Article

Exploring Animal-Assisted Programs with Children in School and Therapeutic Contexts

October 2010
Early Childhood Education Journal 37(4):261-267

Authors:

University of Alberta

Animal-Assisted programs with children are becoming increasingly popular in school and therapeutic settings. This article provides an overview of the benefits accrued by children as well as the concerns with programs which involve animals, and therapy dogs in particular, in these environments. Research over the past 30years indicates that therapy dogs may offer physiological, emotional, social, and physical support for children. The distinguishing features of Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) are characterized by the supplemental inclusion of a trained therapy dog in reaching an intervention goal in therapeutic environments, and as a supplement to an educational objective in school contexts. The general assumptions underlying AAT with children are that although therapy dogs are interactive, children seem to perceive them as non-judgemental participants who are outside of the complications and expectations of human relationships. This unique interaction may offer children a valuable form of social and emotional support in educational and therapeutic settings.

The Alabama Journal of Educational Leadership THE JOURNAL OF THE ALABAMA ASSOCIATION OF PROFESSORS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 10 th Anniversary Edition Volume X -September 2023 LEADERSHIP IN A TIME OF CHANGE

Article

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Sep 2023

Brett Burton

Therapy Dogs in Educational Settings: Guidelines and Recommendations for Implementation

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2021

Therapy dogs in educational settings have gained increase traction in recent years. Despite its potential benefits and popularity, there remain concerns of perceived risks such as sanitation, allergies, and safety issues, as well as a lack of guidelines, regulations and support resources available to school staff. Research is further lacking into the implementation process of therapy dog programs in educational settings. To construct a set of recommendations for school staff to achieve successful implementation of a therapy dog program, the present study investigated the perceived facilitative and impeding factors when implementing a therapy dog program. A total of 13 school staff and 2 coordinators from therapy dog organisations took part in an open-ended online survey and/or a semi-structured interview over the phone, with the aim of gathering their perspectives of implementing a therapy dog program in schools. The thematic analysis of the data indicated facilitative factors such as program flexibility, whole-school support, the need for communication and training for all staff, as well as dog welfare. Successful implementation of therapy dogs in an education setting appear to revolve around (1) flexibility of the dog therapy program to target school's needs, (2) qualities of program instigator, (3) whole-school support, (4) communication, training and education, (5) considerations for dog's welfare. Key barriers identified included a high workload, lack of guidelines on processes, lack of support from the school community, as well as the need for better understanding of the role of a therapy dog. The results highlighted the importance of a whole-school effort when implementing a therapy dog program, as well as the need for guidelines for assessing school readiness, key factors for consideration, and strategies to overcome challenges associated with program implementation.

Therapy Dogs and School Wellbeing: A Qualitative Study

Article

Sep 2023
J VET BEHAV

Application of Animal Assisted Therapy:A Review

Research

Jun 2020

Kidanu Hailay

Supporting Young Readers: A Mixed-Methods Study of Their Literacy, Behaviour, and Perceptions When Reading Aloud to Dogs or Adults

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022
Early Child Educ J

Animal-assisted interventions (AAI) have been found to benefit human emotional state and cognitive performance. Recent applications of AAI have extended to classrooms with a range of intentions including to improve literacy. This Canadian study sought to examine differences in reading performance and behaviour in early readers identified as requiring extra supports following exposure to a canine-assisted and adult-assisted reading support. Twenty-four 7- to 8-year-olds experienced both supports in random order. At the start of the study and after completion of either support learners’ oral reading, reading comprehension, social functioning, and reading affect were assessed. Parents, teachers, and children were also asked a range of closed- and open-ended questions. Findings showed evidence of improvement in reading performance, particularly after reading to a dog. There was also evidence of improved social competence overall and decreased problematic behaviour, although this was dependent on order of exposure. Teacher and parent reports showed they believed both supports to improve learner skills and affect for reading, and that teachers made more distinctions here. Implications for the practical application and relevance of methodological detail for future work are discussed.

A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Dog-Handler-Client Interactions in Animal Assisted Activities for Children, Youth and Young Adults

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2021

A growing body of research has linked the inclusion of dogs in Animal-Assisted Activities (AAA) for children and young adults to a diverse range of positive social emotional and cognitive outcomes. However, many studies have focused exclusively on aspects directly related to dog-client interactions. There is a need to gain a better understanding of how dog-handler teams have been described, conceptualized and incorporated into the analysis in previous research. In addition, few studies have investigated the mutual adjustments inherent to dog-handler-client triadic relationships. This paper explores if and how the unique characteristics of dog-handler teams have been conceptualized and measured in previous studies. First, this paper undertakes a scoping review to map what, if any, characteristics of dogs, handlers, and dog-handler teams have been described and incorporated into the assessment of AAAs from 2004 to 2019 including: demographic characteristics, formal training and certification, handlers’ or dogs’ behavioral and physiological responses to AAAs, handlers’ roles during activities, and configuration of AAA teams. This scoping review also highlights key features of AAA teams requiring further investigation. In addition, this paper proposes the incorporation of a transdisciplinary framework to the analysis of AAAs. Such a holistic framework can inform the field of human-animal interactions by prioritizing a relational and contextual focus to the study of AAAs.

Assessing Attitudes Towards Animal Assisted Therapy among Students and Faculty in American Psychological Association Accredited Programs

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2015

Research on animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is rapidly growing. However, there is little research on the attitudes and knowledge held by helping professionals regarding its practice, benefits, and limitations. The authors aim to understand how students and faculty members in the clinical and counseling psychology programs of the American Psychological Association (APA) perceive AAT and its role in psychological settings. Participants (n=267) were recruited from APA accredited clinical and counseling psychology programs to complete an online survey. Results revealed a majority of participants (41.2%) know very little about AAT, yet most (79.4%) view it as a legitimate adjunct to treatment. Further, 39% of participants reported being somewhat likely to very likely to practice AAT if properly trained. Additionally, participants reported viewing AAT as beneficial in expediting rapport and aiding in client retention. Participants reported that barriers to the practice of AAT include stigma from the psychological community, lack of empirical research, and training accessibility. The survey results suggest that access to training and empirical research may aid in the acceptance and growth of AAT.

Canine-Assisted Interventions and the Relevance of Welfare Assessments for Human Health, and Transmission of Zoonosis: A Literature Review

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2022

CAIs (canine-assisted interventions) include “canine-assisted therapy” in which a therapist sets client-oriented goals, 'canine-assisted activities' with recreational goals for clients, and 'canine-assisted education/learning' in which teachers or coaches create learning goals for students or clients. CAIs vary in nearly every way; their only common trait is the involvement of dogs to respond to human need. However, the benefits of involving dogs are highly dependent on the animal's health and behavior. A dog exhibiting negative behavior or an unwell dog might pose a risk, especially for CAI target groups, specifically individuals with immunosuppression, chronic illness, children, elderly, etc. Therefore, positive animal welfare as preventative medicine to avoid incidents or transmission of zoonosis is an attractive hypothesis, with implications for human and animal, health and well-being. This review aims to summarize the current published knowledge regarding different aspects of welfare in CAIs and to discuss their relevance in the light of health and safety in CAI participants. As method for this study, a literature search was conducted (2001–2022) using the Prisma method, describing issues of dog welfare as defined in the Welfare Quality® approach. This welfare assessment tool includes 4 categories related to behavior, health, management, and environment; it was, therefore, applicable to CAIs. Results indicate that dogs working in CAIs are required to cope with diverse variables that can jeopardize their welfare. In conclusion, we propose regular welfare assessments for dogs in CAIs, which would also protect the quality of the CAI sessions and the clients' safety and well-being.

ENGAGING ECOTHERAPY APPROACHES IN PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM: TEACHERS' PERSEPTIONS

Chapter

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Apr 2022

Approaches of ecotherapy are very beneficial for children's health and, for this reason, school-based versions have been implemented to promote it. Preschool and elementary teachers are an essential element for the successful implementation of nature-based activities in school. However, research on their perceptions of such initiatives is scarce. Thus, the purpose of this article is to present current research in this field. The studies showed that teachers acknowledge the benefits of ecotherapy approaches implementation on students' physical and mental health, but they indicate several practical issues.

