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Ecuador Suffers the Highest Deforestation Rate in South America
Abstract
“Deforestation” in this chapter is used according to the FAO (2001) definition: it is the conversion of forest to another
land use or the long-term reduction of the tree canopy cover below the minimum 10% threshold. This implies that areas where
trees have been removed as a result of harvesting or logging are not considered as “deforestation”. Even if the structure
or function of a forest is heavily disturbed by harvesting operations, the stand remains a forest as long as it has a tree
canopy cover of more than 10% or is expected to regenerate naturally or artificially in the long run. So “deforestation” in
the sense of the FAO definition does not incorporate the degradation of forests included in some other definitions, e.g. Myers
(1994). Correspondingly the replacement of old-growth forests by plantations or their temporary use by shifting cultivators
is not considered as destruction or deforestation. Only a complete change of land use or the destruction of forest cover which
prevents its recovery to more than 10% crown cover enters the FAO statistics as “deforestation” or “forest loss”.
... The Andes region has also suffered severe deforestation such that approximately 40% of the original vegetation has been lost (Cuesta et al., 2017). Much of the remaining primary forest in the region occurs in areas with extremely steep slopes that are inappropriate for agriculture or harvesting timber or in small preserves (Marian et al., 2020;Mosandl et al., 2008;Tapia-Armijos et al., 2015;Wunder, 1996). Villages, towns and cities in the region are often packed in small valleys, exacerbating demands on nearby natural resources. ...
... Villages, towns and cities in the region are often packed in small valleys, exacerbating demands on nearby natural resources. Large indigenous populations predominate in this region and have modified the Andean landscape for centuries (Mosandl et al., 2008). Native forest and páramo habitat have largely been replaced with non-native tree monocultures of Pinus, Eucalyptus, Cupressus, etc., increasing habitat homogeneity and changing the environmental conditions (Buytaert et al., 2007;Hofstede et al., 2002;Marian et al., 2020;Wunder, 1996). ...
... Deforestation also changes water temperature and light conditions(Castelle et al., 1994;Ilha et al., 2018;Macedo et al., 2013;Pusey & Arthington, 2003), reduces levels of litter detritus and increases periphyton(Bojsen & Jacobsen, 2003;Lorion & Kennedy, 2009), reduces habitat complexity(Lo et al., 2020), affects hydrological processes(Iñiguez-Armijos et al., 2014), is associated with the increase of introduced species in streams(Jones et al., 1999;Pusey & Arthington, 2003), and affects alpha and beta diversity, community composition, and ecosystem function(Bojsen & Jacobsen, 2003;Iñiguez-Armijos et al., 2014;Lo et al., 2020;Lorion & Kennedy, 2009;Pusey & Arthington, 2003;Zeni et al., 2019). Deforestation has even been associated with morphological changes in fish(Ilha et al., 2018).Deforestation in Ecuador has been severe(Dodson & Gentry, 1991;Mosandl et al., 2008;Sierra, 2000;Tapia-Armijos et al., 2015). Although the proportion of the deforested area and timing of deforestation varies substantially by region (Ministerio delAmbiente, 2017;Sierra, 2013), Ecuador had the highest average annual rate of deforestation in Latin America between 1990 and 2012(Armenteras & Rodríguez Eraso, 2014 ...
Freshwater fish communities in Ecuador exhibit some of the highest levels of diversity and endemism in the Neotropics. Unfortunately, aquatic ecosystems in the country are under serious threat and conditions are deteriorating. In 2018–19, the government of Ecuador sponsored a series of workshops to examine the conservation status of Ecuador's freshwater fishes. Concerns were identified for 35 species, most of which are native to the Amazon region, and overfishing of Amazonian pimelodid catfishes emerged as a major issue. However, much of the information needed to make decisions across fish groups and regions was not available, hindering the process and highlighting the need for a review of the conservation threats to Ecuador's freshwater fishes. Here, we review how the physical alteration of rivers, deforestation, wetland and floodplain degradation, agricultural and urban water pollution, mining, oil extraction, dams, overfishing, introduced species and climate change are affecting freshwater fishes in Ecuador. Although many of these factors affect fishes throughout the Neotropics, the lack of data on Ecuadorian fish communities is staggering and highlights the urgent need for more research. We also make recommendations, including the need for proper enforcement of existing environmental laws, restoration of degraded aquatic ecosystems, establishment of a national monitoring system for freshwater ecosystems, investment in research to fill gaps in knowledge, and encouragement of public engagement in citizen science and conservation efforts. Freshwater fishes are an important component of the cultural and biological legacy of the Ecuadorian people. Conserving them for future generations is critical.
... From 2000 to 2005, Ecuador annually lost 1.7% of the original forest cover, which was the highest annual deforestation rate of South America during this period (FAO, 2006;Mosandl et al., 2008). Most of the current deforestation in Ecuador is attributable to the conversion of secondary forests to pastures (Mosandl et al., 2008). ...
... From 2000 to 2005, Ecuador annually lost 1.7% of the original forest cover, which was the highest annual deforestation rate of South America during this period (FAO, 2006;Mosandl et al., 2008). Most of the current deforestation in Ecuador is attributable to the conversion of secondary forests to pastures (Mosandl et al., 2008). From 1972 to 1989, the pasture area in Ecuador tripled (Wunder, 2000). ...
... Moreover, the common practice of pasture burning favors the ingression of bracken ferns, which further decreases the pasture value and contributes to its final abandonment at many locations (Roos et al., 2013). Reforestation is one option to recover the degraded land, counteract the high deforestation rate, and mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration (Cunningham et al., 2014;Mosandl et al., 2008). However, the site conditions of the Amazon region render reforestation a great challenge because the strongly weathered and overexploited soils show low fertility (Mainville et al., 2006), hampering the establishment of afforestations. ...
The literature suggests that biochar increases the fertility of degraded, nutrient‐poor tropical soils. We hypothesized that the addition of biochar (a) increases tree growth in two plantations on Ultisols in the south Ecuadorian Amazon region, (b) reduces litterfall during the dry season because the soil remains moister, and (c) improves the benefit–cost ratio of the plantation. We grew two tree species—the native leguminous Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum (Ducke) Barneby and the exotic Gmelina arborea Roxb—and used a full factorial split‐split‐plot design of all treatments for both tree species at each of two sites. The treatments included the amendment of mineral fertilizer plus lime, 3 and 6 t ha–1 biochar, and a control. The plots were replicated three or four times. Tree height (TH), basal diameter (BD), and diameter at breast height (DBH) were measured several times during 51 mo after planting in September 2009 and litterfall during 12 mo (March 2012–February 2013). The site and the mineral fertilizer plus lime treatment had significant effects on TH, BD, and DBH. The amendment of mineral fertilizer plus lime increased TH, BD, and DBH by 47, 43, and 58%, respectively, relative to the control. The litterfall of G. arborea was on average 84% higher than that of S. parahyba. The amendment of biochar did not significantly influence TH, BD, DBH, or litterfall. The benefit–cost ratio of wood production was >1 in the mineral fertilizer plus lime treatment and controls but <1 in the biochar treatments and decreased with increasing addition of biochar. Our results demonstrate that the assumption that biochar can be used to improve the fertility of degraded Amazon soils cannot be generalized.
... Information on the conservation status of even well-known species is scarce (de la Torre 2012). Deforestation for agriculture is the principal threat (Mosandl et al. 2008) due to the fertile soils, availability of water, and suitable topography. A land reform act promoted the colonization of "non-productive" lands during the 1980s (Dodson and Gentry 1991;Sierra 2001;Viteri-Diaz 2007;Mosandl et al. 2008). ...
... Deforestation for agriculture is the principal threat (Mosandl et al. 2008) due to the fertile soils, availability of water, and suitable topography. A land reform act promoted the colonization of "non-productive" lands during the 1980s (Dodson and Gentry 1991;Sierra 2001;Viteri-Diaz 2007;Mosandl et al. 2008). Deforestation has greatly affected Ecuador for decades, and from 2000-2010 the country suffered the highest deforestation rate in South America (Mosandl et al. 2008;Gonzalez-Jaramillo 2016). ...
... A land reform act promoted the colonization of "non-productive" lands during the 1980s (Dodson and Gentry 1991;Sierra 2001;Viteri-Diaz 2007;Mosandl et al. 2008). Deforestation has greatly affected Ecuador for decades, and from 2000-2010 the country suffered the highest deforestation rate in South America (Mosandl et al. 2008;Gonzalez-Jaramillo 2016). Forest loss and fragmentation have been especially severe in the coastal region since the mid-twentieth century, where an estimated 72% of the original forest cover has been converted for other uses, and there are no indications that deforestation will be curbed in the near future (Ecuador 2012;Sierra 2013;Gonzalez-Jaramillo 2016). ...
Effective conservation strategies need to be created based on accurate and updated data on the distribution and conservation status of the species of concern. Not surprisingly, the most diverse countries which are currently facing the greater threats, tend to be those with the greatest lack of information. This is the case for Ecuador, where deforestation rates have been extremely severe, especially in the coastal region, where less than 10% of its original forest cover remains. Given the fact that primates rely on habitat connectivity for their survival, it is crucial to understand the impact of threats to their populations. To obtain data on the current distribution of the four primates known to inhabit western Ecuador, several organizations worked together to conduct the first primate census in coastal Ecuador from October 2016 to March 2017. Teams of 2−5 people walked existing trails and recorded both visual and auditory detections. We also conducted semi-structured interviews to members of local communities to complement field data. We surveyed 83 locations, and recorded 260 independent detections, along more than 300 km of trails, The four species known to occur in the region were detected: the Ecuadorian mantled howler Alouatta palliata aequatorialis; the Brown-headed Spider Monkey Ateles fusciceps; the Ecuadorian White-fronted Capuchin Cebus aequatorialis, and the Colombian White-faced Capuchin Cebus capucinus capucinus. Two other species, Aotus sp. and Saimiri sp., were mentioned during the interviews. This project is a clear example of what can be achieved when different organizations unify their efforts towards a single goal that provides the basis for future research, and suggests specific conservation measures to improve the conservation status of the primates.
... Deforestation, changes in tree biodiversity, and increasing river discharge are altering the pathways, amounts, and types of wood entering the deep oceans. From 2000 to 2005, 7.3 million hectares of forest per year were lost globally (Mosandl et al., 2008). In Brazil, a staggering 3.1 million hectares/year were lost (Mosandl et al., 2008). ...
... From 2000 to 2005, 7.3 million hectares of forest per year were lost globally (Mosandl et al., 2008). In Brazil, a staggering 3.1 million hectares/year were lost (Mosandl et al., 2008). Forest cover decreased by >50% in insular Southeast Asia, >80% in New Guinea (Miettinen et al., 2011), and 73% across Mexico (Trejo & Dirzo, 2000), all regions near major rivers, thus implying a disruption of wood into the deep oceans. ...
