan region. The tools of GIS facilitate study relief and structural aspect of basin, quantify the influence of one factor on the other and provide precise and quick information on suitable recharge sites for rejuvenation of springs and hydrological sustainability of watershed. The results indicated that 19.6% area lies under good to excellent while 46.9% area having fait to poor potential of groundwater recharge. Area under good to excellent recharge potential can be further considered for implementation of site suitable groundwater augmentation measures for sustained specific yield of an aquifer.
... Environmental change therefore presents a major threat to rain-fed water sources in the Middle Himalayan Ranges across the Western and Eastern Himalaya. These sources are depleting rapidly, primarily due to resource exploitation, rapid urbanisation and resultant land use changes, and climate change affecting water, food, livelihood and health security (Valdiya and Bartarya, 1991;Sharma et al., 2007;Tiwari and Joshi, 2012a,b, 2013, 2014a, 2014b. Climate change impacts are threatening established agro-ecosystem-based livelihoods in central Nepal . ...
Nepal's predominantly rural population depends on the ecosystem services of heterogeneous mountainous landscapes that are degrading under changing climate and development pressures. Invasive alien plants (IAPs) compound threats to ecosystem services including water resource security from mid-hill springs, though implications for Nepal's water resources are under-researched. South Africa's Working for Water (WfW) programme addresses linked policy priorities related to IAP management including water, biodiversity and employability. We use the STEEP (Social, Technological, Environmental, Economic, Political) framework to explore success criteria behind WfW and their potential translation into the geographically, culturally and politically different Nepali context, including local considerations at three sites in Kavrepalanchok district. An adapted WfW approach could potentially contribute to water, food, biodiversity, forest, soil, gender equity, community development and security outcomes in Nepal, delivering national and international policy priorities. Evidence from study sites suggests four priority IAPs – Lantana camara, Ageratina adenophora, Chromolaena odorata and Pinus roxburghii – of differing characteristics, extents of invasion and perceived impacts at selected sites requiring control. These initial observations warrant trial management of IAPs in a test area with monitoring to evaluate outcomes for water, food and livelihood security, with potential for subsequent regional or national roll-out of a management programme.
... Determination of a progressive water supply development plan in achieving the reservation of land, water, and forest supplies has been done in northern India [61]. Tiwari and Joshi's suggested strategy deliberates on ecological sustainability, socio-economic preferences, and consumer necessities (2011). ...
The mountain environmental systems are considered unique ecological and bio-physical systems which provide ecosystem services to the global community. It is observed that the rapid ecological changes and habitat destruction occur due to demographic changes, investment and introduction of various infrastructure development, and rapid harness of the available natural resources in the region. Such economic growth and recent environmental dynamics have engrossed the attention of the scientific community for comprehensive study. The focus of the present study is to understand the spatio-temporal consensus of the scientific community working on the mountain’s environmental sustainability. This study includes the bibliometric and network analysis of 1,384 research papers published on mountain sustainability and ecosystem in various journals. The analysis is performed on numerous essential research indicators such as open-access publication, number of citations, author team size, affiliated institutions and countries, publishing journals, research categories, and keywords. This article will provide an in-depth and holistic understanding of the issues and concerns related to global mountain environmental sustainability. The findings of the article will provide a scholarly platform for the development of stakeholders and organizational relationships working for mountain ecosystem sustainability.
Extreme events at a place have increased due to the changing climatic conditions worldwide. Therefore, the present study analyses the extreme events with respect to temperature and precipitation in mountainous terrain of Ramgarh, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India between 1973 and 2022. The interpretation of the rainfall data revealed that high-intensity rainfall events are increasing and becoming more severe in the region. Moreover, the study area observed the occurrences of nearly 3516 drought events over the last five decades. It was also observed that the frequency and the severity of drought, is much higher during the winter season in the region. This above analysis indicates that due to the climate change, the weather extremes are increasing in the region. Therefore, the people must be trained to change their lifestyle and adapt to the prevailing conditions in order to cope up with the changing climatic conditions.