The impact of therapy dogs on the social and emotional wellbeing of students: a systematic review

Article

Mar 2022

Objective This systematic review examined the impacts of therapy dogs on the social and emotional wellbeing of K-12 students. Procedure Five electronic databases (PsycINFO, Informit A+ Education, PubMed, Web of Science and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global) were searched to find English language, grey literature and peer-reviewed articles up to November 2020. Results A narrative synthesis of 23 articles indicated that therapy dogs may enhance students’ mood and positive emotionality, social and communication skills, confidence and their relationship with teachers. Inconsistently, other studies reported that therapy dogs may not enhance the social and emotional wellbeing of students. Conclusion The current research is characterised by methodological limitations and an over-reliance on the perceptions of students and teachers. To enhance the quality and reliability of the evidence, future researchers are encouraged to adopt more rigorous methodologies with larger sample sizes and control procedures. It is also recommended that the perceptions of school leaders, other educational personnel and interdisciplinary health professionals are incorporated into future studies. This may contribute to a greater level of consensus in the educational sector about the impacts of therapy dogs on the social and emotional wellbeing of K-12 students.

Application of Animal Assisted Therapy: A Review

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2020

Animals have traits that can be loved and fulfill a person’s feeling such as their friendly, kind, patient, truthful, devoted and loyal are among the commonest one. Animals seem to provide such a positive influence on people, especially children that it appears universally beneficial. Thus, animals have a great role in human day to day life as well as human well-being. Animal-assisted therapies have historically been beneficial to human health, while the advantages to the humans in these relationships may be obvious, the benefits to the animals are by no means always self-evident. animal assisted therapy is as an intentional and therapeutic activity, whereby the animal’s role is integral in assisting with mental health, speech, occupational therapy or physical therapy goals and augments cognitive, physical, social and/or emotional well-being. The benefits of animals can be included under physical benefits, developmental benefits, psychological benefits and educational benefits. Various animals were used in animal assisted therapy but the most common ones are the dog, cat, horse and dolphin. Though the animals are used to benefit humans, they also must be able to pursue their own needs interests in avoiding pain, fear, distress, or physical harm and injury. Thus, the application, use, welfare rights and potential challenges in the practice of Animal Assisted Therapy.

The Effects of Multimodal Intervention Program including Animal Assisted Therapy on Depression and Self-esteem of University Students

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2021

Taeyoung Kil

This study aimed to investigate the effects of the multimodal group intervention that combined animal-assisted therapy (AAT) and integrated play therapy (IPT) on depression and self-esteem in undergraduate university students. The subjects were 40 students attending animal-related and social welfare departments of universities located in a metropolitan city. The multimodal intervention program was conducted for eight sessions (twice a week, 60 min each) in the experimental group. Data analysis was conducted using the independent sample t-test, ANCOVA, and paired sample t-test for pre- and post-test. Therefore, the multimodal intervention program applying AAT and IPT showed positive effects on depression and self-esteem in university students. Based on these results, this study proposed the operation of multidisciplinary education and practical and policy utilization methods to reduce depression among university students and help improve their self-esteem.

Animal-Assisted Activities in the Classroom for Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Article

Nov 2021
CHILD YOUTH SERV REV

Educators working with students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) often search for high-interest approaches to enhance evidence-informed practices already in place. The integration of animal-assisted activities (AAA) may be a novel and flexible approach with the potential to support a variety of student goals, in particular for students with emotional or behavioral challenges. We provide a brief overview of AAAs across therapeutic, medical, and educational contexts followed by suggestions to design, implement, and monitor an AAA in one’s classroom.

Policy framework for the use of therapy dogs in educational settings

Chapter

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Apr 2021

A Literature Review on the Effect of Pet-assisted Therapy on the Mental Health of Children

Article

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Nov 2024

Recently, children are more likely to experience mental health issues because of the increasing stress. Pet-assisted therapy (PAT) can set up a safe relationship between children and therapist and provide emotional support to children through the interaction between children and animals. This literature review is intended to explore the effect of PAT on children and children with diseases. The results display that PAT can promote childrens emotional understanding capacity and self-confidence and alleviate the negative impacts of childhood trauma. In addition, it can decrease childrens negative emotions resulting from hospitalization and benefit special needs children and their families. However, existing experimental results are inconsistent in the aspect of its effects on physical arousal. Hence, studies focused on physical arousal are needed to further support the effects of PAT on childrens mental health. In terms of application, it is expected to improve childrens psychological well-being by conducting in healthcare, homes, and school settings.

What are the Short and Long-Term Impacts of Animal Assisted Interventions on the Therapy Animals?

Article

Nov 2024

Amelia Lewis

Animal assisted interventions ( AAI s) are practices used for human wellbeing, whereby interactions with non-human animals are used for therapeutic purposes. AAI s can be offered clinically, to those suffering physical or mental illness; those who have a learning disability or neurodevelopmental disorder; people requiring occupational therapy or enrichment in settings such as prisons and nursing homes, and as an adjunct to formal education in classrooms. Whilst some AAI s are low risk, AAI animals can be placed in emotionally challenging situations, or even situations where they may be at physical risk. At present, there is a paucity of literature examining the welfare of AAI animals, and the practice remains unregulated. This paper therefore discusses the potential welfare issues for animals used in ‘animal assisted interventions’, and suggests how those issues could be addressed.

Human-Animal Relationship through the Ages, Animal Assisted Intervention Programmes and the Role of Animals in Child Development

Article

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Jan 2024

The impact of a therapy dog program on children's with ASD social skills, communication, and behavioral difficulties

Article

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Nov 2023

Recent research findings confirm the mediating role of animals, especially dogs, between a therapist and a child during therapy sessions. The presence of dogs has been studied in clinical studies. In cases of children with disabilities dogs facilitate the therapeutic session as they distract children from their real problems and make them feel relaxed. However, there is a research gap on the impact of a therapy dog in a school setting. The present study aims to explore the effectiveness of therapy dogs’ presence in an intervention programme for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Three primary school students with ASD, their teachers and parents, and a therapy dog with its attendant were enrolled in the study. Data collection was based on teachers’ and parents’ observations of students’ social responses and behavioural difficulties before and after the intervention, on teachers’ diaries, and on the micro-analysis of the six videotaped therapeutic sessions. Results show that the dog’s presence increased student response to social stimuli and reduced the symptoms of ASD, not only during the intervention but also in the post-intervention phase. No aggressive or self-injurious behaviours were exhibited during the sessions. The study highlights the healing impact for children with ASD when a dog is incorporated in a school setting.

Sheila the Australian conqueror Canine therapy: a case study of overcoming fear of dogs

Article

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Sep 2023

Maya Schwartz Laufer

From Child–Animal Relations to Multispecies Assemblages and Other-Than-Human Childhoods

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2023

This article discusses how childhood studies could be enriched with a focus on child–animal relations, multispecies assemblages and other-than-human childhoods. First, research on child–animal relations prior to, and at, the animal turn is presented. It is argued that the dominant utilitarian and adult-centered views respond poorly to the significance children themselves see in their relations with other-than-human animals. The article then moves on to the concept of multispecies assemblages. Viewing childhoods as multispecies from the outset allows one to draw attention to the specific and situated relationalities amidst natural, cultural, technological, economic, and political forces. Finally, attention is drawn to other-than-human childhoods. The differences, hierarchies, connections and unequal possibilities that arise from being born and growing up as a member of a distinct species amidst societal processes are discussed. Additionally, childhood is suggested to be an important concept through which to give detail, specificity, and a critical edge to the work of multispecies research.

Human-Animal Interaction in Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAI)s: Zoonosis Risks, Benefits, and Future Directions—A One Health Approach

Article

Full-text available

May 2023

Animal-assisted interventions (AAI)s represent the expression of integrated medicine, according to the One Health approach. Actually, animal-assisted therapies and animal-assisted activities are implemented in hospitals, rehabilitation centers, etc. The efficacy of AAIs is based on interspecific interactions and would be impacted by different factors, such as the characters of both the animal and the handler, a suitable selection of animal species, an appropriate animal educational protocol, the relationship between the handler and the animal, and mutual relationship among the animal, the patients, and members of the working team. AAIs produce many advantages for the patients but could expose them to zoonotic-pathogens transmission. Therefore, positive animal welfare, as preventative medicine to avoid incidents or transmission of zoonosis, is a relevant aspect with implications for human and animal health and wellbeing. This review aims to summarize the current published knowledge regarding the occurrence of pathogens in AAIs and to discuss their relevance in light of health and safety in AAIs participants. In addition, this review will contribute to defining the state of the art of AAIs through a careful benefits/challenges analysis and offers discussion points on the possible future developments according to the One Health approach.