Wood in the deep sea serves as a substantial food source in an otherwise barren environment, forming specialized, endemic, and diverse community assemblages. This biodiversity reliance on a terrestrial source creates a linkage by which anthropogenic impacts on land can alter the deep oceans. Knowledge of the alpha‐ or beta‐diversity of entire wood‐fall communities, and wooden drivers of each would elucidate the terrestrial and deep‐sea linkage. We report on a multifactorial experiment in the deep ocean in which alpha‐ and beta‐diversity of 43 wood falls and 11 tree species are quantified over time, wood density, and wood size. We tested multiple hypotheses seeking to link how biodiversity on land may impact the biodiversity in the deep oceans. A tremendous biodiversity occurred among these wood falls in the deep Gulf of Mexico; 114 invertebrate species from 10 phyla. Time, wood hardness, and wood size all impacted various components of community structure. In many cases, these effects were additive. Species occurring on softwoods versus hardwoods and small versus large wood falls were compositionally different. Although various processes can control community structure, this experiment suggests a strong influence of environmental filtering and host specificity of wood‐fall invertebrates suggesting an intimate coupling to tree biodiversity and biomass on land.
... The region most likely affected by deforestation is the Andes, where few primary forests remain (Figures 2b and 4). The study developed by Castro et al. [86] and Mosandl et al. [87] mention that since the 1950s, the coast region suffered an intense conversion of forests into land for agricultural and livestock purposes. Likewise, Jones et al. [88] point out that the Amazon region has suffered from poorly planned colonization problems, which arose due to the construction of road infrastructure for oil exploitation. ...
... Likewise, Jones et al. [88] point out that the Amazon region has suffered from poorly planned colonization problems, which arose due to the construction of road infrastructure for oil exploitation. Additionally, it was found by Oltra [89], Mosandl et al. [87], Sierra [69], and Sanchez [65] that deforestation has caused the destruction of ecosystems and the loss of biodiversity, the decrease in the absorption capacity of CO 2 , the loss of quality and soil erosion, economic and social damage, and other environmental problems related to climate change. However, the statistics presented by MAE [53] show that in the last decade, the forest cover of Ecuador has experienced a marked slowdown, with an average annual net deforestation of 58,429 ha/year and an annual net deforestation rate of −0.46% (Figures 2b and 4). ...
The contribution of the Ecuadorian forest industry to the development of the country is of undeniable importance since it enables job creation, the production of goods and services, and the generation of wealth. As such, special attention should be paid to the problems that are affecting its development and that prevent enhancing the competitiveness of the companies in this important productive sector of the country. This review of the international literature found in relevant databases synthesizes findings on the forest wealth of Ecuador vs. deforestation. We also provide an overview on the state-of-art technology in timber harvesting and the wood processing industry. Within each of these topics, we analyze and discuss some factors such as irrational logging of native forests, incipient afforestation, as well as the elements on primary and secondary transformation of wood in Ecuador. We conclude that the participation and cooperation of all actors in the productive chain of the forestry sector in Ecuador is of the utmost importance to adequately address the demands of the national and international markets.
... The 22 primate species that inhabit tropical and subtropical forests in Ecuador are facing severe conservation problems [1]. With an economy based on extractivism, Ecuador has one of the highest deforestation rates of the region, estimated between 56,000 and 76,000 ha per year [2,3]. Hunting, trafficking of live animals, and, possibly, zoonotic diseases are also having detrimental effects on primate populations, increasing their risk of extinction [1]. 2 of 15 Considering their potential as flagship species, efforts to conserve Ecuadorian primates and their forests could significantly contribute to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular Goal 15-Life on land, which aims to "protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss" [4]. ...
... Hunting, trafficking of live animals, and, possibly, zoonotic diseases are also having detrimental effects on primate populations, increasing their risk of extinction [1]. 2 of 15 Considering their potential as flagship species, efforts to conserve Ecuadorian primates and their forests could significantly contribute to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular Goal 15-Life on land, which aims to "protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss" [4]. For these conservation efforts to be effective, the engagement of local communities is critical, since some of the most important drivers of deforestation in the country (namely, crop expansion, logging activities, and cattle ranching) depend on the land-use decisions of farm households [3,5]. Implementing environmental education and capacity building programs in local communities may help households to make more informed and environmentally sustainable land-use decisions, to improve their economic income and well-being. ...
Ecuadorian primates are a diverse and ecologically important group that is facing severe conservation problems. We present the experiences and lessons learned from two primate conservation projects in eastern and western Ecuador to foster an in-depth reflection of what could be improved to enhance their contribution to the delivery of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). By combining research, education, and capacity building, both projects aim to empower and engage local communities in initiatives to protect primate habitats. These efforts to enhance local environmental sustainability contribute to SDGs 15 (Life on land), 4 (Quality of education), 2 (Zero hunger), 3 (Good health and well-being), 5 (Gender equality), 10 (Reduced inequalities), 12 (Responsible consumption and production), and 13 (Climate actions). One of our findings is that community involvement in conservation activities is not always directly related to an improvement of the conservation status of primate populations. Therefore, continuous monitoring of primate populations and of other relevant indicators is key to assessing the effectiveness of the interventions. We highlight the importance of sharing information between projects with similar scopes and the need to develop local indicators for a more objective assessment of the contribution of small-scale conservation projects to the delivery of the SDGs.
... The smallest political delimitation in Ecuador is the parish, of which there are a total of 1,499 ( Figure 1). Forestland comprises fifteen percent of Ecuador's total land area, having decreased substantially due to oil exploration, logging and urban development (Mosandl et al., 2008). Activities associated with oil extraction and mining comprise the Ecuadorian economy's principal economic sectors, contributing thirty-three percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). ...
... Our understanding of the role that polluting industries play in environmental degradation is not new. Numerous experts have evaluated case studies throughout Ecuador, examining the environmental and social impacts associated with oil extraction, mining, deforestation, industry and other activities (Barraza et al., 2020;Buchanan, 2013;Jurado and Southgate, 1999;Mosandl et al., 2008). However, the intensive work that such research involves, while rewarding, can also be time and resource consuming (Anderson, 2010). ...
Analyses of remote sensing data can help identify areas facing environmental challenges that put local populations at risk. However, these sometimes lack sufficient context in terms of the socioeconomic and political processes associated with environmental injustice. In this article, we present the findings of our qualitatively contextualized study of spatial air pollution patterns in Ecuador, using an online self-reporting tool that documents environmental injustice globally: The Environmental Justice Atlas. Our findings supported previous work on the polluting role of industries such as oil refining and mining, as well as the greater exposure of at-risk populations, such as Indigenous peoples, compared to other demographic groups. Our findings also suggested a lack of follow-up on the part of polluting industries in the repair of the social and ecological damage caused. Application of the Environmental Justice Atlas as a means to contextualize geospatial environmental findings can be used to perform rapid-environmental assessments that take into account local socioeconomic and political processes.
... Therefore, analyzing forest dynamics drivers (FDDs), i.e., deforestation and reforestation, in the Tropical Andes is very important for conservation, climate change adaptation, and sustainability. This knowledge is decisive for countries like Ecuador, where most of the remaining native forests are located and deforestation rates have been the highest in South America for some years [12,13]. ...
... Forest clearing in the Ecuadorian Amazon peaked during 1970-1990, when the deforestation rate was one of the highest in South America [12]. In the NEA, the forested areas experienced an 19.6% reduction (4130 km 2 ) by the end of 2014, principally due to pasture expansion for cattle ranching [56] (Fig 2). ...
The Tropical Andes region includes biodiversity hotspots of high conservation priority whose management strategies depend on the analysis of forest dynamics drivers (FDDs). These depend on complex social and ecological interactions that manifest on different space–time scales and are commonly evaluated through regression analysis of multivariate datasets. However, processing such datasets is challenging, especially when time series are used and inconsistencies in data collection complicate their integration. Moreover, regression analysis in FDD characterization has been criticized for failing to capture spatial variability; therefore, alternatives such as geographically weighted regression (GWR) have been proposed, but their sensitivity to multicollinearity has not yet been solved. In this scenario, we present an innovative methodology that combines techniques to: 1) derive remote sensing time series products; 2) improve census processing with dasymetric mapping; 3) combine GWR and random forest (RF) to derive local variables importance; and 4) report results based in a clustering and hypothesis testing. We applied this methodology in the northwestern Ecuadorian Amazon, a highly heterogeneous region characterized by different active fronts of deforestation and reforestation, within the time period 2000–2010. Our objective was to identify linkages between these processes and validate the potential of the proposed methodology. Our findings indicate that land-use intensity proxies can be extracted from remote sensing time series, while intercensal analysis can be facilitated by calculating population density maps. Moreover, our implementation of GWR with RF achieved accurate predictions above the 74% using the out-of-bag samples, demonstrating that derived RF features can be used to construct hypothesis and discuss forest change drivers with more detailed information. In the other hand, our analysis revealed contrasting effects between deforestation and reforestation for variables related to suitability to agriculture and accessibility to its facilities, which is also reflected according patch size, land cover and population dynamics patterns. This approach demonstrates the benefits of integrating remote sensing–derived products and socioeconomic data to understand coupled socioecological systems more from a local than a global scale.
... A recent report by Ecuador's Ministry of the Environment states an annual deforestation rate of 0.74% for 2014(MAE, 2017. Commercial activities like the expansion of the agricultural frontier, commercial logging, infrastructure development, oil palm production, cacao and banana plantations, and mining and oil concessions have been discussed as reasons for deforestation and forest degradation in Ecuador (Mosandl et al., 2008;Sierra, 2013). Deforestation and forest degradation do not only affect the environment but also the people's welfare. ...
... To our knowledge, there is no evidence on population's WTP for forest conservation in the particular context of Ecuador as yet. Despite Ecuador being one of the most ecologically diverse countries in the world (Mittermeier et al., 1997), it has experienced one of the highest deforestation rates in South America (Mosandl et al., 2008). The Ecuadorian government has implemented a number of incentives programs for forest conservation, the most prominent being the Socio Bosque program (de Koning et al., 2011), and has additionally issued regulations prohibiting timber harvests from native forests (Blaser et al., 2011), which, however, could not stop illegal logging in private and protected areas (Mejia and Pacheco, 2014;Vasco et al., 2017). ...