Extreme events at a place have increased due to the changing climatic conditions worldwide. Therefore, the present study analyses the extreme events with respect to temperature and precipitation in mountainous terrain of Ramgarh, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India between 1973 and 2022. The interpretation of the rainfall data revealed that high-intensity rainfall events are increasing and becoming more severe in the region. Moreover, the study area observed the occurrences of nearly 3516 drought events over the last five decades. It was also observed that the frequency and the severity of drought, is much higher during the winter season in the region. This above analysis indicates that due to the climate change, the weather extremes are increasing in the region. Therefore, the people must be trained to change their lifestyle and adapt to the prevailing conditions in order to cope up with the changing climatic conditions.
Springs serve as a primary water source in most households in the Jammu Himalaya due to the inaccessibility to water from major rivers flowing into deep valleys. However, over the past several decades, many of these springs have started drying up, while many have already suffered degradation. A total of 24 freshwater springs were mapped in the Jammu Himalayan region, out of which seven had dried up permanently. Water quality parameters (pH, temperature, DO, BOD) of the springwater were within the permissible limits for human consumption, but the presence of pathogenic bacteria could pose a health problem to the local population. Construction of concrete walls, dumping of domestic waste and bathing inside the enclosed ponds of springs have blocked the outflow in some springs, which has also resulted in the stagnation and contamination of spring water leading to the growth of pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria like Escherichia coli (E. coli) and some species of Shigella and Salmonella. The 16S rRNA gene was used for the molecular identification of the isolated bacterial species in addition to macro-morphological and biochemical analysis. The results showed the prevalence of indicator bacteria like E. coli, Shigella and Salmonella in the Jammu Himalayan springs at various places, rendering the water unsafe for drinking.
Water supply is considered as water democracy. Sustainable water resources management has been manifested in response to growing pressures from population growth, socio-economic development, climate change, and ecological degradation. Despite the long history of water structure engineering in Iran, there is always a lack of sustainable water resources management framework, and recreation of hidden values of historic hydraulic structures. The purpose of this study was to compare the characteristics of the historic hydraulic structures of desert cities with water resources’sustainable management criteria and the importance of restoration, protection and recreation of this historical heritage. This is an inferential-comparative study. Information gathering tools were library studies, review of written literature, and documents. Study of the structure, performance and management system of the historical hydraulic structures of Yazd Desert City indicated that despite the weaknesses of traditional systems, these structures have been in great harmony with the sustainable management framework for water resources. Therefore, modeling and recreating the values and systems governing the structure and functioning of these structures as the most fundamental factors in explaining the thought and practice of social and ecological life can provide the basis for sustainability in all its dimensions.
Global warming has adversely affected the climatic systems on the earth. Long-term alterations in global weather patterns, particularly rise in global temperature have been significantly influencing the hydrological patterns leading to climate change. One of the biggest challenges posed by the global warming-induced climate change is its direct effect on the well-being of humans through the changes in hydrological cycle affecting the sectors such as agriculture, industrial growth, hydropower generation, domestic water supply etc. Subsequently, the researchers have predicted that impacts of climate change such as the melting of glaciers, increased frequency of floods and droughts, changes in evapotranspiration, variations in surface runoff and rising sea level have significant implications to water resources. Developing economies like India are highly vulnerable to these changes as the majority of its population is dependent on agriculture. In addition to the above the increasing water needs for domestic and industrial purposes, depleting groundwater levels and surface water pollution have been stressing the policymakers for sustainable water resource management. The present research exhaustively reviews the influence of climate change on hydrological components, its qualitative and quantitative implications to surface and groundwater resources in Indian scenario through various case studies. The research also proposes the corrective measures for the impact minimization on the available water resources in the present context.
