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Doctrine of Signatures: An Explanation of Medicinal Plant Discovery or Dissemination of Knowledge?
Abstract and Figures
The Doctrine of Signatures (DOS) is found throughout the world. Most scholars dismiss it as a “primitive” or “prescientific”
idea. Despite its long history, the doctrine has had little critical review. A careful evaluation of signatures suggests four
things. (1) There is no evidence that morphological plant signatures ever led to the discovery of medicinal properties. Considering
DOS in this manner is unproductive and largely untestable. (2) Signatures are post hoc attributions rather than a priori clues
to the utility of medicinal plants. (3) It is productive to redefine signatures to include organoleptic properties associated
with therapeutic value. Plants with strong odors or bitter tastes, for example, commonly are found in pharmacopoeias. (4)
DOS should be considered for what it primarily is—a way of disseminating information. DOS fundamentally is a mnemonic and,
therefore, is exceedingly valuable in traditional cultures.
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... According to this theory, some of the physical properties of plants act as signs to show their therapeutic value. (6) For instance, in the doctrine of signatures theory, walnuts are similar to the human brain ( Figure 2) and it is helpful for brain health. (6) Figure 2. The appearance of the human brain (left image) is similar to a walnut (right image). ...
... (6) For instance, in the doctrine of signatures theory, walnuts are similar to the human brain ( Figure 2) and it is helpful for brain health. (6) Figure 2. The appearance of the human brain (left image) is similar to a walnut (right image). ...
... For thousands of years, people have also recognized the medical properties of a plant according to its appearance. (6) Oswaldus Crollius believed that everything has signs communicated to us by the immense mercy of the Allah Almighty to reveal the purpose of its creation. (20,21) According to this theory William Cole also wrote: "Wall-nuts have the perfect Signature of the Head: The outer husk or green covering, represent the pericranium, or outward skin of the skull, whereon the hair growth, and therefore salt made of those husks or barks, is exceeding good for wounds in the head. ...
In the Holy Qur’an, the religious text of Islam, the name of leeks, cucumbers, garlic, lentils and onions are mentioned together in the verse 61 of Sūrah Al-Baqarah (The Cow). This descriptive study was designed to determine the probable cause of mentioning these five plants in the Holy Qur’an. Results present interesting similarities between the microscopic view of these plants and the five sensory receptors in the peripheral nervous system. These findings are in line with the ideas of the “Doctrine of Signatures” theory. The doctrine of signatures theory believes that plants that resemble body parts have beneficial effects on those parts. Thus, the main purpose of this study was to propose another look to Quranic scientific research in order to open new windows for more research in the field of interdisciplinary topics. Undoubtedly, the continuation of these studies and scientific attention to the meaningful verses of the Holy Qur’an can be the first steps of a new path in line with the discovery of miracles and scientific statements of the Holy Qur’an.
... More specifically, in this article, we will discuss the phenomenological dimension of our results in the light of "ecological apparency" [25,26] and "sensory apparency" [2] hypotheses, and to which we add our own novel concept of "ethological apparency. " We approach epistemology in our analysis proposing a critique and an update to the predominance of folk taxonomy in classic ethnobiological studies [24,[27][28][29][30][31][32][33], focusing instead on the principle of resemblance as a criterion for inferences about affinities between organisms [33][34][35][36] and cultural use categories [37][38][39]. The ontological perspective in anthropology, in its turn, has criticized the universality of the Western nature-culture dichotomy, especially in relation to non-Western or indigenous systems of thinking [15,[40][41][42]. ...
... Coupled with analogical reasoning, this attention to habit and behavior, especially in the use of fauna-based remedies, describes a systematic theory of "ethological" apparency in these, and certainly other, ethnozoological repertoires. As is the case with the "Doctrine of Signatures" in ethnobotany [39], such rationalities of usage are typically dismissed as "metaphorical" or "magical" in studies of traditional medicinal uses of fauna [107][108][109][110]. In addition to better describing the uses reported in the ethnographic contexts presented here, we suggest that cultural variations on the concept of "apparency" could be applied more broadly to the study of ethnobiological and especially ethnozoological use repertoires. ...