PROJETO PET TERAPIA: INTERVENÇÕES ASSISTIDAS POR ANIMAIS- UMA PRÁTICA PARA O BENEFÍCIO DA SAÚDE E EDUCAÇÃO HUMANA

Article

Jun 2017

Atualmente, a relação homem e animal tem grande proximidade. Esse vínculo afetivo favorece a estabilidade emocional do ser humano, promovendo inúmeros benefícios. Assim, as intervenções assistidas por animaisconsistem na utilização de animais como mediadores dapromoção da saúde e bem-estar de seus assistidos. No Brasil, essa prática foi instituída em meados dos anos 50 pela psiquiatra Nise da Silveira. No entanto, o interesse dos profissionais da área da saúde começou a crescer na década de 80, quando tiveram início os centros especializados nessa área. Por isso, as intervenções mediadas por animais são uma prática inovadora e ainda requerem mais estudos. Visando isso, o projeto Pet Terapia da Faculdade de Veterinária da Universidade Federal de Pelotas, que trabalha com Atividade, Terapia e Educação mediada por animais, teve como objetivo relatar as atividades realizadas em instituições da cidade de Pelotas – RS. O Pet Terapia conta com uma equipe multidisciplinar e 12 cães co-terapeutas que realizam semanalmente visitas em várias instituições. As atividades são discutidas em parceria com os profissionais da saúde e educação de cada local e conforme a necessidade dos assistidos. Nos resultados, podemos perceber que é notório os benefícios que as intervenções propiciam a todos os envolvidos. Com o estabelecimento do vínculo afetivo com o cão co-terapeuta, observamos diminuição dos estresse e medo, socialização, interação com os profissionais e membros da equipe do projeto, entre outros. Pode-se concluir que as intervenções mediadas por animais realizadas pelo Pet Terapia proporcionam inúmeros benefícios, como a melhora na qualidade de vida, na saúde e no bem-estar dos seus assistidos.

An Ethical Ecology for Research on Therapeutic Environments

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Patric Plesa

Research on therapeutic environments is limited by the absence of theoretical considerations for an ethical ecology. This article aims to address some of those limitations by discussing some interdisciplinary possibilities in epistemology, ontology, and intersectionality as viable theoretical implications for conceiving therapeutic environments from an ethical ecological perspective. Some key issues are raised as potential impediments to an ethical ecology, namely instrumental relationships with nature, the human/nature dichotomy, and structural factors that mediate therapeutic relationships between people and environments. What this article aims at is an ethical understanding of the human relationship with nature by considering the cultural, social, and political implications of being-in-nature as a prerequisite for the conception of therapeutic environments

Views of Preservice Social Studies Teachers regarding the Use of Virtual Tours during the Pandemic

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Aug 2022

The Dream School: Exploring Children's Views About Schools

Article

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Aug 2022

Children’s wellbeing and reading engagement: the impact of reading to dogs in a Scottish Primary 1 classroom

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022

Jill Steel

Wellbeing and effective engagement in reading are critical to successful learning and achievement throughout school and beyond. Reading to Dogs in schools is an increasingly popular way of supporting both wellbeing and reading engagement yet limited educational research has been conducted. This small-scale study took place in a Scottish Primary 1 classroom with N = 21 participants aged 5–6 years. A 4-week intervention, adopting an inclusive approach for the whole class, was evaluated. A qualitative study design incorporated observations and semi-structured interviews. Results suggest improved wellbeing and engagement in reading for all, however the greatest improvements were found in the most vulnerable.

Animal-Assisted Interventions With Dogs in Special Education—A Systematic Review

Article

Full-text available

May 2022

Dogs are becoming increasingly popular in pedagogical settings. Particularly children with special educational needs are believed to benefit from dog-assisted interventions. However, reliable evidence for supporting such claims is still scarce and reports on the effectiveness of this approach are often anecdotal. With our review we aim at evaluating the literature to answer the question, whether dog-assisted interventions in an educational setting can help children with special educational needs to improve and to develop their emotional, social and cognitive skills. Following the PRISMA Guidelines, the literature was systematically searched for experimental studies until February 2021. Eighteen studies were finally included, which varied greatly in type of intervention, outcomes measured, sample sizes, and scientific quality, which precluded a formal meta-analysis. Hence, we resorted to a narrative synthesis. Overall, the studies report mixed results in the different functional domains of stress reduction, motivation, social skills, cognitive abilities, reading abilities, social conduct, and mental wellbeing. No study reported any negative effects of the intervention. The most unequivocal evidence comes from studies on dogs’ effects on physiological stress response in challenging situations and on motivation and adherence to instructions, reporting significantly lower levels of cortisol in both children and pedagogues in the presence of dogs, as well as increased motivation to learn and participate. Findings for other outcomes, academic or social, however, remain inconclusive. Data on long-term effects are lacking altogether. Still, this review indicates the potentials of dog-assisted interventions in special pedagogy, particularly towards supporting a calm and trustful social atmosphere.

Dogs at school: a quantitative analysis of parental perceptions of canine-assisted activities in schools mediated by child anxiety score and use case

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2022

Canine-assisted activities in schools can benefit students’ educational, emotional, and social needs. Furthermore, they could be an effective form of non-clinical mental health treatment for children and adolescents. In the United Kingdom, school dogs are growing in popularity, however, little is known about how parents perceive canine-assisted activities as a treatment option. This is important as parental perceptions can influence engagement, whilst lack of awareness can become a barrier to treatment. This study uses a cross-sectional design to quantitatively explore the acceptability of canine-assisted activities amongst UK-based parents (n = 318) of children aged six to 16 (M = 10.12, SD = 3.22). An online survey used a treatment evaluation to determine acceptability across three use-cases. These included a child reading to dogs to improve literacy skills, a child interacting one-to-one to foster greater self-esteem and social skills, and a classroom dog to improve student behaviour and motivation. Additionally, the scale for generalised anxiety disorder was used to rank child anxiety as high or low, where high was a score equal to or above the UK clinical borderline threshold. The results found canine-assisted activities were less acceptable for the behavioural than the reading and social use-cases. Furthermore, parents of children with high anxiety had higher acceptability scores than parents of children with low anxiety for the reading and social use-cases but not for the behavioural use case. These findings suggest that UK parents' acceptability of canine-assisted activities in schools is mediated by child anxiety score. Furthermore, that parents may be less aware of the benefits of classroom dogs than other types of school-based canine-assisted activities.

Heljakka, K., Lamminen, A., Ihamäki, P. (2021) A Model for Enhancing Emotional Literacy through Playful Learning with a Robot Dog, In Proc. of the International Conference on Electrical, Computer, Communications and Mechatronics Engineering (ICECCME), 7-8 October 2021, Mauritus.

Conference Paper

Oct 2021

REIMAGINING SCHOOL SAFETY WITHOUT SROS Reimagining School Safety Without Resource Officers: Discussing Alternative Programs and Practices

Technical Report

Full-text available

Sep 2021

Prior research indicates that school safety approaches emphasizing the presence of school resource officers (SROs) on campus are not very effective in making schools safer and are often associated with negative outcomes, including lower academic performance and higher levels of school violence, dropout rates, antisocial behavior, and interactions with the criminal justice system. Such approaches disproportionately affect historically marginalized students (racially and ethnically minoritized students, students with disabilities, LGBTQ+ students, and students of low socioeconomic status). In this context, some school districts are exploring school safety alternatives to SROs. For this study, we undertook a comprehensive review of those alternatives and the recent research literature on their impacts, particularly on school safety and students' wellbeing, paying special attention to meta-analyses and studies that used randomized controlled trials. We identified 17 promising programs and organized them in four approaches (punitive, social psychological, community-based, and self-governance) and three levels of intervention (universal, intensive, and targeted). While not entirely comprehensive, this review provides school leaders, researchers, and community members with research findings on 17 promising school safety alternatives to promote a healthy and equitable school climate, reduce violence and trauma, and maintain a safe learning environment for all students.