Deforestation is a threatening pan-tropical problem. Net deforestation in Ecuador amounts to approximately 500 km2 per year for 2008–2014. It represents not only an environmental problem but also a threat to social welfare. As social welfare depends on individual preferences, we examined households´ preferences and willingness-to-pay (WTP) for a proposed forest conservation program aiming to avoid deforestation in Ecuador. Our study presents results from a nationwide contingent valuation survey conducted in a geographically stratified random sample of 976 households across the three main geographical regions of Ecuador as well as urban and rural areas. About 98% of surveyed households consider the proposed program worth supporting. For forest conservation, the monthly mean WTP per household lies between 3.17 (open-ended) depending on the method of analysis indicating a solid potential for supporting incentive-based conservation programs. Households also expressed their preferences by regions and types of forests but our results are inconclusive in this regard. Methodologically, our study sheds some new light on the causes for the well-known discrepancy between dichotomous-choice and open-ended WTP estimates. Our results may help improving social welfare by incorporating households´ preferences into the design of forest conservation programs (e.g., like Ecuador's Socio Bosque program). Currently realized payments for the Socio Bosque program are based on sound social support which opens doors to discuss amplifying the financial scope of the program by examining the role that households could play in funding forest conservation programs. Our WTP estimates provide aggregate information that could support the design of forest policy instruments.
... megatons of carbon stored in the «costa», «insular», «oriente» and «sierra» regions, respectively (Table 2). High and low distribution of carbon follows similar patterns as those from the past decade (see supplementary Figure A1 for a comparison with historical aboveground carbon patterns), but the actual amounts may have been influenced by the presence of intensive land use (e.g., urban development or extractive industries such as oil exploration and logging, which are associated with national shifts in economic and ecological policies -see Curatola Fernández et al., 2015;Llerena-Montoya et al., 2021;Mosandl et al., 2008). High-resolution mapping (i.e., greater than 10 meters) going back a couple of decades and evaluating changes at a subregional or more local scale may be necessary in order to fully assess landcover change impacts. ...
Land-cover change is one of the major drivers of land degradation and associated greenhouse gas emissions. Tracking existing carbon stocks and related fluctuations is crucial to the development and employing of climate mitigation strategies. However, this cannot be properly achieved without updated datasets. In the case of the Republic of Ecuador, the most recent carbon map does not account for multiple types of carbon pools, and the most recent socio-ecological assessment of national carbon stocks is at least a decade old. Continuing to employ national policies based on such data can be limiting. In this research work, we quantified the country’s carbon stocks and examined the relationship between carbon and the distribution of protected areas and indigenous peoples. The resulting carbon map was developed using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) tool, employing the WorldCover 10-meter spatial resolution European Space Agency (ESA) product, as well as national and regional carbon values. The resulting carbon map constitutes a contribution to current efforts to update national geospatial products, in order to help inform future climate mitigation policies.
... En Sudamérica es un patrón común el avance de la deforestación producto del incremento de espacios agrícolas y urbanos (Andrade-Núñez & Aide, 2018; Richards et al., 2012;Sy et al., 2015). Ecuador hasta el 2008 presentaba la tasa de deforestación más alta en Sudamérica (Mosandl et al., 2008). Por lo que, en el país es común observar cómo se pierden bosques amazónicos (Heredia-R et al., 2021), y como se reemplazan coberturas naturales en la cuenca del río Chambo en el centro-sur del país (Ross et al., 2017) y en la cuenca del río Guayllabamba (Abad-Auquilla, 2020). ...
El empleo de sensores remotos junto a la información de los factores sociales propios de cada población permite el monitoreo del uso de los recursos naturales. El objetivo del presente estudio fue determinar el cambio y proyección a futuro de los usos y coberturas de suelo, y a la vez comprender, desde la perspectiva de los principales actores, los factores propulsores y subyacentes que impulsan estos cambios en la cuenca hidrográfica media-alta del río Mira. Para ello, se utilizaron imágenes multiespectrales, Landsat y Sentinel del año 1996, 2007 y 2018, a las cuales se las realizó un pretratamiento y tratamiento. Se efectuó una proyección de los cambios de coberturas y usos del suelo del 2018-2030 mediante el software TerrSet. Después, utilizando el método Delphi se identificaron los factores propulsores y subyacentes. Los resultados encontrados muestran que bosques y pastos presentaron una disminución sostenida, mientras que las áreas de cultivo y zonas urbanas aumentaron dentro de los periodos 1996-2018 y 2018-2030. Estos cambios se relacionan con el crecimiento urbano, agrícola, ganadero, minero y de la industria forestal; impulsados generalmente por el aumento poblacional, demanda de mercado, cambios de patrones de consumo, expansión de las carreteras e inexistencia de políticas ambientales.
... It is likely that in the coming years the increase in air temperature and rainfall variability will affect the composition and distribution of species as well as the structure (e.g. biomass) of this vegetation type (Mosandl et al. 2008;Scholl et al. 2010;Anthelme et al. 2014). ...
... También, en esta región existe una importante población humana que es altamente dependiente de la biodiversidad que les rodea, obteniendo de estos servicios ambientales importantes para su subsistencia y generando recursos importantes para la matriz productiva del país. Pero también, en esta región los índices de alteración de hábitats son muy altos(Mosandl et al. 2008;Rivas et al. 2021). Estas características hacen de esta parte del país un área prioritaria para la investigación y conservación de la biodiversidad (Cuesta et al. 2017) ...
Pyrrhura orcesi es una especie endémica y amenazada que habita en una estrecha franja de aproximadamente de 8 km de ancho por 100 km de largo en una gradiente altitudinal entre los 800 y 1 300 m de los bosques nublados en los Andes al suroeste de Ecuador. Este trabajo se basó en evaluar por vez primera las poblaciones de pericos en toda su distribución e identificar áreas importantes para la conservación. La búsqueda de pericos en toda su área de ditribución se realizó mediante recorridos visuales-auditivos de 2 a 3 km en cada sitio de muestreo y se implementaron puntos fijos de conteo, en donde existe presencia frecuente de pericos. Entre los años 2009 y 2012, se estimó un total de 695 -714 individuos de 109-112 bandadas, en 13 localidades. La obtención de datos para P. orcesi a nivel regional fue importante para realizar los modelos predictivos de distribución y el impacto potencial del cambio climático en la distribución futura de la población de pericos en el suroeste del Ecuador. Esta información permitirá desarrollar lineamientos preliminares para la conservación de los bosques nublados del suroeste del Ecuador.
... Despite this high diversity, orchids are affected by several threats, mainly deforestation, as they are dependent on the forest that supports them [14]. As per its size, Ecuador has the highest rate of deforestation in South America [15,16], due to regular anthropogenic activities like land clearing for agricultural lands, mining, and new infrastructures [17]. These activities have caused the habitat destruction and fragmentation of tropical forests [18], leaving small remnants and isolated patches that affect the survival of populations and species diversity [7]. ...
Ecuador has a high diversity of orchids, but little is known about levels of genetic diversity for the great majority of species. Understanding how orchids might adapt to changes is crucial as deforestation and fragmentation of forest ecosystems threaten the survival of many epiphytic orchids that depend on other species, such as fungi and their host trees, for germination, growth, and establishment. Overcollection and the illegal trade are also major concerns for the survival of wild populations of orchids. Despite increasing awareness, effective interventions are often limited by a lack of data concerning the impacts that overexploitation might have. To fill this gap, we tested the effects of overcollection in the genetic diversity and structure of Masdevallia rosea, a narrow distributed epiphytic orchid historically collected in Ecuador, in comparison with the widely distributed Pleurothallis lilijae. Genotyping based on AFLPs showed reduced levels of diversity in wild populations but most especially in the overcollected, M. rosea. Overall, genetic admixture was high in P. lilijae segregating populations by altitude levels while fewer genetic groups were found in M. rosea. Genetic differentiation was low in both species. A spatial genetic structure was found in P. lilijae depending on altitude levels, while no spatial genetic structure was found in M. rosea. These results suggest different scenarios for the two species: while gene flow over long distance is possible in P. lilijae, the same seems to be unlikely in M. rosea possibly due to the low levels of individuals in the known populations. In situ and ex situ conservation strategies should be applied to protect the genetic pool in these epiphytic orchid species, and to promote the connectivity between wild populations. Adopting measures to reduce overexploitation and to understand the impacts of harvesting in wild populations are necessary to strengthen the legal trade of orchids.
... Half of the land area is covered by forest (FAO, 2020b). Deforestation rates in Ecuador have been among the highest in southern America for years (Mosandl et al., 2008) and it is estimated that continental Ecuador suffered an annual deforestation rate of 1. 9% between 2001and 2008(Gonzalez-Jaramillo et al., 2016. Rivas et al. (2021) report an annual deforestation rate of 1.12 between 1990 and 2018 in Ecuadorian seasonal dry forests. ...
In response to the loss of forest cover and biodiversity, forest conservation policies have been increasingly pursued worldwide. Such policies are often criticized for limiting the access of locals to forest resources, raising the question if nature conservation and poverty alleviation goals are compatible. Few studies have attempted to examine the impact of forest restriction on the livelihood of neighboring communities by accounting for confounding factors. We address this gap by estimating the impact of contextual factors in the wider landscape as well as forest legal restrictions on households' main income sources. The current study relies on a comprehensive dataset from 3410 households living in different tropical contexts in forested landscapes of Zambia, Ecuador and the Philippines. We adopt a multi-level regression model by including explanatory variables at both household and landscape levels. Our results indicate the significance of the broader landscape's context such as elevation, road access and extent of remaining forest for households' income. Country context is particularly important in determining households' income. Households' characteristics and asset endowment play a major role too. Our findings provide no evidence that increasing restricted forest extent in landscape decreases households' income when contextual factors are controlled for. This study highlights the non-random designation of forest conservation policies, with many conservation programs being assigned to areas with little development potential. Thus, we argue that contextual factors in which households function shall be given more attention in the debate of nature protection versus poverty reduction. Suggesting the insignificant impact of forest conservation policies on households' livelihoods, our findings serve to inform policymakers in establishing effectual forest conservation policies which strike the right balance between nature protection and rural development.
... También, en esta región existe una importante población humana que es altamente dependiente de la biodiversidad que les rodea, obteniendo de estos servicios ambientales importantes para su subsistencia y generando recursos importantes para la matriz productiva del país. Pero también, en esta región los índices de alteración de hábitats son muy altos (Mosandl et al. 2008; Rivas et al. 2021). Estas características hacen de esta parte del país un área prioritaria para la investigación y conservación de la biodiversidad (Cuesta et al. 2017), pero para cumplir con estos objetivos es necesario primero inventariar, estudiar y empoderar a la ciudadanía sobre la biodiversidad existente, es por esto que los museos dedicados a estas tareas son fundamentales. ...