Neste capítulo, investigamos a ocorrência de um princípio analogista estruturando os usos de diferentes elementos da fauna e flora entre quilombolas do Vale do Ribeira (SP) e ribeirinhos do Lago Amanã (AM). As analogias que reportamos envolvem usos que se dão em diferentes dimensões da vida cotidiana dos indivíduos, como para aumentar as habilidades de caça das pessoas e dos cães, da medicina tradicional, dos tabus alimentares, entre outras práticas e interações com não humanos. As práticas reportadas também se enquadram na categoria êmica que os indivíduos em ambos os contextos chamam de ‘simpatias’, o que talvez reflita uma conexão histórica com práticas ibéricas do tipo folk conhecidas como ‘mágica simpática’.
... ex DC.(Rubiaceae) "bolita de miones, (pisser-ball)" is used only to cease the need to urinate at night in children without urinary sphincter control. In some cases, there are interesting associations equivalent to the doctrine of signatures, where physical characteristics of plants reveal their therapeutic value (Bennett 2007). For instance, the fern Hemionitis palmata L. (Pteridaceae) known as "susto de perro (dog scare)" is used exclusively when people get scared by a dog´s barking and curiously the frond form is like the footprint of a dog paw. ...
... The treatment of jaundice is believed to be linked to the yellow colour of the stem bark which is used in this instance. This is a typical example of the "doctrine of signatures" commonly found in African Traditional Medicine where the colour of a plant part is linked to its ethnomedicinal use [14] , and in the case of jaundice, patients exhibit a yellow skin and eye colouring. Lewis in 2001 reported that the yellow to orange colour of the plant extracts is due to the presence of the three major water soluble alkaloids, i.e. palmitine, jathorrizine and columbamine. ...
... Mandrake was described by several authors as a panacea (e.g., Wright, 1845;Laza Palacios, 1953;Gottlieb, 1962;Schultes, 1976;Guerrino, 1969;Carter, 2003;Bennett, 2007). However, from the therapeutic point of view our data do not support this idea. ...
Ethnopharmacological relevance
Mandrake (Mandragora sp.) is one of the most famous medicinal plants. It has been in continuous medical use throughout written of history and is still in use today in popular medicine.
Aim of the study
Mandrake derived drugs once played an important role in medicine and in magical practices. Today, the role of mandrake in popular medicine is marginal. However, natural products present in mandrake such as atropine and scopolamine, as well as their semi synthetic derivatives continue to hold and important role in medicine. Here we aim to trace the development of historical rationales and scientific events that led to the abandonment of mandrake as a medicine.
Materials and methods
We review the medicinal uses of mandrake drugs since antiquity in an attempt to pinpoint use patterns that were popular in certain periods of time and others that are more general. We compare the uses from the native territories to those from regions where the plant got introduced and use literature reporting mandrake's chemistry and pharmacology in order to explain the diachronic changes of use patterns.
Results and conclusion
s: We found information about 88 different medicinal uses for mandrake, grouped into 39 conditions. According to the number of different medicinal uses, the most versatile period was medieval (37), followed by the Renaissance (31), the classical (27), and the modern period (21). Considering the higher number of textual sources and use-records collected for the Renaissance period, the decrease of versatility in comparison to the medieval period appears robust. This seems to indicate a more consolidated use pattern, that might be conditioned by the reproduction of classic textual sources as well as by a less experimental approach and reduced popularity of mandrake in medicine. The introduction of the volatile anaesthetic with more reliable narcotic effects set the seal on using mandrake in surgery but opened the way for atropine being used as a prophylactic and antidote during surgical interventions.
... ex DC.(Rubiaceae) "bolita de miones, (pisser-ball)" is used only to cease the need to urinate at night in children without urinary sphincter control. In some cases, there are interesting associations equivalent to the doctrine of signatures, where physical characteristics of plants reveal their therapeutic value (Bennett 2007). For instance, the fern Hemionitis palmata L. (Pteridaceae) known as "susto de perro (dog scare)" is used exclusively when people get scared by a dog´s barking and curiously the frond form is like the footprint of a dog paw. ...