Exploring Animal-Assisted Therapy for Creating Rich Communicative Environments and Targeting Communication Goals in Subacute Rehabilitation

Article

Sep 2021

Purpose This study continues our research examining the use of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) for patients with acquired neurogenic communication disorders. AAT pairs an animal/handler team with a licensed therapist during sessions to target discipline-specific goals. Our original study focused on dog/handler teams paired with occupational and physical therapists during inpatient rehabilitation sessions. We documented multiple ways that AAT enriched the communicative environment, increasing the amount, complexity, and voluntariness of patient participation. This study focuses on speech-language pathology sessions, comparing communicative environments during AAT and traditional sessions. We also examined the speech-language pathologists' (SLPs') experiences in learning to plan for and target communication goals for patients during AAT sessions. Method This interpretive design combines ethnographic methods with participatory action research. We recruited 10 patients from an inpatient rehabilitation unit and two SLPs. We video-recorded 20 speech-language pathology sessions (one AAT and one traditional for each patient) and conducted 26 interviews. We consulted with SLPs on how to incorporate AAT into their treatment during their preparation time and used self-report measures to track changes in their planning time and confidence across the 6-week study. Findings Across participants, AAT sessions provided richer communicative environments than traditional speech-language pathology sessions as measured by participant talk time, mean length of turns, and use of interactional discourse resources such as narrative use and playful language. The SLPs were rapidly able to adapt their clinical practice to incorporate AAT and displayed rapid and marked decreases in their initial planning time and increases in confidence. Conclusion AAT sessions created meaningful, rich, and complex communicative environments in a clinical space for participants to align with others around a shared interest.

An Animal-Assisted Education Intervention with Dogs to Promote Emotion Comprehension in Primary School Children-The Federico II Model of Healthcare Zooanthropology

Article

Full-text available

May 2021

Emotion comprehension (EC) is a crucial competence for children, as it determines the quality of peer interactions. This study assessed the efficacy of an animal-assisted education (AAE) intervention with dogs based on the Federico II Model of Healthcare Zooanthropology (FMHZ) to promote EC in a group of primary school children. One hundred and four children (48 females) aged 6–7 years took part in the study, of whom 63 participated in the AAE intervention (i.e., experimental group) and 41 did not (i.e., control group). The intervention was deployed in a school setting through a group format and consisted of five bimonthly sessions. EC was assessed pre- and post-intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up. Student’s t-test and mixed-model ANOVA were performed to analyze the effect of the intervention on EC. EC significantly improved in children of the experimental group compared to the control group. Significant time effects from pre- to post-intervention, post-intervention to follow-up, and pre-intervention to follow-up assessment were found in the experimental group only. AAE based on FMHZ was effective in improving EC in children.

Dog Owners’ Survey reveals Medical Alert Dogs can alert to multiple conditions and multiple people

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2021
PLOS ONE

Medical Alert Dogs (MADs) are a promising support system for a variety of medical conditions. Emerging anecdotal reports suggest that dogs may alert to additional health conditions and different people other than those that they were trained for or initially began alerting. As the use of medical alert dogs increases, it is imperative that such claims are documented empirically. The overall aims of this study were to record the proportion of MAD owners who have a dog that alerts to multiple health conditions or to people other than the target person and to determine whether any sociodemographic variables were associated with dogs alerting to multiple conditions, multiple people, or both. MAD owners completed an online survey that contained a series of forced choice questions. Sixty-one participants reported a total of 33 different conditions to which dogs alerted. Eighty-four percent of participants reported that their dog alerted to multiple conditions and 54% reported that their dog alerted to multiple people. This is the first study to document that a large percentage of people report that their MAD alerts to multiple conditions and/or to multiple people. We present a discussion of how these alerting abilities could develop, but questions about the underlying mechanisms remain.

Eco-feminist & critical animal studies’ insights about social change: species, gender & class. In: The Routledge Handbook of Critical Pedagogies for Social Work

Chapter

Mar 2020

Evaluation of the SPANA Animal Welfare Education Programme in Ethiopia

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jul 2013

Established in 1923, SPANA is an international animal welfare organisation providing educational and veterinary services in countries with large populations of working animals. SPANA’s education programme in Ethiopia involves delivering a weekly one hour lesson to children in Grades 2 and 5 (aged 8+ and 11+ years respectively). The lessons follow a structured animal welfare curriculum. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the programme SPANA has developed a Caring for Animals Questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered to a total of 1163 children in three schools delivering the SPANA education programme and a control group of three schools with no formal animal welfare education programme. A baseline questionnaire consisting of 54 items drawn from an item bank of 108 items was administered in October 2011 prior to the start of the intervention. A follow-up questionnaire composed of the remaining 54 items was administered in May 2012. During each assessment period three versions of the questionnaire were used with overlapping items to facilitate equating of scores. Matched baseline and follow-up questionnaires were obtained for 920 children (79%). Rasch modelling was used to construct an interval level measure from the questionnaire data. The constructed measure was then standardised with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15. An advantage of this approach is that it allows direct comparison of the differences between baseline and follow-up scores. For the control group a mean difference of 3.7 standardised points was found, indicating that the children’s score develops naturally over time without any specific educational intervention. By contrast a mean difference of 11.4 was found for the intervention group. A comparison of the control and intervention groups revealed an effect size of 0.52. These results indicate that the SPANA education programme gives a considerable boost to the children’s Caring for Animals score.

Impact of Interactions with a Puppy and Handler Versus a Handler Alone on Stress and Vitality in a University Setting: A Crossover Study

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2024

Brief interactions with a well-behaved dog can enhance wellbeing, but most campus-based dog visitation programs employ adult, trained dogs. There is little research about the impact of puppies on wellbeing or stress in this context. The aim of this study was to examine changes in perceived stress and vitality after interacting with a puppy. Staff and students (N = 32) at an Australian university attended the campus on two occasions, one week apart, as part of a crossover design. Participants were pseudo-randomly allocated to a group whereby they spent 20 min interacting with a handler alone at Visit 1 and interacted with a puppy and handler at Visit 2, or another group which reversed the interaction order. Perceived stress and subjective vitality were measured before and after each interaction. The increase in vitality was greater in the group experiencing the puppy and handler interaction first (significant main effect, F(1,49) = 646.89, p = 0.024, η2p = 1.00), regardless of the visit, possibly due to a social lubricating effect by the puppy, which carried over to the ‘handler alone’ second visit. Reductions in perceived stress were greater after the interaction with the puppy, for both groups (significant interaction effect, F(1,49) = 5.13, p = 0.029, η2p = 0.11), indicating that the puppy’s presence can reduce stress more than the handler alone. This extends the evidence for university-based dog-facilitated wellbeing programs, by showing that interactions with puppies can also be effective. This is important as it may mean that puppies already on campus as part of a socialization/training program can be incorporated into wellbeing programs for staff and students.

A pilot study of academic burnout and stress in undergraduate students: the role of canine-assisted interventions

Article

Jul 2024

Sağlığın Geliştirilmesinde Hayvan Destekli Uygulamaların RolüThe Role of Animal-Assisted Practices in Health Promotion

Article

Dec 2023

Hasta bakımında kullanılan rutin tedavilerin yanında destekleyici uygulamaları dahil etmek, biyopsikososyal yönden tam bir iyilik halinin kazanılması ve korunmasına yardımcı olacaktır. Bunu sağlamak adına bireylerin üzerindeki hastalık etkilerini en aza indirmek ve yaşam standartlarını optimum seviyeye çıkarmak için rehabilitasyon programları geliştirilmelidir. Rehabilitasyon programlarının istenilen amaçlara ulaşabilmesi için destek alınan uygulamalardan biri de hayvan destekli uygulamalardır. Hayvan destekli uygulamanın yaygın gelişimsel bozukluklar, davranış bozukluğu, anksiyete, yalnızlık duygusu, ajitasyon, ağrı, stres ve depresyon, şizofreni, demans, Alzheimer gibi ruhsal semptom ve hastalıklarda ve kanser, AIDS, afazi, kardiyovasküler hastalıklar, diyabet, solunum sistemi hastalıkları, inme gibi fiziksel hastalıklarda hastalık semptomlarını hafifletmek ve yaşam kalitesini artırmada olumlu etkileri olduğu belirtilmiştir. Literatür incelendiğinde hayvan destekli uygulamalarla ilgili çalışmaların yurt dışında yaygın olduğu ancak ülkemizde yok denecek kadar az olduğu bildirilmektedir. Hemşirelik girişimi olarak hayvan destekli uygulamalara yönelik çalışmaların artırılmasına ihtiyaç vardır. Bu derlemenin amacı sağlığın geliştirilmesinde hayvan destekli uygulamaların rolünü literatür eşliğinde incelemektir.