Las colecciones biológicas son fundamentales para el entendimiento y conservación de la biodiversidad de un país. Esto es aún más necesario para países megadiversos como Ecuador. En esta publicación se reporta información de 3744 especímenes pertenecientes a 456 especies depositadas en el MZUA. Los mamíferos están representados en siete órdenes, 19 familias y 105 especies. En cuanto a Herpetología los especímenes pertenecen a ocho órdenes, 39 familias, y 351 especies. Estas especies representan un cuarto (456 especies), de todas las especies (1634 especies) de mamíferos, reptiles y anfibios reportadas hasta el 2022 para el Ecuador. Entre estos especímenes sobresalen siete holotipos y 46 paratipos. Se observan patrones claros en cuanto a la distribución de la colección de especímenes, siendo el cantón Cuenca en la provincia del Azuay el que posee más especímenes, el rango altitudinal con mayor número de registros está entre los 3000 a 4000 m, y las regiones naturales Páramo y Bosque Montano Oriental son las más muestreadas. Nuestros resultados demuestran la importancia de las colecciones biológicas del MZUA especialmente en la representación de especímenes de la región centro sur del país, pero también indica que existen muchas áreas poco o nada colectadas.
... Additionally, along the Andes, there is a large number of endemic species restricted to just the middle elevations (900-3000 m) [10]. Despite their global importance, the TMFs in Ecuador are the most threatened type of ecosystems, mainly due to change in land use [11]. The latest reports indicate that already in 2005, 51% of the forest area was lost, with a deforestation rate of 1.7%, which is equivalent to 198,000 ha. ...
... Additionally, along the Andes, there is a large number of endemic species restricted to just the middle elevations (900-3000 m) [10]. Despite their global importance, the TMFs in Ecuador are the most threatened type of ecosystems, mainly due to change in land use [11]. The latest reports indicate that already in 2005, 51% of the forest area was lost, with a deforestation rate of 1.7%, which is equivalent to 198,000 ha. ...
The main objective of this study was to determine the heterogeneity of tropical mountain rain forests along a micro-altitudinal gradient scale, integrating species functional traits in the separation of communities. To achieve this, a forest area of 13 ha in the Biological Reserve of San Francisco was monitored. First, we performed non-metric multidimensional analyses, and afterwards, we looked for correlations between plot altitude and characteristics of the forest (basal area, the number of species, the number of trees ≥20 cm diameter at breast height, per hectare, the forest canopy opening) were associated. To determine which characteristics significantly influence the separation of forest “communities”, we used a multivariate canonical correspondence analysis (CCA). Finally, we carried out the “Four Corners” analysis, combining abundance matrices, traits and environmental variables. We confirmed that the altitude and some associated characteristics are the key factors for the formation of two forest types. In addition, we determined that the inclusion of species functional traits confirms the separation of forest communities, and that elevation and its associated environmental variables function over relatively small areas and scales.
... Therefore, they do not have access to all other favorable social conditions, including education and adequate hygiene habits, since most of them cannot afford housing in urban centers, continuing the vicious circle of poverty among indigenous. Also, these lands suffer high degrees of deforestation, with a consequent loss of water quality that have been linked to gastrointestinal diseases (25,26). ...
Background
Despite worldwide progress in terms of clean water supply, sanitation, and hygiene knowledge, some middle and most of low-income countries are still experiencing many diseases transmitted using unsafe water and the lack of sanitation.
Methods
To understand the impact of all waterborne diseases (WBD) registered in Ecuador. We performed a population-based analysis of all cases and deaths due to WBD in Ecuador based on the national public databases of hospital discharges as a proxy of incidence, in-hospital mortality, and countrywide general mortality rates from 2011 to 2020.
Results
In Ecuador, mestizos (mixed European and Indigenous American ancestry) had the greatest morbidity rate (141/100,000), followed by indigenous (63/100,000) and self-determined white patients (21/100,000). However, in terms of mortality, indigenous population have the greatest risk and rates, having a 790% additional mortality rate (2.6/100,000) than the reference group (self-determined white populations) at 0.29/100,000. The burden of disease analysis demonstrated that indigenous had the highest burden of disease caused by WBD with 964 YLL per every 100,000 people while mestizos have 360 YYL per 100,000 and self-determined white Ecuadorians have 109 YYL per 100,000.
Conclusions
In Ecuador, waterborne diseases (WBD) are still a major public health problem. We found that indigenous population had higher probability of getting sick and die due to WBD than the rest of the ethnic groups in Ecuador. We also found that younger children and the elderly are more likely to be admitted to the hospital due to a WBD. These epidemiological trends are probably associated with the lower life expectancy found among Indigenous than among the rest of the ethnic groups, who die at least, 39 years earlier than the self-determined white populations, 28 years earlier than Afro-Ecuadorians and 12 years earlier than the mestizos.
... Ecuadorians already consume edible insects. Thus, insect farming is a feasible alternative to address food security and conservation, given the high levels of deforestation for livestock farming (Mosandl et al., 2008). Edible insect farming is an asset to establish food strategies against undernutrition, and it would enable circular economies to reduce biowastes (Nadeau et al., 2015). ...
Globally, nearly two billion people consume approximately 2,111 species of insects, 92% of which are harvested directly from their natural ecosystems. However, intensifying insect harvesting causes ecological alterations and biodiversity loss. In the Ecuadorian Amazon, the Kichwa people are the primary consumers of insects. Thus, this study characterised the diversity of edible insects, host plants, and cultural significance among two peri-urban Kichwa communities. We used photo-elicitation, free-listing, semi-structured interviews, and in situ walk-in-the-woods to identify relevant edible insects. Then, we used species accumulation curves, the Salience Smith Index (SSI), ecological interaction networks, and extinction models to assess insect-host species interactions and cultural significance. We registered 19 edible insect species from three orders and six families. Furthermore, we reported two new species for the world list of edible insects and one for the Ecuadorian list. Ten insect species were associated with 21 host plant species. The interaction between the Rhynchophorus palmarum beetle and the Bactris gasipaes palm tree had the highest cultural significance (SSI>0.18, P<0.05). Furthermore, we found that 30% of the insect species and 52% of the host plant species (of which 90% were palms) were essential for conserving the interaction network structure. Finally, the extinction models suggested that host plant species knowledge was intrinsically related to edible insect knowledge conservation. Our findings provide basic ecological and cultural information for developing edible insect breeding projects and safeguarding traditional knowledge.
... The average size of fragments larger than 1 km² (n = 143) barely reaches 49 km² (Tirira 2021a). The survival of the species in the future will also depend on the socio-economic situation of local human communities (Mosandl et al. 2008, Pardo 2010). ...
... Therefore, they do not have access to all other favorable social conditions, including education and adequate hygiene habits, since most of them cannot afford housing in urban centers, continuing the vicious circle of poverty among indigenous. Also, these lands suffer high degrees of deforestation, with a consequent loss of water quality that have been linked to gastrointestinal diseases (25,26). ...
Background Despite worldwide progress in terms of clean water supply, sanitation, and hygiene knowledge, some middle and most of low-income countries are still experiencing many diseases transmitted using unsafe water and the lack of sanitation. Methods To understand the impact of all waterborne diseases (WBD) registered in Ecuador, we performed an analysis of all cases and deaths related to WBD to compute incidence and mortality rates. Results We found that in Ecuador, mestizo people had the greatest morbidity rate (141/100,000) patient followed by indigenous (63/100,000) and self-determined white patients (21/100,000). However, in terms of mortality, indigenous population have a 790% increase in mortality rate (2.6 /100,000) when compared to self-determined white populations (0.29/100,000) or 176% more when compared to mestizos (0.94/100,000). This trend remains the same among children and the elderly who have higher mortality rates when compared to other ethnic groups. Conclusions In Ecuador, water borne diseases (WBD) are still a major public health problem. We found that younger children and elderly are more likely to be get sick and die due to water borne diseases. In terms of morbidity, mestizos reported the highest rate, while in terms of mortality, indigenous populations are the most affected, having the highest mortality among different ethnic groups. We hypostatize that reduced health care access is linked to fewer reporting incidence rates among indigenous populations but higher mortality rates.
... However, there is little evidence that this call for conservation has resulted in sufficient meaningful change for the region of Los Cedros-in fact, quite the opposite. Instead, during this time frame, Cotacachi Canton has lost significant forest cover (Figure 10), as has Ecuador generally [87,168,169]. In stark contrast, Los Cedros-which has onsite, conservation-oriented staff-has well withstood the traditional pressures of timbering and settlement, as evidenced by its increase in forest cover during a time of net forest loss in the Cotacachi Canton. ...
Tree diversity inventories were undertaken. The goal of this study was to understand changes in tree community dynamics that may result from common anthropogenic disturbances at the Reserva Los Cedros, a tropical montane cloud forest reserve in northern Andean Ecuador. The reserve shows extremely high alpha and beta tree diversity. We found that all primary forest sites, regardless of age of natural gaps, are quite ecologically resilient, appearing to return to a primary-forest-type community of trees following gap formation. In contrast, forests regenerating from anthropogenic disturbance appear to have multiple possible ecological states. Where anthropogenic disturbance was intense, novel tree communities appear to be assembling, with no indication of return to a primary forest state. Even in ancient primary forests, new forest types may be forming, as we found that seedling community composition did not resemble adult tree communities. We also suggest small watersheds as a useful basic spatial unit for understanding biodiversity patterns in the tropical Andes that confound more traditional Euclidean distance as a basic proxy of dissimilarity. Finally, we highlight the conservation value of Reserva Los Cedros, which has managed to reverse deforestation within its boundaries despite a general trend of extensive deforestation in the surrounding region, to protect a large, contiguous area of highly endangered Andean primary cloud forest.
... The high deforestation rates in Ecuador, mainly because of conversion to pastures (FAO, 2010;Mosandl et al., 2008) and subsequent unsustainable pasture management (Roos et al., 2013) have resulted in the loss of surface soil organic matter and exchangeable cations, and thus a loss in soil fertility (Mainville et al., 2006). As a consequence, nutrient-poor and degraded Ultisols with low nutrient concentrations and a high risk of Al toxicity occur frequently in the sloping lands of the south Ecuadorian Amazonia Region (Province of Zamora-Chinchipe, Machado et al., 2017;Valarezo et al., 1998). ...