Oaxaca is one of the five Mexican states with the highest biological richness and one of the most diverse in ethnic composition. Knowledge and use of plant resources have been part of their culture and maintenance in territories with different ecological, geological, and climatic conditions. Oaxaca contains 43.9% of the Mexican flora, with about 10,229 vascular plant species, distributed in 26 vegetation types. Ethnobotanical research in Oaxaca has been conducted during decades, focused on aspects like the integral traditional management, traditional classification systems, floristic composition and management of different ecosystems, agroecosystems. This chapter synthesizes a panorama of the ethno-floristic inventory in some preserved areas of northeastern Oaxaca, in three Priority Terrestrial Regions (PTR) with high bio-cultural diversity. The study area comprised 84 municipalities with eight ethnic groups in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley, the Sierras del Norte de Oaxaca-Mixe and the Selva Zoque-La Sepultura. Ethnobotanical data were recorded by participative observation, ethnobotanic fieldtrips, and free interviews with the local guides, for almost 4 years. Specimens of useful plants were collected and photographed the vouchers deposited in UAM-IZ, MEXU, and OAX. Field information and photographs of each specimen were integrated into the database BIÓTICA (CONABIO 2012) and the images bank of CONABIO (2018). More than 2,340 specimens were collected, a total of 139 families, 441 genera, 804 species, 7 subspecies, and 18 varieties were identified. The genus Quercus was the richest one with 34 species, followed by Tillandsia L. (22 species), and Pinus L. (14). Most of the useful species were found in four vegetation types: montane cloud forests (MCF), oak forests (OF), pine forests (PF), and tropical semi-evergreen forest (TSF). We recorded 11 use categories, the most important being medicinal, edible, and ornamental plants. Variation in number of useful families and species among ethnic groups was detected. Those with the greatest number of useful species and botanical families are the Northern Zapotec, Mixe, and Mazatec people, whereas the ethnic groups with the lowest values of useful species and families are also distributed in few municipalities, like Mixtec and Nahua. Results of this research reinforce the statement that people of ethnic groups are local safeguards of biodiversity. Patterns of regeneration processes indicate high rates of resilience of ecosystems, which needs to be analyzed to understand the kinds of management that people practice to recovering vegetation, since apparently, ethnic groups of Northeastern Oaxaca assist empirically to ecosystems restoration. The total number of useful species recorded in the present study increase in almost 10% these records. For many localities these are the first records of useful plants. Traditional knowledge must persist by its own right to persist, because we must be clear and sensitive that there are many explanations of world and life.
... In addition, the meanings of the vernacular names were exclusively descriptive and conveyed the traditional uses such as food (e.g., Boussorobu'nibou, Dissondi), therapeutic (Abuburoumey, Lissaya'nigou, Gbètou) or cultural (Tòòri, Tòòra) purposes. This emphasized previous findings positing that the majority of folk nomenclatures of plants are mnemonics and reflect a broad spectrum of information on local uses, ecology, anatomy and several other aspects, which could differ greatly within peoples, areas and cultures [54][55][56][57]. Moreover, similarity was noted in vernacular names of different ethnic groups, e.g., Dendi and Zerma naming the both species as Kpata. ...
Background
Cochlospermum tinctorium and C. planchonii are two wide edible plants of sub-Saharan countries, e.g., Benin, widely used as food, medicine, dye, handicraft, etc. Unfortunately, the uncontrolled harvest of their rootstocks exposes them to local extension risk. To enhance knowledge on the determinants of their uses in Benin, this study aimed to (i) assess the use forms, use values, abundance and perceived spatiotemporal dynamics, (ii) determine how does local abundance or cultural patterns affect the use of Cochlospermum species, and (iii) assess local harvesting modes and conservation management practices.
Methods
In total, 756 Dialog Partners through 27 ethnic groups were questioned countrywide using semi-structured interviews. Questions refer to local taxonomy, specific uses, organs sought, harvesting modes and local conservation strategies; afterward, local abundance of each species was assessed. Ethnobotanical indicators were analyzed through citation frequencies to obtain quantitative data. Comparison tests and statistical analyses were performed using R program.