Protecting Therapy Animal Welfare and Promoting Thriving in Animal-Assisted Interventions

Article

Nov 2023

Taylor Chastain Griffin

This case is important because the therapy animals that are involved in animal-assisted interventions (AAI) must be protected to not only ensure welfare but also to promote a sense of thriving on the part of the animal. Both the efficacy and the ethicality of the intervention rest on the ability to select therapy animals that do not simply tolerate their role, but that actively exhibit signs of enjoying it. Furthermore, all involved in the intervention must understand how to be the voice of the therapy animal in a way that reflects the animal’s free communication and allows for the expression of preference and consent. Therapy animal handlers, animal behavior experts, and veterinarians are best empowered to advocate for therapy animal welfare by being aware of the considerations, standards of practice, and competencies that protect all involved in the intervention. By working through applied examples of therapy dog Ivy and her handler, the reader becomes better prepared to suggest essential protective measures in AAI. Information © The Author 2023

Therapy Dog Presence in an Undergraduate Nursing Program

Article

Oct 2023
J Christ Nurs

Research supports the use of animal-assisted interactions and pet therapy in various settings. Undergraduate nursing students experience high levels of stress and anxiety which often continue as they become professional nurses. Entering the workforce equipped with positive coping strategies may help newly licensed nurses to combat stressors. This qualitative descriptive study examined the experiences of undergraduate nursing students with the presence of a therapy dog. Four major themes regarding the role of therapy dogs were identified: as a coping strategy, as a mood moderator, as a positive distraction, and for community building.

Can Interacting with Animals Improve Executive Functions? A Systematic Review

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023

There has been growing interest in the potential benefits of using human–animal interactions to improve executive functions: cognitive processes that allow individuals to plan, solve problems, and self-regulate behaviour. To date, no comprehensive review has been conducted. The purpose of this study was to evaluate existing literature, adopting broad inclusion criteria. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, 16 papers were identified from peer-reviewed literature. Additional papers were identified from grey literature, including 6 dissertations and 1 thesis. A review of these 23 studies found that human–animal interactions and executive functions are investigated in three main ways: (1) exploring the potential benefits of the human–pet relationship, (2) exploring the impact of an animal’s presence during administration of executive function tests, and (3) evaluating the efficacy of animal-assisted services (e.g., animal-assisted therapy) on executive functions. Five of the included studies reported a significant improvement across all measured domains of executive functions, but effect sizes were underreported. Comparatively, 9 studies reported mixed findings, d = 0.32–0.55, while 8 studies reported no significant results. The overall rigour of the research was limited, with great heterogeneity between the study methodologies and outcome measures used. It is recommended that future studies utilise high-quality research methodologies through the use of randomisation, pre- and postmeasures, and appropriate control conditions, where possible.

Pre-school Teachers' and Pre-school Teacher Assistants’ Opinions on a Living Corner at Kindergarten

Chapter

Full-text available

Feb 2021

Abstract The educator’s role in shaping children’s attitudes and values towards nature and thus towards animals is crucial. In order for a child to gain a true appreciation for the natural world and get to know living beings, educators must give children enough time and opportunity. For this purpose, we conducted a quantitative survey, in which we included 180 pre-school teachers and pre-school teacher’s assistants, by designing a questionnaire that was accessible online. Based on the results, we found out that both those who live with animals and those who do not support the establishment of a vivarium at kindergartens. Respondents much prefer to resort to other forms of getting to know animals. Keywords: kindergarten, vivarium, animals, pre-school teachers, pre-school teacher’s assistants

Therapy dog in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities – opinions and expectations of parents and professionalsTerapijski pas u rehabilitaciji djece s teškoćama u razvoju – mišljenja i očekivanja roditelja i stručnjaka

Article

Dec 2022

Cilj: Cilj je ovoga istraživanja ispitati mišljenja i očekivanja roditelja i stručnih osoba koje sudjeluju u rehabilitaciji djece o primjeni terapijskog psa u rehabilitaciji djece s teškoćama u razvoju, o utjecaju na motiviranost, psihički, socijalni i motorički razvojni aspekt. Ispitanici i metode: Istraživanje je obuhvatilo 133 ispitanika podijeljena u dvije skupine: skupina roditelja djece s teškoćama u razvoju (n = 53) i skupina stručnjaka koji sudjeluju u procesu rehabilitacije djece s teškoćama u razvoju (n = 80). Anketni upitnici izrađeni su u elektroničkom obliku, na internetskoj online platformi i sadržavali su tvrdnje na koje su ispitanici odgovarali pomoću Likertove ljestvice (1 – u potpunosti se ne slažem; 5 – u potpunosti se slažem). Rezultati: Roditelji (x = 4,64 ± sd = 0,71), kao i stručnjaci (x = 4,75 ± sd = 0,70), slažu se da terapijski pas može pomoći motivirati dijete u rehabilitaciji. Ispitanici smatraju da bi terapijski pas mogao pomoći i utjecati u više razvojnih aspekata kod djece s teškoćama u razvoju: na psihički razvoj djeteta (roditelji x = 4,7 ± sd = 0,57; stručnjaci x = 4,7 ± sd = 0,72), na razvoj socijalnih vještina (roditelji x = 4,58 ± sd = 0,63; stručnjaci x = 4,67 ± sd = 0,74) te na razvoj motoričkih vještina (roditelji x = 4,45 ± sd = 0,82; stručnjaci x = 4,7 ± sd = 0,7). Roditelji djece s teškoćama u razvoju (x = 4,89 ± sd = 0,37), kao i stručnjaci (x = 4,79 ± sd = 0,61), smatraju da je poželjno razvijati i širiti terapijski pristup sa psom. Zaključak: Iz svega se može zaključiti kako u Republici Hrvatskoj roditelji djece s teškoćama u razvoju, jednako kao i stručnjaci, imaju pozitivno mišljenje i optimistično orijentirana očekivanja prema uvođenju terapijskog psa u rehabilitaciju.

Measuring the Social, Behavioral, and Academic Effects of Classroom Pets on Third and Fourth-Grade Students

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2021

Limited research has documented the benefits of animals for children’s learning and development, with a growing number of elementary school teachers incorporating pets into their classrooms. This study assessed the social, behavioral, and academic effects of the presence of small, resident classroom animals for third and fourth-grade students across the United States. A total of 591 students from 41 classrooms (pet cohort = 20; no pet cohort = 21) and 19 schools participated. Classroom animals included guinea pigs, fish, lizards, hamsters, toad, gerbil, turtle, and tortoise. Data were collected at three designated time points over one academic year: T1 = one month into the school year (pre-pet introduction); T2 = 12 weeks post-pet introduction; T3 = just prior to school year end (approximately 28- to 30 weeks post-pet introduction). Teachers and parents completed the Social Skills Improvement System Rating Scales (SSIS) and the Social Competence Inventory (SCI), and students completed the SSIS only. At T2 and T3, teachers in the pet cohort were surveyed also on how the pet was incorporated into their classroom over the previous three-month period. Overall findings suggest that there is a lack of agreement between reporters. Teachers reported significantly greater increases in social skills (p < .05), social competence (p < .05), and academic reading competence (p = .02), as well as significantly greater reductions in internalizing (p = .02) and hyperactivity/inattention behaviors (p = .01), among students in the intervention cohort as compared to those without a classroom pet. Intervention cohort parents reported significantly greater increases in prosocial behaviors (p < .05). There were no significant differences between cohorts found via student reports. These findings suggest that pets in the classroom may significantly benefit third and fourth-grade students’ social, behavioral, and academic development. However, the lack of consistent findings across groups indicates the need for further examination of these types of programs and their potential impact on students.