The application of biochar to strongly weathered soils is thought to supply nutrients and improve nutrient retention. We hypothesized that biochar increases (a) total N, bioavailable macronutrient (NH4–N, P, K, Ca, Mg), micronutrient (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu), and plant‐beneficial Na concentrations; and (b) nutrient retention in the topsoil. We grew the native leguminous Brazilian firetree [Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum (Ducke) Barneby] and the exotic beechwood (Gmelina arborea Roxb.) in a full factorial split‐split‐plot design at La Victoria and Los Zapotes, Ecuadorian Amazonia. The treatments included amendment of mineral fertilizer plus lime, 3 and 6 t ha⁻¹ biochar (locally produced charcoal), and a control. We sampled the 0‐to‐0.25‐ and 0.25‐to‐0.50‐m soil depth layers before the start of the experiment in 2009 and six times until 2013. The site at Los Zapotes was more fertile as reflected by a significant site effect on most studied soil properties in both depth layers. Biochar increased modified Olsen (NaHCO3+EDTA)‐extractable Ca (p < .05) and Zn concentrations (p < .1) and total N concentrations (p < .05) in topsoil. Mineral fertilizer plus lime increased Olsen‐extractable P, K, Ca, Mg, and Zn concentrations (all p < .05) but reduced Olsen‐extractable Fe concentrations (p < .05) in topsoil. Biochar increased Ca (p < 0.1) and Zn (p < .05) retention in mineral fertilized topsoils but decreased total N retention (p < .05) in unfertilized topsoils. The amendment of up to 6 t ha⁻¹ biochar did not increase the fertility of the studied degraded Amazonian Ultisols sufficiently to enhance tree growth.
... A pesar de la maravillosa riqueza y diversidad de los paisajes del Ecuador, existen una serie de acciones humanas que están siendo decisivas en la destrucción de estos espacios vitales en las últimas décadas (Lambin et al., 2003;INIAP, 2008Thies et al., 2014, Mosandl et al., 2008Yáñez-Muñoz et al., 2014). La deforestación y el cambio de uso del suelo para agricultura, ganadería, vialidad, industrialización y urbanización han modificado la conformación y estructura del paisaje natural, dando lugar a la fragmentación ecológica del hábitat, a la generación de parches y con ello, la división de poblaciones de flora y fauna, que a su vez reducen la funcionalidad del paisaje, la diversidad a diferentes escalas y los servicios ecosistémicos (Fahrig, 2003;Morláns, 2005Morláns, , 2014Navarro et al., 2005). ...
La Carta del Paisaje es un instrumento voluntario de concertación entre agentes de un territorio orientado a promover la gestión sostenible del paisaje y el bienestar de sus habitantes mediante el establecimiento de principios, objetivos, acuerdos y estrategias de
gestión. Por este motivo, la Carta del Paisaje no es una simple declaración de principios, sino un documento que compromete a las partes y a la sociedad en su conjunto a un trabajo mancomunado para alcanzar los compromisos propuestos. Estas reflexiones, nos conducen a pensar en nuevas formas de planificar territorios, ciudades, comunidades rurales y barriales, en donde se revalorice al paisaje, especialmente el más próximo y se lo vincule al desarrollo de la población.
... Instead, during this time frame, Cotacachi Canton has lost significant forest cover ( fig. 10), as has Ecuador generally (Dodson & Gentry, 1991;Mosandl et al., 2008;Tapia-Armijos et al., 2015). In stark contrast, Los Cedros has well withstood the traditional pressures of timbering and settlement, as evidenced by its increase of forest cover during a time of net forest loss in the Cotacachi Canton. ...
We analyzed a set of historical data from rapid vegetation inventories in a tropical montane cloud forest in northern Andean Ecuador. Trees in plots from several types of forest were counted and measured, including: (1) primary forest, including mature and recently closed-canopy sites and naturally formed gaps, (2) abandoned pasture, and (3) abandoned, intensively-farmed sites. The goal of the study was to understand in a specific period of time the similarities and differences among natural and anthropogenic disturbances and their potential long term effect on the forest plant community. We found that mature and intermediate close canopy sites are similar. Primary forest sites were observed as resilient to gap-forming disturbances: naturally-formed gaps are quickly colonized by old-forest-associated plant species, and return to an old-forest-type community of trees in a short time. In contrast, forests regenerating from anthropogenic disturbance appear to have multiple possible states: some regenerating forest sites where the anthropogenic disturbance were low are coming to closely resemble old-forest-type communities, but some where the anthropogenic disturbance was intense appear to be changing in a very different direction, which does not resemble any other vegetation community type currently in the forest. A major predictor of present ecological state is the type of land use before reforestation: pastures can occasionally transition back to the pre-disturbance state of forest. More intensively used sites were not observed to return to a pre-disturbance ecological state, instead forming a new and different kind of forest, dominated by a different community of trees. We examined tree-seedling communities to understand the trajectory of the forest into the future, and find that new forest types may be forming that do not resemble any existing associations. We also found that Los Cedros is extremely diverse in tree species. We estimate approximately 500 species of tree in only the small southeastern area of the reserve that has been explored scientifically. Additionally, the forest tree community shows extremely rapid distance decay (beta-diversity), approaching near complete turn-over in the limited spatial extent of the study. This suggests that many of other tree species remain to be observed in the reserve, in addition to the 350+ that are directly observed in the present study, including new observations of species with IUCN threatened-endangered status. We also highlight the conservation value of Reserva Los Cedros, which has managed to reverse deforestation within its boundaries despite a general trend of extensive deforestation in the surrounding region, and to protect large, contiguous areas of highly-endangered Andean primary cloud forest habitat.
... Ecuador es un ejemplo notable de América del Sur en cuanto a deforestación y degradación de suelos, esto debido a que el país ha perdido ~60 % de su bosque nativo [19,20]; situación que lo sitúa como el país con el porcentaje más bajo de bosque natural de todos los países de América del Sur [21]. Asimismo, se estima que en el Ecuador el 47 % del territorio presenta problemas de degradación de la tierra [22], siendo la región amazónica, con un 44 %, la que mayor porcentaje de degradación presenta; seguida por la región Costa (30 %) y la región Sierra (25,9 %) [23], [24]. ...
INTRODUCCIÓN. La constante degradación de los suelos a nivel global es un problema de suma importancia, el cual en la actualidad se está afrontando con diversas propuestas de restauración, entre las cuales se encuentra el uso de la madera rameal fragmentada (MRF). OBJETIVO. La presente investigación analiza la variación de diferentes factores físicos y químicos que nos permiten inferir la viabilidad de la MRF como una propuesta para la enmienda edáfica de suelos degradados en los paisajes andinos. MÉTODO. Para ello se recolectaron muestras de suelo de dos parcelas, una con tratamiento y una sin tratamiento, muestras a las cuales se les realizó un análisis de fertilidad con cuyos resultados se procedió a analizar la variación temporal y espacial, utilizando un ANOVA y realizando una ponderación de distancia inversa (IDW) respectivamente. RESULTADOS. Nuestros resultados muestran una mejor condición y calidad del suelo en la parcela con tratamiento, así como diferencias significativas en los indicadores de calidad del suelo. DISCUSIÓN Y CONCLUSIONES. Los resultados obtenidos en esta investigación respaldan el uso de la MRF como una enmienda edáfica efectiva para el tratamiento de suelos andinos degradados.
... In Ecuador, forest cover declined from about 15 million ha in 1990 to approximately 13 million ha by 2016 [36][37][38]. Forests in Ecuador face two major threats: (1) the complete conversion of forested areas to different land uses, usually for agricultural purposes (i.e., deforestation); and (2) a reduction in the capacity of forests to deliver environmental services mainly due to human-induced activities, such as selective logging (i.e., forest degradation) [39,40]. As a policy measure to address such threats, the Ecuadorian government designed and implemented in 2008 a PES program called Socio Bosque (SBP) [41], which has continued in operation since its beginning. ...
Payments for Environmental Services (PES) are instruments which seem well suited for forest conservation. However, their impact on reducing deforestation might be weakened by negligible additionality and leakage effects; the first refers to the low variation in net deforestation rates even in the absence of PES, and the second refers to the displaced deforestation behavior to other areas not covered by PES. For the case of Ecuador, we examine both issues by assessing the historical deforestation trend of selected PES-enrolled areas and that of their adjacent areas to identify deforestation patterns before and after PES implementation. We analyze the additional effect of PES on reducing deforestation by comparison to a baseline as well as to comparable reference sites at two different spatial scales. We also analyze potential leakage effects of PES by comparing deforestation development in adjacent areas. We show that PES has achieved marginally low conservation impacts in enrolled areas with an average difference in net deforestation rates of 0.02 percent points over a period of 28 years. Overall, PES-enrolled areas depict lower annual net deforestation rates than unenrolled areas, albeit at a negligible rate, and there is also some evidence that deforestation decreased in adjacent areas after PES implementation. Additionally, there exists a statistically significant linear increasing deforestation trend in adjacent areas as distance increases from the PES-enrolled area. Our empirical results, however, raise the suspicion that the choice of PES-enrolled areas might have been influenced by self-selection.
... En Ecuador, las tasas de deforestación han sido las más altas en América del Sur por más de 20 años, con tasas anuales desde 1,5% para 1990 -2000 hasta 1,8% para 2001-2010(FAO, 2011 15 . Actividades como la expansión de la frontera agrícola, tala comercial, desarrollo de infraestructura, producción de aceite de palma, plantaciones de banano y cacao, y concesiones de minería y petróleo han sido discutidas como posibles razones de la deforestación y degradación forestal en Ecuador (Mosandl et al., 2008;Sierra, 2013). La deforestación y degradación forestal afectan no sólo al medio ambiente sino también el bienestar de la sociedad. ...
En este capítulo se examina las preferencias y la disposición al pago (DAP) de hogares en Ecuador sobre un programa propuesto para la conservación forestal que tiene como objetivo evitar la deforestación anual de 500 km2 en Ecuador. Se utilizó un cuestionario que fue aplicado a nivel nacional siguiendo las pautas establecidas en la literatura pertinente, finalmente se levantó un total de 976 de entrevistas presenciales durante septiembre del 2017. Entre los principales resultados se expone que cerca del 98% de los hogares encuestados consideran que conviene apoyar el programa propuesto. Para la conservación forestal, un promedio conservador de la DAP media por mes y por hogar es de USD 3,17, lo cual indica un apoyo sólido a los programas de conservación forestal basados en incentivos. Los hogares encuestados prefieren, además, priorizar la implementación del programa de conservación para bosques primarios en la región Costa. Las preferencias de los hogares podrían ser incorporadas en el diseño de programas de conservación forestal (ej., programa Socio Bosque).
... En Ecuador, las tasas de deforestación han sido las más altas en América del Sur por más de 20 años, con tasas anuales desde 1,5% para 1990 -2000 hasta 1,8% para 2001 -2010 (FAO, 2011) 15 . Actividades como la expansión de la frontera agrícola, tala comercial, desarrollo de infraestructura, producción de aceite de palma, plantaciones de banano y cacao, y concesiones de minería y petróleo han sido discutidas como posibles razones de la deforestación y degradación forestal en Ecuador (Mosandl et al., 2008;. La deforestación y degradación forestal afectan no sólo al medio ambiente sino también el bienestar de la sociedad. ...