Results
C. tinctorium and C. planchonii are locally well known and involved into 83 specific uses, grouped into ten categories of which medicinal use was the main. The use values of C. planchonii (0.10 ± 0.19) and C. tinctorium (0.23 ± 0.20) varied significantly between the ethnic groups, and only C. tinctorium showed index of commercially value above 75% for some ethnic groups. The current abundance, about 84 and 97 tufts.ha ⁻¹ , respectively, for C. planchonii and C. tinctorium was perceived with a decline of 81.09% ( C. tinctorium ) and 73.7% ( C. planchonii ) of informants. Moreover, the Spearman’s correlation and Kruskal–Wallis tests performed revealed that the use values of C. tinctorium and C. planchonii were significantly correlated on the one hand with their local abundance and on the other hand with the investigated ethnic groups. About 42.3% of women produced the powder as principal activity, while more than 57% produced it mainly at the end of farm work. However, the conservation management was practiced by very few informants and consisted of partial harvesting of rootstocks (41.8%, only in southern Benin), and fallowing of harvesting areas (3.97%, only in northern Benin).
Conclusion
Facing the declining abundance and increasing market demand for rootstock powder of Cochlospermum species, existing local conservation strategies should be promoted and the domestication process should be initiated for sustainable management of these important wild edible plants before these important resources disappear completely in the wild.
... In addition, the meanings of the vernacular names were exclusively descriptive and conveyed the traditional uses such as food (e.g., Boussorobu'nibou, Dissondi), therapeutic (Abuburoumey, Lissaya'nigou, Gbètou) or cultural (Tòòri, Tòòra) purposes. This emphasized previous findings positing that the majority of folk nomenclatures of plants are mnemonics and reflect a broad spectrum of information on local uses, ecology, anatomy and several other aspects, which could differ greatly within peoples, areas and cultures [54][55][56][57]. Moreover, similarity was noted in vernacular names of different ethnic groups, e.g., Dendi and Zerma naming the both species as Kpata. ...
Background: Cochlospermum tinctorium and C. planchonii are two wide edible plants of sub-Saharan countries, e.g. of Benin, widely used as food, medicine, dye, handicraft, etc. Unfortunately, the uncontrolled harvest of their rootstocks exposes them to local extension risk. To enhance knowledge on the determinants of their uses in Benin, this study aimed to (i) assess the use forms, use values, abundance and perceived spatiotemporal dynamics, ii) determine how does local abundance or cultural patterns affect the use of Cochlospermum species, and iii) assess local harvesting modes and conservation management practices. Methods: 756 Dialog Partners through 27 ethnic groups were questioned countrywide using semi-structured interviews. Questions refer to local taxonomy, specific uses, organs sought, harvesting modes and local conservation strategies, afterward local abundance of each species was assessed. Ethnobotanical indicators were analyzed through citation frequencies to obtain quantitative data. Comparison tests and statistical analyses were performed using in R program. Results: C. tinctorium and C. planchonii are locally well-known, and involved into eighty-three specific uses, grouped into ten categories of which medicinal use was the main. The use values of C. planchonii (0.10 ±0.19) and C. tinctorium (0.23 ±0.20) varied significantly between the ethnic groups, and only C. tinctorium showed index of commercially value above 75% for some ethnic groups. The current abundance, about 84 and 97 tufts.ha ⁻¹ respectively for C. planchonii and C. tinctorium was perceived in decline by 81.09% ( C. tinctorium ) and 73.7% ( C. planchonii ) of informants. Moreover, the Spearman’s correlation and Kruskall-Wallis tests performed revealed that the use values of C. tinctorium and C. planchonii were significantly correlated on the one hand with their local abundance, and on the other hand with the investigated ethnic groups. About 42.3% of women produced the powder as principal activity, while more than 57% produced it mainly at the end of farm work. However, the conservation management were practiced by very few informants and consisted on partial harvesting of rootstocks (41.8%, only in southern Benin), and fallowing of harvesting areas (3.97%, only in northern Benin). Conclusion: Facing the declining abundance and increasing market demand for rootstock powder of Cochlospermum species, existing local conservation strategies should be promoted and the domestication process should be initiated for sustainable management of these important wild edible plants before these important resources disappear completely in the wild.