The impacts of climate change on agriculture are both positive and negative. The effects of climate change on agriculture and food security are also direct and indirect in nature. It impacted soil carbon losses, freshwater availability, crop yield, livestock production, fish migration, spawning, etc. directly. And, at the same time, it causes frequent floods, drought, salinity, heat stress, and an unprecedented tropical cyclone that threatens food security and biodiversity. Evidence of positive and negative effects of climate change on agriculture are clear cut. Moreover, the predicted climate change consequences are also going to adversely affect agriculture and food security in the near future. Specifically, the productivity of major field crops like rice, wheat, maize, soybean as well as millet and sorghum would be affected. The impacts on fruits and vegetables are widely varied and primarily depend on latitude and region of cultivation. The CO2 fertilization effect is positive for most of the C3 crops but up to a certain temperature rise. In the livestock sector, pastoral system productivity is going to be reduced along with lower animal growth rates and productivity, higher pests and disease incidence, and loss of biodiversity. This sector is also likely to be adversely affected differently in different regions by rising temperatures, water scarcity, and low-quality feed supply, and the spreading of unexpected diseases. The vulnerability of rangeland (both productivity and composition) and pastoral systems to climate change is reasonably high. Moreover, the pests and diseases outbreak with altered vectors for both crop and livestock are going to take different dimensions in future climate change scenarios.
This book highlights how climate change has affected migration in the Indian subcontinent. Drawing on fi eld research, it argues that extreme weather events such as fl oods, droughts, cyclones, cloudbursts as well as sea level rise, desertifi cation and declining crop productivity have shown higher frequency in recent times and have depleted biophysical diversity and the capacity of the ecosystem to provide food and livelihood security. This volume shows how the socioeconomically poor are worst affected in these circumstances and resort to migration to survive. The chapters in this volume study the role of remittances sent by migrants to their families in environmentally fragile zones in providing an important cushion and adaptation capabilities to cope with extreme weather events. This book looks at the socioeconomic and political drivers of migration, different forms of mobility, mortality and morbidity levels in the affected population, and discusses mitigation and adaption strategies. This volume will be of great interest to scholars and researchers of environment and ecology, migration and diaspora studies, development studies, sociology and social anthropology, governance and public policy and politics.
With the impacts of climate disruption becoming more evident there has been an increase in the uptake of climate change adaptation “toolkits” to assist local governments in building community resilience and adapting to the impacts of climate change. There is increasing attention and call for practitioners to adopt proactive and participatory approaches to help in the adaptive response planning process. One such toolkit is the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network (ACCRN) Process (IAP). This is a simple but rigorous toolkit developed to help local governments in Asian cities build resilience to the impacts of climate change. This paper outlines the application of the toolkit to determine its versatility in the rural context and was trialled in the Himalayan rural enclave of Ramgad in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. Given the differences between urban and rural environments, the outcomes highlighted the need for further investigation and analysis into the process to ensure that the methodology truly reflects the nature of rural systems and their level of vulnerability and adaptive capacity. Overall, the toolkit proved to be a simple but versatile toolkit to assess the vulnerability and adaptive capacity of communities in rural Himalaya. Over 40 resilience intervention strategies were developed for the Ramgad enclave and these were prioritized according to their technical, political, social and economic feasibility.
A large number of the Himalayan watersheds which are densely populated are drained by the network of non-glacial fed rivers. Due to anthropogenically accelerated climate change, the tributary rivers of these non-glacial watersheds are dying and their master rivers are dwindling steadily causing socio-economic and environmental disruption in the region imposing a threat on the sustenance of mountain biodiversity, ecosystems and human civilization. The present paper demonstrates this fact by presenting results of historical geohydrometeorological records (1992–2016) of one of the non-glacial fed representative watersheds of the Central Lesser Himalayan region, viz., the Upper Kosi watershed in Uttarakhand state. Study reveals that despite of increase in annual rainfall and vegetation cover during the last two and half decades, about 82% network of the tributary streams of the major non-glacial fed rivers have been transformed from their perennial to non-perennial nature, therefore, the lean flow of their master river has been dropped down about sixteen times low during the last two and half decades, hence, the non-glacial master rivers are dwindling and dying steadily struggling for their existence and the inhabitants are threatened due to crises of water for drinking (both for people and cattle) and irrigation. The study suggests that there is an urgent need to develop a new water policy for rejuvenation of the non-glacial fed rivers by the Federal and concerned State Governments by fixing accountability of river rejuvenation works through constituting River Rejuvenation Authority, because it is so important that in near future, there may be need of a separate Department/Ministry of River Rejuvenation to save human civilization in the Himalaya.