The Elephant in the Room: Using AAI in a School Counseling Program

Chapter

Full-text available

Jun 2022

Lois Curry-Catanese

This chapter will provide a brief overview of the history and counseling theories associated with animal-assisted interventions and how school counselors can incorporate the use of animal-assisted interventions into their school's trauma-informed counseling program while examining the benefits of using animal-assisted interventions to promote trust, rapport, and healing for students experiencing any type of direct or indirect trauma. This chapter will also review potential problems, issues, and controversies that may arise in using animal-assisted interventions in the school setting. Finally, the author will offer strategies and ideas for encompassing living and other alternative modalities of animal-assisted interventions within an elementary school counseling program.

CHALLENGES IN GIFTED EDUCATION IN SLOVENIA

Book

Full-text available

Dec 2021

In the 21st century, gifted and talented students are probably a more valuable natural resource in any country than oil or gas. Every nation must therefore respect a small group of individuals who, by virtue of their abilities, play a crucial role in scientific, industrial, technological and cultural development. Therefore, the promotion of gifted education for excellence is also an important driver for the economic development of the society (Resch, Samhaber and Weilguny, 2008). Campbell, Eyre, Muijs, Neelands, and Robinson (2004) believe that promoting giftedness and excellence as a guiding principle for the development of educational institutions at the organisational, structural, and pedagogical levels will improve the overall quality of teaching and learning; designing an individualised and differentiated learning process will improve the achievement of all students. Today’s gifted students are tomorrow’s social, intellectual, economic, and cultural leaders, so their development should not be left to chance (Campbell et al., 2004). Educational Challenges 310 In the Slovenian school system all the conditions for the development of working activities with gifted and talented (hereafter gifted) students are in place, but according to Ovid’s thought, “medio tutissimus ibis” is firmly anchored in Slovenian school policy, which means that the middle way is the best way (Blažič et al., 2003, p. 29). Some other countries have established independent departments within subject ministries to support the development of gifted students, while in other countries interest in formal and informal forms of working with them is only beginning to revive (Blažič et al., 2003). According to Strmčnik (1995), the greatest obstacles to faster development of the gifted are the weak awareness and competence of all those in charge and the unsupportive atmosphere that paralyses the motivation and ambition of capable and successful individuals. There is also a modest scientific exploration of this complex situation, as it is largely absent from the concepts that are part of egalitarian rhetoric (such as equity, equality of opportunity, inequality, fairness, discrimination, social mobility, responsibility, etc.) (Sardoč, 2017). The problem of the gifted and talented is therefore one of the least researched in the field, although they constitute their natural inalienable or non-transferable resources (Roemer, 1996). This article reviews a range of literature and research relevant to the education of gifted and talented students, with the intention of clarifying some of the terms and concepts that underlie the promotion of giftedness in Slovenia.

Dogs in Schools: Can Spending Time with Dogs Improve Executive Functioning in a Naturalistic Sample of Young Children?

Article

Apr 2021

Recently, studies have begun to examine the educational and cognitive benefits of interacting with animals, specifically dogs. This study contributes to this research, with a focus on executive functioning abilities in six- to eight-year-old children. A naturalistic sample of 63 participants were allocated to one of three conditions, with varying levels of human–dog interactions, and participated in a four-week program hosted by a participating primary school. Participants completed the Opposite World test, a measure of inhibition and cognitive switching, and the Digit Span test, a measure of working memory, before and after the intervention. While there were no significant differences across condition, the analyses found that all participants improved in inhibition from baseline, with large effect sizes. It was also found that rates of improvement were greatest for participants with a lower starting ability, across inhibition, cognitive switching and working memory performance. This pattern was found in all three groups but was particularly marked for individuals who engaged in dog-intensive intervention conditions. This is an intriguing trend, as educational interventions often fail to target the individuals who need them the most. While limited by the lack of a true no-dog condition, our preliminary results can potentially inform future interventions targeting development of executive functions in children.

Third time's the charm or three strikes you're out? An updated review of the efficacy of dolphin‐assisted therapy for autism and developmental disabilities

Article

Jan 2021

Context Dolphin‐assisted therapy (DAT) is a popular form of animal‐assisted therapy for autism spectrum disorders and other psychological conditions. Objective In this review, our third, we analyze the most recent DAT studies in terms of construct and internal validity criteria to determine if there is empirical support for DAT. Method To ensure a systematic review, we searched for peer‐reviewed studies on DAT by submitting relevant search terms to Google Scholar from 2007 to 2020, conducted a further search of all DAT papers in several peer‐reviewed journals, and reviewed reference sections of DAT articles to ensure a thorough review of the literature between 2007 and the present. Results The DAT literature continues to be marked by several weaknesses in both internal and construct validity that preclude confident inferences regarding the intervention's efficacy. Conclusion There is still insufficient evidence that DAT has therapeutic value.

Exploring Children’s Perceptions of an After-School Canine-Assisted Social and Emotional Learning Program: A Case Study

Article

Dec 2020

This study explored children’s perceptions of a canine-assisted social-emotional learning program developed within the framework of a canine therapy program at a mid-sized Canadian university. Data collection made use of interviews, field notes, and observations. Children (N = 8, 5 – 11 years) from an after-school program participated in a six-week intervention after which participants were interviewed about their experiences in the program, their learning of social and emotional competencies, and the role of the therapy dogs in facilitating their socioemotional development. Using conventional content analysis, salient themes reflecting participants’ experiences were identified. A within-case analysis was conducted followed by a cross-case analysis to identify what participants collectively saw as important. Salient themes to emerge through cross-case analysis were: 1) the dogs were meaningful and essential to the program, 2) it was an enjoyable and positive experience, and 3) participants reported evidence of social-emotional learnings. Evidence from this study suggests that the therapy dogs might have provided behavioral and emotional support. Findings suggest that integrating therapy dogs into social and emotional learning initiatives can provide unique advantages and improve children’s engagement and learning of social and emotional skills. Findings are discussed within the context of human-animal interactions and social and emotional education.

What Factors Influence Perceptions About Animal-Assisted Therapy?

Article

Nov 2020

Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) has gained popularity within K-12 schools for the emotional-social support, academic support, and sense of belongingness animals provide, however, concerns still arise despite documented potential benefits. This exploratory cross-sectional, quantitative study examined the knowledge, attitudes, and experiences of school counselors and school nurses with AAT to determine potential risks and benefits of AAT in schools. The REHAB Basel Questionnaire was utilized with 426 participants in the survey; school nurses (N = 228, 54%) and school counselors (N = 198, 47%). Results indicated canine ownership, role within schools, and region affected participants’ responses. Future research may seek to focus on establishing guidelines for the implementation of AAT in K-12 schools.

Ethical Issues in Animal-Assisted Therapy Programs

Article

Full-text available

Sep 1991

The Effectiveness of Hippotherapy for Children With Language-Learning Disabilities

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2004
Comm Disord Q

This study examined the effectiveness of hippotherapy versus traditional therapy for children with language-learning disabilities. Three boys, ages 9, 10, and 12 years, and their parents independently completed a satisfaction questionnaire at the end of traditional therapy (T1) and again at the end of hippotherapy (T2). A comparison of the responses from T1 and T2 indicated that both the parents and the children reported improvement in speech and language abilities after both therapies. Overall, responses were noticeably higher following hippotherapy, with additional benefits of improved motivation and attention also reported.

Benefits of Interacting with Companion AnimalsA Bibliography of Articles Published in Refereed Journals during the Past 5 Years

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2003

The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.