Hunting has been crucial in early human evolution. Some San (Bushmen) of southern Africa still practice their indigenous hunting. The use of poisons is one remarkable aspect of their bow-and-arrow hunting but the sources, taxonomic identifications of species used, and recipes , are not well documented. This study reports on fieldwork to investigate recent indigenous hunting practices of G/ui and G//ana San communities in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR), Botswana. Here we discuss their use of spider poison. The hunters use the contents of the opisthosoma ('abdomen') of a spider as sole ingredient of the arrow poison and discard the prosoma that contains the venom-glands. Using taxonomic keys, we identified the spider as the garden orb-web spider Argiope australis (Walckenaer 1805) (Araneidae). The hunters' choice of this species is remarkable given the scientific perception that A. australis is of little medical importance. The species choice raises questions about how the spider fluids could kill game, particularly when the prosoma, which contains the venom glands, is not used. Possibilities include trauma, as a source of pathogens, or abdomen containing toxins. Based on characteristics of Argiope Audouin 1826, we hypothesize that the choice of this species for arrow poisons might have evolved from the recognition of aposematic signalling or spiritual symbolism. Indigenous knowledge (IK) is an important source for advances in biotechnology but is in decline worldwide. The study contributes to the documentation of the San people, and their ancient IK, which is threatened by marginali-zation, political pressures, and climate change. PLOS ONE PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.
Daniel E. Moerman presents an innovative and enlightening discussion
of human reaction to the meaning of medical treatment. Many things
happen in medicine that cannot be attributed to specific elements, such
as drugs or surgical procedures. The same drug can workdifferently
when presented in different colors; inert drugs (placebos, dummies) often
have dramatic effects on people (the “placebo effect”); and effects
can vary hugely among different European countries where the “same”
medical condition is understood differently, or has different meanings,
yielding different meaning responses. This lively bookreviews and analyzes
these matters in lucid, straightforward prose, guiding the reader
through a very complex body of literature, leaving nothing unexplained
but avoiding any oversimplification.
. is William E. Stirton Professor of Anthropology
at the University of Michigan-Dearborn. He is a fellow of the
American Anthropological Association and Secretary of the International
Society for Ethnopharmacology. His recent book Native American
Ethnobotany (1998) received the “Annual Literature Award” of the
Council on Botanical and Horticultural Libraries for 2000.
Although Renaissance scholars generally agree that Della Porta was the finest comic playwright of his generation in Italy, no detailed analysis of these plays and of their considerable influence outside Italy has previously appeared. One of the most famous men of his time in the field of scientific investigation, Della Porta wrote plays for relaxation and, on occasion, to camouflage controversial aspects of his scientific research from the Inquisitions. Today his works in science are largely forgotten and his right to fame rests on the plays. This book brings together the available facts of Della Porta's rich and often mysterious life and closely examines his dramatic works as part of the Italian literary scene in late Renaissance.
This book proposes a theory of human cognitive evolution, drawing from paleontology, linguistics, anthropology, cognitive science, and especially neuropsychology. The properties of humankind's brain, culture, and cognition have coevolved in a tight iterative loop; the main event in human evolution has occurred at the cognitive level, however, mediating change at the anatomical and cultural levels. During the past two million years humans have passed through three major cognitive transitions, each of which has left the human mind with a new way of representing reality and a new form of culture. Modern humans consequently have three systems of memory representation that were not available to our closest primate relatives: mimetic skill, language, and external symbols. These three systems are supported by new types of ''hard'' storage devices, two of which (mimetic and linguistic) are biological, one technological. Full symbolic literacy consists of a complex of skills for interacting with the external memory system. The independence of these three uniquely human ways of representing knowledge is suggested in the way the mind breaks down after brain injury and confirmed by various other lines of evidence. Each of the three systems is based on an inventive capacity, and the products of those capacities - such as languages, symbols, gestures, social rituals, and images - continue to be invented and vetted in the social arena. Cognitive evolution is not yet complete: the externalization of memory has altered the actual memory architecture within which humans think. This is changing the role of biological memory and the way in which the human brain deploys its resources; it is also changing the form of modern culture.
Humans have borrowed plants' chemical 'recipes' for evolutionary survival for use in cuisine to combat foodborne microorganisms and to reduce food poisoning.