In view of complex hydro-geological system and continuous groundwater depletion in mountainous region, there is an urgent need for replenishment groundwater sources in order to secure their long-term sustainability. The current study was aimed to develop a model that will efficiently suggest suitable sites in spring-fed Kosi watershed of Kumaun Himalayas for recharging groundwater. Factors affecting groundwater recharge were found to play a much more complex role in mountainous regions compared to plains due to diversified geological formations, lithological and chronological variations, and complex tectonic framework. In this study, behaviour of influencing factor in complex topographical region has been quantified independently as well as interdependently for identification of cumulative impact of these hydro-geological factors in recharging groundwater. A standard methodology was further developed to identify potential recharge sites by assigning intra-layer weightage and inter-layer score by quantifying the influence of each and every component influencing potential for groundwater recharge using integrated remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) technique. Study conducted in Bhatgaon micro-catchment of Kosi basin revealed that 24.1% area fall under the category having good to moderate recharge potential while 61.9% area have poor to moderate recharge potential, hence found less suitable for implementation of artificial recharge structures for conservation of groundwater. A GIS-based recharge and conservation site suitability (RCSS) model was developed with unique query-based codes that would guide for suitable sites in order to implement apposite groundwater augmentation measures for sustentation of Bhatgaon micro-catchment of Kosi basin. Furthermore, this kind of study is very helpful for groundwater managers to found best suitable site for implementing groundwater augmentation measures for long-term sustainability of natural groundwater sources in hilly terrain.
The curvilinear lake (viz., Naini Tal) encompassing an area of 1,758 m2 exhibits such morphological features as transverse ridge dividing the lake into two parts: scarps, debris fans fringing the shores; lake plains and lake deep. The mean depth is 18.55 m, the maximum depth being 25.70 m. The maximum effective width and length are 466.6 m and 1466.6 m respectively. In 1895, the capacity of the lake was 31,699 m3. It bas become drastically reduced to 26,202 m3 by 1979, that is by 5,491 m3 in 84 years. This reduction in the capacity of the lake at the rate of 65.37m3/year is due to the increasing rate of siltation. On the basis of the rate deduced, it is inferred that the lake will be filled completely in about 380 years.
The forests of the Central Himalaya are suffering serious losses due to population growth and expansion of agriculture. Although utilization of forest products is a necessary component of the Central Himalayan agro-economy it is prohibitively inefficient. More than seven units of energy must be taken from the forest in order to produce a single unit of agricultural energy. Consequently, the carrying capacity of the forest has been exceeded. Further destruction of the forest must be prevented and positive steps such as reforestation and tree farming should be taken to ensure the future of the region's ecology and economy. Refs.
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in Uttarakhand, Himalaya, carries a large human population that traditionally depends on protected area forests, not only to fulfil basic resource needs but also for their livelihood. Due to restricted access to forests, resource utilization patterns have changed and communities have lost their traditional livelihood. This paper aims at investigating resource utilization patterns and rural livelihoods under changed socio-economic conditions and changed availability of and access to resources. Necessary data was generated through remote sensing techniques, ground validation and mapping, observations, monitoring, and socio-economic surveys. The study revealed a decline in forests and an increase in cultivated land due to changes in resource use patterns and resultant land-use intensifications. Availability per capita of forests and pastures declined by 0.72% and 0.27% respectively, wool production fell by 47%; 13% of the people lost their livelihood from forestry and 39% in the woollen handicraft production sector. Now, subsistence agriculture constitutes the main source of livelihood, as indicated by a 16% increase in dependency on agriculture, despite a drastic decline in the cultivated land available per capita. Agricultural productivity is fairly low and the region faces an average annual food deficit of 93%, leading to further intensification in agriculture and community unsustainability in the region.