La Universidad Estatal Amazónica (UEA) de Puyo-Ecuador y el Instituto Johann Heinrich von Thünen (IT) de Alemania, suscribieron un convenio específico que rige el periodo desde el 27 de junio de 2016 hasta el 30 de junio del 2019 para la ejecución del proyecto: “Paisajes forestales en los trópicos” (LaForeT por sus siglas en inglés). Adicionalmente, se incorporó a la Universidad Técnica Luis Vargas Torres (UTLVT) de Esmeraldas, para formar parte del proyecto principalmente en la zona del noroccidente del Ecuador. El proyecto
busca complementar esfuerzos interinstitucionales con el objeto de evaluar la influencia de las herramientas políticas internacionales y nacionales sobre los procesos de deforestación y reforestación,
medios de vida, silvicultura sostenible, uso del suelo, mecanismos de pagos por servicios ambientales y gobernanza forestal, tomando como base de estudio los bosques tropicales de las provincias de Napo, Pastaza y Orellana en la Amazonía Central del Ecuador (ACE) y Esmeraldas en el Noroccidente del Ecuador (NOE). Como resultados, el proyecto levantó 1181 encuestas a nivel de hogares, 801 en la ACE y 382 en el NOE, en 73 comunidades. También se levantaron 156 parcelas temporales de monitoreo forestal y de suelos, 102 en la ACE
y 54 el NOE. Además, se realizaron 80 entrevistas dirigidas a actores nacionales y locales para evaluar los mecanismos de gobernanza forestal. Resultados preliminares de este proyecto se presentan en todos los capítulos subsiguientes, con perspectivas políticas para los tomadores de decisiones, académicos e investigadores interesados en manejo de paisajes forestales y el desarrollo sostenible de las poblaciones locales que habitan en los trópicos.
... Rampant deforestation has plagued the Ecuadorian Amazon since the 1970s, induced primarily by oil industry development (Mosandl et al. 2008). The human migration and agricultural expansion that followed, supported by government policy (Agrarian Reform and Colonization laws), led to widespread timber extraction and land conversion to cattle grazing and farming, and more recently to industrial monocultures such as oil palm plantations. ...
Agroforestry is considered a foundation for multi-functional, socio-ecological landscape transformation. Landscapes where agroforestry is practiced contribute to the full range of goods and services from agriculture to natural resources needed for social and ecological sustainability. Yet the barriers to large-scale agroforestry adoption are substantial, rooted in the misalignment between risk-takers (small-scale farmers) and beneficiaries (society at large). Integrated landscape management (ILM) offers a strategy for scaling up agroforestry by mobilizing collaborative efforts among multi-sector stakeholders to address these barriers. This study explores the application of ILM strategies in agroforestry initiatives in two landscapes in Ecuador: the Chocó-Andean Bio-Corridor led by Ecuadorian society and the Agenda for Transforming Production in the Amazon project of the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. The ILM framework provides the conceptual basis for analyzing processes that advance the scaling-up of agroforestry, limits to progress, prospective levers of change to unlock constraints, and partnership strategies to accelerate agroforestry development. The cases demonstrate that ILM strategies are valuable in advancing the knowledge-intensive and adaptive collaborative management processes needed to scale agroforestry adoption.
... Meanwhile, the conservation threats Ecuadorian bird communities are facing are manifold: habitat loss, deforestation and fragmentation. Accelerated by a growing population and unsustainable landuse practices, deforestation rates in Ecuador have been the highest for the whole South American continent for many years (Mosandl et al. 2008). Additionally, the Ecuadorian economy still mainly relies on the exploitation of non-renewable resources such as crude oil, and various minerals; and new mining concessions are now posing a major threat to biodiversity (Roy et al. 2018). ...
Boasting with 1640 bird species, Ecuador is known worldwide for its high diversity in bird species. But despite the high species richness and endangerment of its avian fauna, ornithological research in Ecuador is still scarce. Especially certain biogeographic regions, like the humid forests of the Ecuadorian Chocó, are very poorly documented. One of the many challenges for field biologists is the enormous lack of baseline information on avian life cycle events, such as molt and breeding. Molt strategies and patterns are unknown for many resident bird species, making it difficult to reliably determine age and gender of birds in the field. In 2014, I started a long-term avian monitoring project at Un poco del Chocó nature reserve in the Andean Chocó.
In my doctoral research I will investigate the avian life cycle phenology of a community of landbirds in the Andean Chocó. I will capture birds on a monthly basis and document molt and breeding events over the course of three annual cycles together with food abundance and climate, in order to determine the timing, duration, intensity and interrelatedness of these two life cycle events in relation to climatically-influenced variables. This study will therefore contribute substantially to our knowledge and understanding of the life cycle events of the threatened bird community of the Andean Chocó. Furthermore, I will examine the utility of different ageing and sexing criteria for the bird species of the Andean Chocó that have not previously been described. With the determination of reliable criteria to identify age and sex of birds in the field, I hope to lay the foundations for further demographic research and science-driven conservation planning.
... Although natural tropical mountain forests (TMF) are highly valuable because of their biological richness and the provision of essential ecosystem services, they are disappearing at alarming rates [1], which is mainly due to anthropogenic land use changes [2][3][4][5]. This also holds true for southern Ecuador, where a large area of the natural TMF at the eastern foothills of the Cordillera Real have been converted into pasture land, agricultural land or secondary forests to meet the economic needs of the local population, producing food, fiber, wood and other goods [6,7]. ...
Background: The impact of selective thinning on forest diversity has been extensively studied in temperate and boreal regions. However, in the tropics, knowledge is still poor regarding the impacts of this silvicultural treatment on functional diversity, especially in tropical mountain forests, which are considered to be highly biodiverse ecosystems and also endangered by human activities. By evaluating the changes on functional diversity by using different indicators, hypothesizing that selective thinning significantly affects (directly or indirectly) tropical mountain forests, this work promotes sustainable ecosystem use. Methods: A total of 52 permanent plots of 2500 m2 each were installed in a primary mountain forest in the San Francisco Biological Reserve to assess the impact of this silvicultural treatment. Selective thinning can be defined as a controlled process, in which trees that compete with ecologically and/or valuable timber species are progressively removed to stimulate the development of profitable ones, called potential crop trees (PCT). In doing so, the best specimens remain in the forest stand until their final harvest. After PCT selection, 30 plots were chosen for the intervention, while 22 plots served as control plots. The thinning intensity fluctuated between 4 and 56 trees ha−1 (average 18.8 ± 12.1 stems ha−1). Functional Diversity (FD) indices, including the community weighted mean (CWM), were determined based on six traits using the FD package implemented in R software. The difference between initial and final conditions of functional richness (FRic), functional divergence (FDiv), functional evenness (FEve), functional dispersion (FDis), and Rao quadratic entropy (RaoQ) was modeled using linear mixed models (LMM). As fixed factors, we used all the predictors inherent to structural and ecological forest conditions before and after the selective thinning and as a random variable, we used the membership to nested sampling units. Results: Functional Richness (FRic) showed significant changes after selective thinning, the other indexes (FEve, FDis, FDiv, RaoQ) were only influenced by predictors related to ecological conditions and characteristics of the community.
... With 9.865 million hectares of total forested area in 2010 (Bahamondez et al. 2010), Ecuador has experienced a 60% reduction of forest habitat since the early 20 th century (Cabarle et al. 1989;Mosandl et al. 2008;Bahamondez et al. 2010). Because P. festae is endemic to Ecuador and unlikely to occur in heavily disturbed habitats (Yánez-Muñoz et al. 2014), deforestation along with climate abnormalities and the spread of infectious disease (Bustamante et al. 2005;Pounds et al. 2006;Lips et al. 2008) may have led to population fragmentation as it has in other species of the Ecuadorian highlands. ...
... Flatness, for example, was positively correlated with deforestation at all spatial levels, only in this country. This might be due to the more diverse geographic conditions and the larger differences between the steep Andean slopes with historical deforestation and the lowland areas as a current deforestation frontier [140,141]. Similarly, cereal yield was significant at the macro-level of Ecuador only, and associated with deforested provinces. At this large-scale picture of the country, cereal yields for maize and rice are much higher in the coastal and central areas, where the cultivation of these crops is more extended and more commercially oriented [142]. ...
A better understanding of deforestation drivers across countries and spatial scales is a precondition for designing efficient international policies and coherent land use planning strategies such as REDD+. However, it is so far unclear if the well-studied drivers of tropical deforestation behave similarly across nested subnational jurisdictions, which is crucial for efficient policy implementation. We selected three countries in Africa, America and Asia, which present very different tropical contexts. Making use of spatial econometrics and a multi-level approach, we conducted a set of regressions comprising 3,035 administrative units from the three countries at micro-level, plus 361 and 49 at meso- and macro-level, respectively. We included forest cover as dependent variable and seven physio-geographic and socioeconomic indicators of well-known drivers of deforestation as explanatory variables. With this, we could provide a first set of highly significant econometric models of pantropical deforestation that consider subnational units. We identified recurrent drivers across countries and scales, namely population pressure and the natural condition of land suitability for crop production. The impacts of demography on forest cover were strikingly strong across contexts, suggesting clear limitations of sectoral policy. Our findings also revealed scale and context dependencies, such as an increased heterogeneity at local scopes, with a higher and more diverse number of significant determinants of forest cover. Additionally, we detected stronger spatial interactions at smaller levels, providing empirical evidence that certain deforestation forces occur independently of the existing de jure governance boundaries. We demonstrated that neglecting spatial dependencies in this type of studies can lead to several misinterpretations. We therefore advocate, that the design and enforcement of policy instruments—such as REDD+—should start from common international entry points that ensure for coherent agricultural and demographic policies. In order to achieve a long-term impact on the ground, these policies need to have enough flexibility to be modified and adapted to specific national, regional or local conditions.
... Another figure, which also puts Ecuador near the top of the regional deforestation list, is an annual rate of 1.5% between 1990 and 2000, and 1.7% between 2000 and 2005, which equals 1980 square km per year ( Mosandl et al., 2008;Bertzky, 2010). Also see the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), at www.fao.org. ...