Pets Go to College: The Influence of Pets on Students' Perceptions of Faculty and Their offices

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2001

The present study examined the effects of the presence of a pet in a professor's office on college students' perceptions of the office and the professor. Students (n=257) were randomly assigned to view a slide of an office that contained either a dog, a cat, or no animal. Students perceived the office to be more comfortable and the professor to be friendlier when there was a dog in the office than when there was a cat or no animal in the office. They also perceived the professor who occupied the office with a cat to be less busy than the professors who occupied the offices with a dog and with no animal. These results imply that professors may be able to positively influence students' impressions of them by having a dog or a cat in their offices.

Animal-Assisted Therapy: A Meta-Analysis

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2007

Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) has been practiced for many years and there is now increasing interest in demonstrating its efficacy through research. To date, no known quantitative review of AAT studies has been published; our study sought to fill this gap. We conducted a comprehensive search of articles reporting on AAT in which we reviewed 250 studies, 49 of which met our inclusion criteria and were submitted to meta-analytic procedures. Overall, AAT was associated with moderate effect sizes in improving outcomes in four areas: Autism-spectrum symptoms, medical difficulties, behavioral problems, and emotional well-being. Contrary to expectations, characteristics of participants and studies did not produce differential outcomes. AAT shows promise as an additive to established interventions and future research should investigate the conditions under which AAT can be most helpful.

The value of a dog in a classroom of children with severe emotional disorders

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2006

The purpose of the present study was to determine how a dog's presence in a self-contained classroom of six children diagnosed with severe emotional disorders affected students' emotional stability and their learning. Across an eight-week period of time, the children were observed, the children and their parents were interviewed, and behavioral data were recorded when students went into emotional crisis. Qualitative analysis of all coded data indicated that the dog's placement in this self-contained classroom: a) contributed to students' overall emotional stability evidenced by prevention and de-escalation of episodes of emotional crisis; b) improved students' attitudes toward school; and c) facilitated students' learning lessons in responsibility, respect and empathy.

Dolphin-Assisted Therapy: More Flawed Data and More Flawed Conclusions

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2007

Dolphin-Assisted Therapy (DAT) is an increasingly popular choice of treatment for illness and developmental disabilities by providing participants with the opportunity to swim or interact with live captive dolphins. Two reviews of DAT (Marino and Lilienfeld [1998] and Humphries [2003]) concluded that there is no credible scientific evidence for the effectiveness of this intervention. In this paper, we offer an update of the methodological status of DAT by reviewing five peer-reviewed DAT studies published in the last eight years. We found that all five studies were methodologically flawed and plagued by several threats to both internal and construct validity. We conclude that nearly a decade following our initial review, there remains no compelling evidence that DAT is a legitimate therapy or that it affords any more than fleeting improvements in mood.

Animal-Assisted Interventions Research Issues and Answers

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2002

Animal visitation programs have been used in a wide variety of clinical settings with predominantly positive outcomes reported anecdotally. However, there is also a growing body of research investigating the effects of these interventions. Developing and conducting rigorous studies of animal interventions can be a complex and challenging process, The purpose of this article is to identify and discuss several issues arising with this type of research and to posit suggestions for avoiding pitfalls.

Animals in Elementary School Education in California

Article

Full-text available

Feb 1999

The purpose of this project was to provide preliminary, descriptive data concerning the uses of nonhuman animals in northern California elementary school classrooms. The project comprised a mail survey that was sent to all elementary school teachers in Stanislaus County, California, followed by a workshop with survey respondents. Information gathered included that about animals and the use of animals, the learning objectives for the animal-related instructional activities, and the kinds of resources that would help teachers to improve or expand their existing animal-related activities or to create new ones. Most of the teachers were keeping either live animals or a variety of nonliving specimens in the classroom. They reported that animals and information about animals are popular and effective foci of instruction throughout the primary grades. The majority of respondents stated that live animals, in addition to providing formal lessons in science and cross-curricular instruction, are important for teaching children humane values. They also reported the many drawbacks of maintaining live classroom animals, such as the responsibility and cost of ongoing care, potential health and safety issues for the children, and concerns about the welfare of the animals. Because animals used in precollege education are not subject to legal regulations in the United States, some degree of oversight by the school or school district may help to avert potential problems.

How a Therapy Dog May Inspire Student Literacy Engagement in the Elementary Language Arts Classroom

Article

Mar 2009

Lori Friesen

In this article, I discuss theoretical possibilities for the inclusion of therapy dogs in the elementary language arts classroom, particularly which may inspire students otherwise reluctant to engage in literacy activities. I incorporate Guthrie and colleagues’ work in engagement into research in Animal Assisted Therapy with children to posit a revised theory of engagement.

Handbook on animal-assisted therapy. Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice

Article

Jan 2010

Aubrey Fine

This introductory chapter provides readers not only with a basic foundation to appreciate and understand this unique kinship with all living creatures but also to discover the roots to the overwhelming growing interest in animal-assisted intervention (AAI). The chapter should also help solidify and clarify how the benefits witnessed within this unique bond have prompted numerous professionals to become more curious about the advantages of animal-assisted interventions. It is apparent that dogs have been bred to coexist with their human counterparts and have filled many roles including herding, guarding, hunting, fishing and being our best friend (Clutton-Brock, 1995). Dogs have also been widely used as service animals, supporting the quality of life of people in need. There have been increasing insights into science’s current understanding of dog behavior and cognition. Perhaps one of the strongest insights that she discusses pertains to dogs’ ability to understand our behaviors (Hare, 2007; Hare et al., 2002). Horowitz (2009) explains that dogs’

Influence of Animals on Perceived Likability of People

Article

Apr 1995

Previous studies have reported positive health and social benefits of pet ownership; however, most of these studies have been correlational in nature, so the directionality of effects remained unclear. The present study attempted to measure likability of pet owners in an experimentally controlled setting and to assess whether likability varies with type of pet. Subjects were 175 college students in introductory psychology classes. Analysis indicated that individuals are perceived as more likable when they are accompanied by a dog than when accompanied by a cat, a bird, or no animal.

Effectiveness of Dolphin-Assisted Therapy as a Behavioral Intervention for Young Children with Disabilities

Article

Jan 2003

Tracy L Humphries

On Behalf of Children

Article

Apr 2006

Mary Renck Jalongo

“What are all these Dogs Doing at School?”: Using Therapy Dogs to Promote Children's Reading Practice

Article

Mar 2005

Mary Renck Jalongo

Canine Visitors: The Influence of Therapy Dogs on Young Children's Learning and Well-Being in Classrooms and Hospitals

Article

Aug 2004
Early Child Educ J

Trained therapy dogs are becoming an increasingly common sight in many educational and health care settings. This article, coauthored by a college professor, a Therapy Dogs International, Inc., Evaluator and local program director, and a registered nurse reviews the research on using registered therapy dogs as adjuncts in school programs and health care treatment plans for children ages 5–8. It addresses to the most commonly raised objections to allowing dogs in classrooms and patient rooms and offers practical guidelines for maximizing the positive outcomes of animal-assisted activities and therapy (AAA/T).

Dogs in child psychotherapy: Effects on state of mind

Article

Sep 2006

Using a pretest-posttest design, this study investigates possible influences of animal-assisted therapy (AAT), using a dog, on the state of mind of children and adolescents who have undergone inpatient psychiatric treatment. To measure this, the Basler Befindlichkeits-Skala (BBS) was used, which measures general “state of mind” and provides four sub-scale scores: vitality, intra-emotional balance, social extroversion, and alertness. For Group 1 patients (n = 61, with AAT), the results show highly significant increases in all dimensions of the BBS. These changes were not found in a second group (Group 2, n = 39), in which there was no AAT. There was a significant negative correlation between pretest BBS scores and the change in scores that occurred after therapy incorporating AAT. Among seven patients in Group 1, a deterioration in state of mind was recorded. Under our controlled clinical conditions, an effect size of 0.38 was calculated for the therapy using a dog. Incorporating a dog could catalyze psychotherapeutic work with children and adolescents.