Traditional land use pattern in Himalaya has been changing rapidly mainly in response to population growth and the resultant increased demand on natural resources as well as due to increasing socio-economic and political marginalization. As a result, forests, pastures and cultivated land in the region have deteriorated and depleted steadily and significantly leading to their conversion into degraded and non-productive lands during the last 30 years. The main objective of the study is to monitor land use dynamics in ecological and socio-economic back-drops of the region, and to evolve an integrated and participatory water conservation action plan with a case illustration of Kosi Headwater in Uttarakhand Himalaya in India. Study revealed that 7.81 per cent area of the headwater has changed from one land use to other during 1975 – 2005. The major trend of land use dynamics has been observed from forests to degraded and cultivated land reducing groundwater recharge. As a result, 42 per cent natural springs and stream-length of nearly 5 km has dried and stream discharges has reduced by about 15 per cent. A comprehensive land use and integrated water conservation framework has been evolved dividing up the entire headwater into conservation and development regions.
Mountains are amongst the most fragile environments in the world and are a repository of biodiversity, water and other ecosystem services. Mountains influence far more than their geographical limits and extend to the surrounding lowlands with the goods and services. The mountains are facing enormous pressures from various global change related driving forces including land use change. The land use change is happening in an unprecedented manner in the Himalaya. Five watersheds representing the middle mountains of the Himalaya were selected in China and India for understanding the hydro-ecological linkages of land use change. The natural forest decreased in both the countries with the highest change of 20% in Mamlay Watershed of India during 1988 to 1997 and simultaneously the area under open forests increased in most cases. In the Indian watersheds the agricultural land increased with the highest value of 16% recorded in the Mamlay watershed over a decade. The reverse trend was recorded in the Chinese watershed where the cropland and tea garden areas substantially reduced, however showing the increased plantation forest area by 38% during 1982-1998. Soil loss recorded in some of these watersheds ranged from 250-616 t km -2 yr -1. The land use change transformed ecosystems, their functions especially the hydrological performances and impacts on ecosystem services were visible. Promotion of forests and agroforestry in combination of rehabilitation of degraded land in the mountain watersheds could improve land husbandry for providing hydrological benefits to both upstream and downstream users.
The Himalaya-Gangetic Plain region is the iconic example of the debate about the impact on lowlands of upland land-use change. Some of the scientific aspects of this debate are revisited by using new techniques to examine the role of deforestation in erosion and river sediment transport. The approach is whole-of-catchment, combining a history of deforestation with a history of sediment sources from well before deforestation. It is shown that deforestation had some effect on one very large erosional event in 1970, in the Alaknanda subcatchment of the Upper Ganga catchment, but that both deforestation and its effects on erosion and sediment transport are far from uniform in the Himalaya. Large magnitude erosional events occur for purely natural reasons. The impact on the Gangetic Plain of erosion caused by natural events and land cover change remains uncertain.
This article reviews critical linkages between land-use transition and human health in the Himalayan region by applying ecosystem approaches to human health (or EcoHealth). Land-use transition in the Himalayan and similar regions includes sedentarization, agricultural intensification, habitat modification, migration, change of livelihoods and lifestyles, biodiversity loss, and increasing flash floods. These transitions, which can have impacts on human health, are driven by state policies, a market economy, and climate change. Human health is dependent on access to ecosystem services for food, nutrition, medicine, fiber and shelter, fresh water, and clear air. Ecosystem management has been a key means of controlling disease vectors and creating suitable habitats for human well-being. The paper identifies the web of environmental factors that influence human health. Institutional and policy issues for land-use and health transitions are also discussed.
The availability of freshwater at various spots on the Earth’s terrestrial surface will continue to be determined by the hydrological cycle, till such a time when technologies like desalination of seawater is practiced on a reasonably extended scale. The rapid growth in the demand of freshwater driven by growth in the global population and of the economies, has led to this natural resource becoming scarce in many parts of the world. As a result, the ratio between the number of people and the available water resource is worsening day by day. By 2020, the global population is projected to be in the range of 7.3 to 7.9 billion, which is 50 per cent larger than that in 1990 (UN, 2006). Because of this rapidly growing human population, the world may see more than a six-fold increase in the number of people living in conditions of water stress - from 470 million today to 3 billion in 2025 (Postel, 1999).