This investigation is concerned with elaborating on the theory of political
representation, particularly on its application to non-human beings. It therefore starts
by introducing the subject (Chapter I), and establishing that the lens of representation
is appropriate for debating the role of non-humans in politics. Chapter II looks at the
classical theories of political representation and, building on the work of others,
proposes further innovations, inspired by the inclusion of non-humans within political
debate. Chapters III and IV show how the concept of representation presented in II
can be seen at work in the Ecuadorian Constitutional Assembly, charged with drafting
a new constitution of the state. This body enshrined, for the first time in history,
constitutional rights for nature. In order to understand what is at stake in this
formulation, it is not enough to have a sound conception of representation. Besides,
the concept of rights needs to be understood, and the connection between rights and
representation explored. Chapter V presents a theory of rights, while Chapter VI
shows the connections between rights and representation to be structural. It further
employs the theory of representation, now seen in its relations to the rights paradigm,
to discuss the rights of nature in Ecuador, interrogating them from the points of view
developed. Chapter VI reflects on and summarizes the findings presented in the
previous chapters, while suggesting further avenues for the development of political
ecology.
... A high anthropogenic pressure through deforestation is affecting montane forests in tropical regions (Jacobs et al. 2018). Ecuador, as a tropical country, was in the top ten list of countries with the greatest loss of primary forest area between 1990 and 2015 (Morales-Hidalgo et al. 2015) and until recently exhibited the highest deforestation rate in South America (Mosandl et al. 2008). In Ecuador, the use of exotic species for afforestation programs has been implemented on large scale since the beginning of the previous century (Brandbyge 1991;Farley 2007). ...
Information about nutrient dynamics is of upmost importance in order to contribute to the restoration of degraded forest environments in the Andes of southern Ecuador. This study aims to investigate the differences of nutrient dynamics between a native alder (Alnus acuminata) and an exotic pine (Pinus patula) tree species in this region. Based on litterfall, forest floor and mineral topsoil (0–20 cm) of two pine and two alder plantations, we studied the litterfall production and its seasonality; temporal variations of nutrient concentrations, stoichiometric ratios and potential nutrient return (PNR) of leaf-litterfall; mean residence times (MRT) of nutrients in the forest floor; and assessed soil biogeochemical properties. Our results showed that total litterfall production in pine was twice as high as in alder. Litterfall biomass seasonality was similar for both species and highly associated to periods with less precipitation. Pine exhibited the highest seasonality of nutrient concentrations and stoichiometric ratios. PNR of N, K, Ca, and Mn exhibited the major differences between the species. The annual PNR of N and Ca were higher in alder, while those of K and Mn were higher in pine. Pine exhibited higher MRT values for C, N, P, S, Cu, and Zn, while alder showed the higher for Mg, K, Mn, and Ca. In soils, alder exhibited higher concentrations and stocks of nutrients, but not for C. Although, the soil microbial biomass was similar under both species, microbial activity was different. C and net N mineralization were higher in alder, and nitrification dominated over ammonification processes. In general, our findings show a faster cycling of nutrients in alder than in pine.
... Currently, about 16% of Ecuadorian continental territory is included in public protected areas (Cuesta-Camacho et al. 2006) and a myriad of community and private conservation initiatives, but additional conservation efforts are still needed (Lessmann et al. 2014(Lessmann et al. , 2016. Unfortunately, development tied to oil extraction, agriculture, cattle ranching, and expansions have devastated vast spans of the country's natural vegetation (Mosandl et al. 2008). More recently, gold and copper mining operations exceed the worst-case conservation scenarios for the future of Ecuadorian biodiversity (Roy et al. 2018). ...
Alexander von Humboldt conducted his best‑known work on the slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes. He did this by applying his own characteristic brand of multidisciplinary scientific approach. This consisted of thorough data collection while synthesizing and visualizing the data in innovative formats. Also important for his scientific success in South America was his collaborative network that helped him to identify specimens and formulate his transformative scientific thoughts. It is no surprise that Humboldt was captivated by Ecuador, as it is one of the most biodiverse places in the world, and this astounding diversity was formed in an intricate, dynamic geological and climatological setting. As of yet, this biodiversity is far from being fully documented and the processes that generated
it are still poorly understood. The IBS meeting in Quito1 and the Second Latin American Congress of Biogeography will form the perfect platform to both commemorate Humboldt while addressing
current and unresolved matters concerning the biodiversity of Ecuador and South America at large.
... The highest deforestation rates in South America were estimated in Ecuador [7,10], where specifically the tropical mountain forest (TMF) has been and is still affected for several reasons, such as population growth, economic crises, and planning processes [11,12]. During the last few decades, human activities changed the natural vegetation cover [13,14], mostly by slash-and-burn activities to produce pasture and agricultural land [15]. Therefore, carbon storage or AGB has changed, caused additionally by the extraction of desirable timber species, which is why natural forest cover is often disturbed or fragmented [16,17]. ...
The present investigation evaluates the accuracy of estimating above-ground biomass (AGB) by means of two different sensors installed onboard an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) platform (DJI Inspire I) because the high costs of very high-resolution imagery provided by satellites or light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensors often impede AGB estimation and the determination of other vegetation parameters. The sensors utilized included an RGB camera (ZENMUSE X3) and a multispectral camera (Parrot Sequoia), whose images were used for AGB estimation in a natural tropical mountain forest (TMF) in Southern Ecuador. The total area covered by the sensors included 80 ha at lower elevations characterized by a fast-changing topography and different vegetation covers. From the total area, a core study site of 24 ha was selected for AGB calculation, applying two different methods. The first method used the RGB images and applied the structure for motion (SfM) process to generate point clouds for a subsequent individual tree classification. Per the classification at tree level, tree height (H) and diameter at breast height (DBH) could be determined, which are necessary input parameters to calculate AGB (Mg ha −1) by means of a specific allometric equation for wet forests. The second method used the multispectral images to calculate the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), which is the basis for AGB estimation applying an equation for tropical evergreen forests. The obtained results were validated against a previous AGB estimation for the same area using LiDAR data. The study found two major results: (i) The NDVI-based AGB estimates obtained by multispectral drone imagery were less accurate due to the saturation effect in dense tropical forests, (ii) the photogrammetric approach using RGB images provided reliable AGB estimates comparable to expensive LiDAR surveys (R 2 : 0.85). However, the latter is only possible if an auxiliary digital terrain model (DTM) in very high resolution is available because in dense natural forests the terrain surface (DTM) is hardly detectable by passive sensors due to the canopy layer, which impedes ground detection.
... The altitudinal classification of the forest implies leaving aside several other attributes that influence their composition and structure such as soil types, light availability, dynamics, species turnover, inter-and intra-specific competition, and natural and anthropogenic disturbances. Proposing a solid classification is a priority in Ecuador in order to minimize the high rates of deforestation the country suffers [17]. ...
1) Background: Neotropical montane forests represent one of the most diverse world ecosystems; however, they are also among the most threatened ones mostly due to deforestation. Our main goal is to classify and clarify the forest types based on the changes in basal area (BA), tree density, and species composition of montane forests in Southern Ecuador, and to determine the influence of critical environmental and geomorphological factors. (2) Methods: One hundred thirty-two temporary plots of 400 m 2 were installed in homogeneous and well-conserved forest stands. We identified and measured all trees >10 cm diameter breast height (DBH). We modeled species diversity (Fisher's alpha) change in relation to climatic, altitudinal, and geomorphological gradients using GLM and Kruskall-Wallis analyses. The change in composition was determined using cluster analyses (BIOENV analysis followed by a LINKTREE procedure). Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) was used to analyze changes across climatic and geomorphological gradients. Finally, we used a SIMPER analysis to identify the species that contributed most to the floristic dissimilarity among the identified altitudinal forests types. (3) Results: The floristic groups were determined by altitude, temperature, and isothermality, but also some geomorphological variables and lithology were used. Plots located in low hills have higher alpha diversity compared to the high hills and dissected mountains. (4) Conclusions: Altitude is the most important factor responsible for the division of structural and floristic groups. In addition, those plots located on the whitish tuff have higher alpha value diversity compared with plots in andesitic tuffs. Precipitation on the wettest quarter (>839 mm) and isothermality (>90.5) are the most relevant climatic factors driving the floristic classification.
... This scenario showed the importance of agriculture as an ecosystem service in Ecuador as it generates 20% of the gross national product (Ministerio de Coordinación de la Producción Empleo y Competitividad, 2011). However, agriculture has reduced native vegetation remnants by 50% compared to the original cover ( Mosandl et al., 2008). Furthermore, it is an ecosystem service with negative side effects such as being water demanding and polluting (Evans et al., 2003;Geiger et al., 2010). ...
Background
Conserving both biodiversity and ecosystem services is a major goal of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Hotspots for biodiversity in the Andes significantly overlap with areas with dense human populations that sustain their economy through agricultural production. Therefore, developing management forms that reconcile food provisioning services—such as agriculture—with biodiversity conservation must be addressed to avoid social conflicts and to improve conservation in areas where biodiversity co-occurs with other ecosystem services. Here, we present a high-resolution conservation plan for vascular plants and agriculture in the Ecuadorian Dry Inter-Andean Valleys (DIAV) hotspot. Trade-offs in conserving important areas for both biodiversity and agriculture were explored.
Methods
We used a dataset containing 5,685 presence records for 95 plant species occurring in DIAVs, of which 14 species were endemic. We developed habitat suitability maps for the 95 species using Maxent. Prioritization analyses were carried out using a conservation planning framework. We developed three conservation scenarios that selected important areas for: biodiversity only, agriculture only, and for both biodiversity and agriculture combined.
Results
Our conservation planning analyses, capture 33.5% of biodiversity and 11% of agriculture under a scenario solely focused on the conservation of biodiversity . On the other hand, the top 17% fraction of the agriculture only scenario captures 10% of biodiversity and 28% of agriculture. When biodiversity and agriculture were considered in combination, their representation varied according to the importance given to agriculture. The most balanced solution that gives a nearly equal representation of both biodiversity and agriculture, was obtained when agriculture was given a slightly higher importance over biodiversity during the selection process.
Discussion
This is the first evaluation of trade-offs between important areas for biodiversity and agriculture in Ecuadorian DIAV. Our results showed that areas with high agricultural productivity and high biodiversity partly overlapped. Our study suggests that a land-sharing strategy would be appropriate for conserving plant diversity and agriculture in the DIAV. Overall, our study reinforces the idea that friendly practices in agriculture can contribute to biodiversity conservation.
... Ecuador also lost territory to Colombia and Brazil (see Uquillas, 1984). 9. Another figure, which also puts Ecuador near the top of the regional deforestation list, is an annual rate of 1.5% between 1990 and 2000, and 1.7% between 2000 and 2005, which equals 1980 square km per year (Mosandl et al., 2008;Bertzky, 2010 indigenous communities still had to secure a comprehensive system of principles and rights that would ensure the possibility of opposing development projects they did not want. A group of indigenous and other civil society activists therefore began systematising a vision of alternative development inspired by the cosmogony of indigenous life. ...
In 2008, Ecuador became the first country in history to grant constitutional rights to nature. What is termed the indigenous symbol played a significant role in this event. The rights of nature are used as an occasion to interrogate the indigenous symbol in order to reveal what it does, as opposed to what it says. The account of the rights of nature originating in indigenous sensibilities is presented, and subsequently critiqued. The argument makes use of the notion of representative claim to show the strategic construction of indigeneity as ecologically harmonious. An alternative genesis of the rights of nature is presented. It is further showed that the indigenous symbol is employed as a veneer of moral authority hiding the strategic machinations of representative politics.
... What is troubling is that in the tropics, some forty percent of infectious diseases have been linked to non-human primate origins, likely due to the close evolutionary relatedness of anthropoids and their often close contact with each other . Coupled with this idea is the fact that the tropics are where some of the greatest ecological disturbances are occurring, creating a hotbed for future zoonoses Laurance et al., 2006;Mosandl et al., 2008;Puttker et al., 2008). ...
Understanding the relationship between anthropogenic disturbances and wildlife gastrointestinal parasite communities is important to both human health and conservation efforts. Forest logging and fragmentation, burgeoning human population growth, wildlife extraction, and expansion of livestock into formerly undisturbed landscapes can affect and compound the transmission of various pathogens between wildlife and people. This study therefore aims to further understand the relationship between two types of anthropogenic disturbance (forest degradation and human encroachment), and gastrointestinal parasite communities in both humans and mantled howler monkeys, Alouatta palliata aequatorialis by addressing the following: 1) chronicle primate parasitism, 2) investigate association of environmental degradation and parasitism, and 3) assess human attributes and actions associated with parasitism and potential transmission between human and howler monkey populations. Human and monkey endoparasite communities were characterized using morphological and genetic analyses, and people from surrounding communities were administered demographic surveys to evaluate risk factors associated with parasitism. Of 96 howler monkey fecal samples collected, 2 species of apicomplexan, 6 other protozoa, 4 nematodes, and 1 platyhelminth were detected. Four congeners were found in howlers and people: Entamoeba sp., Balantidium sp., Blastocystis sp., and Strongyloides spp. Several key parasites were non-randomly distributed throughout the sampled population. Proximity of agricultural plots and a local biological research station were both associated with the presence of Strongyloides spp. Individuals were more than four times likely to harbor Strongyloides spp. if they lived in areas considered disturbed forest. Individuals infected with Controrchis sp. were found further from human settlements than uninfected individuals and nearly ten times more likely to be found in primary forest. No evidence of shared Blastocystis subtypes were found between howlers and people, though Capillaria sequence types were similar, suggesting either zoonotic transmission or a common source. Several significant human factors were associated with parasite communities. The results from this study support the hypothesis that anthropogenic disturbances can place both primate populations and humans at risk of select gastrointestinal parasites. Aside from the various direct impacts of anthropogenic disturbances, additional focus should be placed on the indirect effects changing ecological systems have on parasite communities in threatened hosts.
... In general, deforestation took place globally across the continents except for South America (with 1.1% forestation), while Africa, North America, and Asia witnessed massive deforestation within 10 years. It is surprising to see a positive decrease in favour of forestation in South America while several studies (Richards et al. 2012;Mosandl et al. 2008) have reported massive deforestation across South America despite local forest recovery (Aide et al. 2013). This calls for a deeper study into this continent and this phenomenon. ...
Global land cover maps are important sources of information for a wide range of studies including land change analysis and climate change research. While the global land cover maps attempt to present a consistent and homogenous data in terms of the production process, the existing datasets offer coarse resolution data, e.g. 1000 m for IGBP DISCover and 300 m for GlobeCover 2009 that is oftentimes challenging. Recently, GlobeLand30 data based on Landsat archive for two timestamps of 2000 and 2010 has been released. It presents a finer spatial resolution of 30 m, which provides numerous opportunities for a wide range of studies. The main objective of this study is to use this dataset for characterizing global land cover patterns, monitoring, and identifying extreme land change cases with their types and magnitude. The findings reveal massive land change patterns including deforestation, desertification, shrinkage of water bodies, and urbanization across the globe. The results and discussions of this research can help policy-makers, environmental planners, ecosystem services providers and climate change researchers to gain finer insights about the forms of global land change. Future research calls for further investigation of the underlying causes of the massive changes and their consequences on our ecosystems and human populations.
There are only two ways to slow down the increase of the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere effectively: On the one hand, CO2 emissions from fossil sources and from land use changes can be reduced, and on the other hand, terrestrial CO2 reservoirs can be increased, mainly by increasing forest cover. The latter, forest increase is particularly effective in terms of carbon ecology if it takes place in the tropics and subtropics, where the growth and thus also the CO2 reduction potential is particularly high. Afforestation- provided it is carried out with site-appropriate adapted tree species- has a number of other positive effects, such as the prevention of erosion and flooding or the creation of work and recreational opportunities.
The steep Andean mountains rising from the eastern flatlands of northern South America create a multitude of physical gradients and as many as 133 different ecosystems in countless habitats supporting an unparalleled species-richness framework. In addition to natural plant communities some invasive species, native or foreign, and associated animals crop up as a function of gradients and intense anthropogenic activity. Two bracken fern-weeds of the Pteridium clade, P. caudatum (PC) and P. esculentum subspecies arachnoideum (PEA), both toxic to many life forms, are among the most successful. Although their joint ecological range extends from the sea level to 3100 m bordering the Andean cryozone, they are altitudinally segregated occupying a belt of sympatric swards. This chapter presents two decades of published research and hitherto undisclosed results about the capacity of bracken ferns to acclimate and become adapted to these extreme conditions. PC and PEA field-based physical traits and chemical responses to well-defined altitudinal gradients in Merida State, central Andes of Venezuela, as well as the understudied insect community found on bracken in connection with elevation are discussed. Theoretically, a gradient is a measure of change of a set of independent variables with physical distance. As such, gradients acquire the properties of a vector. When this basic mathematical concept is applied to the geographical dominion, a set of physical variables showing distance-dependent values must be taken into account, e.g., soil and air temperature, water precipitation (rain/snow/fog) amount and time-dependent regime, relative humidity, effective sun radiation and wavelength distribution, elevation, physical, chemical, and microbiological characteristics of soils, topography, prevailing wind direction and force, and others. Although some of these variables are interdependent, such as elevation, sun radiation, and temperature at a fixed latitude, others are more difficult to interpret as truly independent. After adding inevitable confounding factors, the study of geographic clines, the interpretation of combined data, and its implications on ecosystems become a most challenging endeavor.
The rapid conversion of highland forests into agricultural areas has caused deforestation in Peninsular Malaysia. Since 2017, in the Cameron Highlands, the Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia has reforested degraded highland areas by planting native tree species. To date, little is known about the effect of highland reforestation on wild mammals in the region. This study aimed to examine the relationship between mammal detections and habitat variables in the reforested areas that previously had been coverted into intensively managed vegetable farms (for at least 10 years), using camera trapping over four forest reserves. Seven wild mammal species were detected across the study area, including conservation priority species such as the Sumatran serow (Capricornis sumatrensis), the otter civet (Cynogale bennettii), and the Asian golden cat (Catopuma temminckii). The wild boar (Sus scrofa) had the highest detection and leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) was the most common carnivorous species at almost all of the study sites. Eight predictor variables determined mammal detection numbers in the highland reforestation areas. Mammal detections increased with elevation, sapling abundance, and number of trees with a DBH above 5 cm. While, detection numbers decreased with the number of fallen trees, palm abundance, and undergrowth coverage. Mammal detections varied with forest reserves and sampling months. Continuous monitoring is vital to understand long term trends in reforestation on wild mammal communities in highland areas, however, the outcome of our study is very promising and suggests reforestation could help reverse defaunation of highland forests in Peninsular Malaysia.
Amazona lilacina is a threatened species endemic to Ecuador, existing across a patchwork of mangroves, lowland coastal forests, agricultural and community owned land. The species was described in 2014 and listed as ‘Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List, however, full assessment of the population was lacking. Using a combination of field observations, roost surveys and community questionnaires, conducted over the last 20 years, we provide up-to-date information on the species’ Extent of Occurrence, estimate its global population size, and evaluate its level of threat. Our results suggest the species occurs across an area of 19,890 km ² in three distinct geographically isolated subpopulations. Roost surveys across the range estimate the minimum remaining population at 741–1,090 individuals and we present evidence to suggest a 60% decline over the past 19 years in one part of the species’ range. We conducted community questionnaires with 427 people from 52 communities. The presence of pet parrots was reported in 37 communities, including 17 communities which reported pet A. lilacina. From this we predict that over half of all communities within our study area keep parrots as pets and at least 96 communities keep A. lilacina. Our findings justify an IUCN Red Listing of at least ‘Endangered’ for this species and highlight the need for conservation support. In order to assess population health in more detail, further research is required to assess genetic diversity and roost dynamics, and to identify areas that may be important for feeding and nesting throughout the range. As many of these areas are likely to overlap with community owned land, we suggest that future conservation actions should revolve around, and be led by, these communities.
For decades, oil extraction in rural sites in the North Amazon Region (NAR) in Ecuador, have generated mixtures of potentially toxic compounds, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and metal(loid)s. The main national refinery and the thermal power plant located in Esmeraldas, on the North Pacific Coast (NPC), are also considered as important sources of air contamination. Particulate matter (PM10) emitted at both sites could induce the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the lungs upon inhalation and could be associated with respiratory diseases. In this study, PM10 mass composition was monitored over a two-year period in both regions: NAR (close to oil platforms and open flares) and NPC (in a public school close to the refinery). PM10 composition was assessed in terms of metal(loid)s, organic and elementary carbon (OC, EC), monosaccharides (levoglucosan, mannosan, galactosan), glucose, polyols (sorbitol, mannitol, arabitol), water soluble ions and polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs, oxy-PAHs and nitro-PAHs). Additionally, three complementary biochemical and acellular tests were performed to evaluate the oxidative potential (OP).
Results show that the PM10 mass and elemental concentrations were higher in NPC than in NAR. Barium and Mo concentrations, commonly used in oil operations, were up to 1000-fold higher than values recorded in other regions of Ecuador. OC/EC ratios and polyols concentrations were higher in NAR than in NPC, indicating a larger biogenic contribution to the PM mass in this region. In NAR, the main sources associated with ROS burden were biogenic emissions and oil production, as indicated by positive correlations between OP, sugars, Ba, some PAHs and oxy-PAHs. On the other hand, in NPC, associations between NH4+, Ba, As and Ni imply that oil refining and industrial activities are the main contributors to the OP of PM10.
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