The present practices of agriculture in the Kumaon Himalayas have given rise to deforestation over extensive mountain tracts. If traditional farming and grazing practices continue, not only will the hill populations destroy the hill environment on which their own livelihood depends and be forced to emigrate to the plains, but the damage caused to plains agriculture by alternating floods and droughts, as well as silting and possible climatic changes, may endanger a wider community. Deforestation has occurred in the search for more cultivable land, due to overall increase in population. Extreme administrative action is envisaged as the best method of eliminating grazing and bringing land under perennial or semi-perennial vegetal cover. -from WAERSA
Deforestation of hillslopes has caused accelerated erosion. Responses include the drying up of some springs and the reduced discharge of others. Consequently, there is a decline in the flow of the main Gaula River; the discharge was reduced by 29.2% between 1951-1960 and 1961-1970, and by about 38.5% between 1971 and 1981. The diminished discharge of springs and streams may be attributed partly to lower rainfall recepits in several catchments - the decreases ranging from 9.7% to 76% between 1958 and 1986. Eight types of springs emanating from four categories of aquifers have been identified. The water yield of these aquifers varies greatly. Stream discharge, likewise, shows a strongly periodic annual rhythm, suggesting marked response to rainfall. This implies that only 24% of the rainwater recharges the groundwater that sustains steady year-round discharge of springs and streams. -from Authors
Large quantities of sediments leave the Himalaya through its rivers.
These rivers are charged with sediments depending on the types of land
use in the watersheds. Land use/cover change and hydrology was studied
in a watershed in the Sikkim Himalaya. The land use change from forest
and agroforestry to open agriculture has increased by 11% from 1988 to
1992. During the same period substantial areas of dense mixed forests
have been converted to open mixed and degraded forests as a result of
high pressure on natural resources. Stream flow was highest in the rainy
season and lowest in summer season in all the streams and all the three
years (1994-1997) of the study. The water quality of streams from
different microwatersheds varied significantly between seasons and
streams. Sediment and nutrient loss was estimated in microwatersheds and
soil loss from the total watershed ranged from 4·18 to
8·82 t ha-1 yr-1 during the three-year period of study. The
annual total nitrogen loss estimated at the watershed outlet was at a
rate of 33 kg ha-1, organic carbon 267 kg ha-1 and total phosphorus 5 kg
ha-1. This study suggests that the upland microwatersheds can be
hydroecologically sustainable only if good forest cover and dense
forests with large cardamom-based agroforestry are maintained.
Deforestation is the most serious environmental problem in Uttarakhand, home of the Chipko Movement, the Third World's leading nongovernmental organization (NGO) dedicated to forest con servation. This group exists because of the rural people's concern for the loss of forests and their personal experience of the envi ronmental consequences. Despite this, it has become fashionable for scientists from some international organizations to argue there is little evidence for recent deforestation, desertification, acce lerated erosion and increased flooding in the region. This paper tries to set the record straight. It summarizes results collected by field scientists in Uttarakhand. These data reinforce the popu lar view that deforestation and environmental decline are very ser ious problems. Preliminary results from the Kumaun University/Ox ford Polytechnic instrumented catchment study are appended. This catchment is set in dense Chir (Pinus roxburghii) forest on a steep slope over mica schist in a protected wildlife sanctuary on the ur ban fringe at Almora, U.P. The results demonstrate a pattern of sediment flushing associated with the rising flows of the Monsoon.
The Lesser Himalaya, as the most densely populated part of the tectonically active and ecologically sensitive Himalayan mountain ranges, deserves specific attention to the conservation of the environment and the sustainable development of natural resources. Rapid growth of the human population during recent years, and the absence of any viable means of livelihood other than uneconomic crop farming have led to the uncontrolled exploitation of land areas and the consequent degradation and depletion of critical biophysical resources in the region. The need for sustainable development in Himalaya, therefore, makes it imperative to adopt a comprehensive land-use policy based on land capacity analysis that is scientific and practical. The main objective of this paper is to evolve an optimal land-use framework for the Gomti Watershed, situated in Kumaon, Lesser Himalaya. A detailed study of the traditional land use, regional agricultural system and the areas prone to environmental hazards was made throughout the watershed, through the preparation of large scale topographical forest and land record maps, field surveys and mapping. The average slope was considered as the principal parameter of land capacity, the potential for landslides and the intensity of erosion. Recognising the drastic changes that have taken place in the traditional land use, the watershed area has been proposed to be defined as protected forests (33.41%), community forests (32.86%), cultivation (23.33%) and horticulture (8.30%).
This article challenges the conventional wisdom that post-1950 population growth, leading to extensive deforestation of the Himalayas, is the cause of catastrophic flooding of Bangladesh and northern India. It is argued that, until the subsistence mountain farmer can be regarded as part of the solution(s) to difficulties facing the Himalayan region, rather than branded as a major part of the problem, development policy will be seriously hindered in its goal of achieving beneficial and sustainable change.
The Himalayas are ecologically fragile and economically underdeveloped, with geo-environmental constraints imposing severe limitations on the level of resource productivity. Consequently, subsistence agriculture constitutes the main source of livelihood in the region. The rapid growth of population has brought about extensive land-use changes in the region, mainly through the extension of cultivation and large-scale deforestation. This irrational land transformation process has not only disrupted the ecological balance of the Himalayan watersheds through reduced groundwater recharge, increased run-off and soil erosion, but has also adversely affected the ecology and economy of the adjoining Indo-Gangetic plains by recurrent floods and decreased irrigation potential.
Headwater control: integrating land and livelihoods
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Morphological analysis of Lake Naini Tal in Kumaon Himalaya
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Second annual progress report of the research project on Natural Resources Information System for Wasteland Development in Kosi Headwater
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Environmental changes and status of water resources in Kumaon Himalaya Sustainable management of headwater resources: research from Africa and Asia
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Water resources and burning hydrological problems of Kumaon In: Valdiya KS (ed) Kumaon land and people
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The retreat of the snout of the Pindari Glaciers
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Towards sustainable hill area development. Himalaya: Man
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Accelerated erosion and landslide prone areas in the Central Himalayan Region Environmental regeneration in Himalaya
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Norms for providing potable drinking water in Rural Areas
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Urbanization and environmental changes in Himalaya: a study of the Lake Region of District Nainital in Kumaon Himalaya
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Glaciers and water source appraisal of Himalaya with special reference to Central Himalaya, Uttaranchal Resource appraisal, technology application, and environmental challenges in Central Himalaya
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Report of special task force on hill development. Planning Commission of India
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The ecology and economy of Himalayan agriculture and labour migration: a case study of Garhwal District
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Assessment of rainfall, runoff and sediment losses of the Bheta Gad watershed Resource constraints and management options in mountain watersheds of the Himalayas
- PK Verma
The interlinking of Indian Rivers: questions on the scientific, economic and environmental dimensions of the proposal. National Seminar on Interlinking Indian Rivers: bane or boon? Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management
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Land-use change and resource degradation in Sikkim Himalaya: a case study from Mamlay watershed Sustainable reconstruction of highland and headwater regions
- SC Rai
Recent changes in the position of the snout of the Pindari Glacier, Kumaon Himalaya
- AP Tiwari
Melting Himalayas: regional challenges and local impacts of climate change on mountain ecosystems and livelihoods
- Icimod
Glaciers and water source appraisal of Himalaya with special reference to Central Himalaya
- S C Mukhophadayay
- SC Mukhophadayay
Rehabilitation and management of wasteland in the Himalayan headwaters: an experimental study of Kosi Headwater in Kumaon Lesser Himalayas in India
- P C Tiwari
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- PC Tiwari
Assessment of rainfall, runoff and sediment losses of the Bheta Gad watershed
- P K Verma
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- PK Verma
Mountains: sources of the world’s freshwater. Newletter (32)
- D Viriroli
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Environmental changes and status of water resources in Kumaon Himalaya
- P C Tiwari
- B Joshi
- PC Tiwari
Water resources and burning hydrological problems of Kumaon
- J S Rawat
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Recent changes in the position of the snout of the Pindari Glacier
- A P Tiwari
- AP Tiwari
Land-use change and resource degradation in Sikkim Himalaya: a case study from Mamlay watershed
- S C Rai
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Natural resources and sustainable development in Himalaya
- P C Tiwari
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Management of common pool wasteland for rural livelihood improvement in the Himalayas, sustainable solutions: a spotlight on South Asian Research
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