The Role of Therapy Dogs in Speed and Accuracy to Complete Motor Skills Tasks for Preschool Children

Article

Dec 2007

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the presence of a therapy dog would affect the performance of a set of gross motor skills tasks for a mixed group of language-impaired and typical preschool children. The 14 children in the group were between four and six years old (four female and ten male); the two dogs were Miniature Poodles. The design was a two-way mixed model factorial, where a series of 10 gross motor skills tasks (e.g., long jump, high jump—labeled Type of Task) performed by the children served as one variable, and the presence or absence of the therapy dog (labeled Dog Presence) served as the other variable. In the dog-present conditions, the dog either performed the task immediately prior to, or at the same time as, the child. Time to complete each task and the accuracy of task performance as determined by a rating scale were determined from a review of experiment videotapes. The main effect of Dog Presence was significant (F(1,36) = 7.471, p < 0.05, R2 = 0.17). As predicted, the children completed the tasks faster when the dog was present (M = 10.88 s, SD = 9.84) than when the dog was absent (M = 13.86 s, SD = 12.64), but this effect was not present in the ratings data. This indicates that the presence of a therapy dog served as an effective motivator for the children, who performed faster, but without compromising accuracy, in all tasks but one. The interaction between dog presence and type of task was also significant (F(9,71) = 3.67, p < 0.05, R2 = 0.32) in the ratings data, indicating that the presence of the dog increased performance accuracy in some types of tasks, while decreasing it in others. Based on these results and the strong connection between motor skills and language development, the authors recommend a role for therapy dogs in speech and language development programs for preschool children.

Social Effects of a Dog's Presence on Children with Disabilities

Article

Mar 2008

Productive and positive interactions between dogs and humans have been documented in studies using dogs trained as companion animals and as assistants for people with disabilities. In this study, the effects of the presence of a dog on social interactions between three 5-9-year-old children with developmental disabilities and their teacher at an elementary school were analyzed. A single-case experimental design with repeated measures and with replicated effects across participants was employed to assess changes in interactions from baseline to an intervention condition. During baseline, interactions were assessed in the social environment of a room adjacent to the classroom, which had a toy dog and other play materials, during time with the teacher. The experimental change introduced sequentially and systematically across the participants was the additional presence of an obedience-trained dog, a German Shepherd/Labrador Retriever cross. Interactions between the children and their teacher were examined during morning sessions using reliable direct observation interval recording procedures. All participants demonstrated an increase in overall positive initiated behaviors (verbal and non-verbal) toward both the teacher and the dog. The children also showed an overall decrease in negative initiated behaviors. In addition, observational ratings showed positive generalization of improved social responsiveness by the children in their classroom following the completion of the experimental sessions. This study supports the position that children with developmental disabilities benefit from the use of skilled dogs as teaching assistants and therapeutic adjuncts.

Behavior of Children with Learning Disabilities Interacting With a Therapy Dog

Article

Jun 1997

Therapy using animals is now a widespread phenomenon, but some authorities have argued that there is insufficient evidence either to justify or to guide animal-assisted therapy. This reflects a paucity of adequate quantitative methodology for investigations in this area. The little research that has been carried out suggests that animal presence may increase general social behavior. Our study aimed to develop a methodology to investigate the effects of a dog on the behavior of children with severe learning disabilities. A repeated measures design was used to observe eight children with Down's syndrome in controlled sessions, under the direction of an adult. Each session consisted of seven minutes of interaction with a real dog, and seven minutes with an imitation dog. Differences in visual attending, and verbal and non-verbal initiation and response behaviors indicated that the real dog provided a more sustained focus for positive and co-operative interactions with itself and the adult, than did the imitation dog.

Reinforcement Effectiveness of Animatronic and Real Dolphins

Article

Jun 2007

David E. Nathanson

Dolphin Human Therapy uses Atlantic bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) as reinforcement in rehabilitation for children with disabilities. But dolphins are expensive to use and subject to many environmental, administrative/legal and practical limitations. An alternative reinforcer, an animatronic dolphin called TAD (Test Animatronic Dolphin), was designed, built, and compared with real dolphins as a reinforcer for 35 children with disabilities, representing ten diagnoses, seven countries, and five languages. An ABA design and data analysis examined three clinical issues. First, no significant difference between dolphins and TAD was found in eliciting orienting responses of touching and/or saying words for all study participants. Second, no significant difference between dolphins and TAD was found in eliciting orienting response of touching and/or saying words for children within ability groupings of moderate or severe levels of disability. For children with profound disabilities, TAD was significantly more effective in eliciting an orienting response of looking. Third, response times to either dolphins or TAD were the same whether the reinforcement was given from a platform or in water. Interaction with TAD provided the same or more therapeutic benefits as interaction with dolphins, without the environmental, administrative/legal and practical limitations, including high cost, associated with dolphins.

Social Interaction and Blood Pressure

Article

Aug 1983

The effect of the presence of a friendly animal on children's blood pressures and heart rates while resting and their cardiovascular responses to verbalization were examined. The presence of the dog resulted in lower blood pressures both while the children (N = 38) were resting and while they were reading. The effect of the presence of the dog was greater when the dog was present initially than when it was introduced in the second half of the experiment. We speculate that the animal causes the children to modify their perceptions of the experimental situation and the experimenter by making both less threatening and more friendly. This study provides insight into the use of pets as adjuncts in psychotherapy. (C) Williams & Wilkins 1983. All Rights Reserved.

Some of our best therapists are dogs

Article

Apr 1994

Gerald Mallon

The potential values of using animals as adjuncts in work with children and youth have begun to be explored in a variety of settings. The exploratory study reported here used a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to assess the benefits and drawbacks of introducing dogs into living units in group care programs. Although both benefits and drawbacks were identified, the benefits appeared to out-weigh the drawbacks by a wide margin. Differences by age of clientele were identified, and implications of the findings are suggested.

Beyond a Pets Theme: Teaching Young Children to Interact Safely with Dogs

Article

Aug 2008

Mary Renck Jalongo

Although it is commonplace for early childhood educators to include a theme or unit on pets, opportunities to incorporate safety goals frequently are overlooked. Approximately 400,000 incidents of dog bites to children are documented in the United States annually and this estimate may be low, due to the fact that not all injuries are reported. Young children are the group at highest risk of sustaining dog bites. Due to the child’s smaller stature, these bites are more likely to be severe or disfiguring. Yet research from various disciplines supports that many of dog bite injuries to children are preventable with education and even brief interventions appear to be effective. This article offers research-based, developmentally appropriate strategies as well as a wide array of free or inexpensive resources that teachers can use to coach children in ways of interacting more safely with dogs. By making health and safety concerns a key component of themes or units about pets, teachers not only improve the curriculum but also make an important contribution to young children’s well-being.

Pets as Transitional Objects: Their Role in Children's Emotional Development

Article

Feb 1998

Sandra Lookabaugh

Children's use of pets as transitional objects and the contributions of pets to children's emotional well-being were examined. The sample included 94 boys and 80 girls in preschool through Grade 5; 70% were current pet owners, and 30% were not pet owners. Each participant was individually interviewed using a structured interview format of 20 questions for current pet owners and three questions for non-pet owners to assess perceptions about the role of friendships between animals and humans, shared activities between children and pets, ways animals and humans communicate love for one another, types of verbal and nonverbal communication and interactions between animals and humans, and ways animals provide love, security, and emotional support to humans. Analysis indicated that children perceive their pets as special friends, important family members, and providers of social interactions, affection, and emotional support. Results are discussed in terms of the parallels between children's use of inanimate transitional objects and their use of pets as transitional objects.

Why the wild things are

Article

Jan 2001

Gail F. Melson

Riding and the Handicapped

Article

Apr 1985
VET CLIN N AM-SMALL

Martha J. Biery

When we speak of riding for handicapped, it is evident that this term embodies a wide range of possibilities as far as the type of therapy used and the benefits gained. The needs of the student dictate which therapy is selected and implemented. The effects of therapeutic riding have not been subjected to scientific scrutiny. However, the benefits do have a physiologic basis that needs to be analyzed further. More empirical studies are required, using sound research methodology. Both the physical parameters (range of motion, balance, flexion, and so on) and the psychosocial parameters (risk, self-esteem, behavior, and so on) should be explored and documented. Until then, Robert Mayberry leaves us with this thought: "Is it the unique movement of the horse, the psychodynamics involved or a primal atavistic need for experiencing controlled risks? Perhaps it is all or none of these: suffice to say, the mystique of the horse is strong medicine."

Pet-Associated Illness

Article

Nov 1985

An estimated 55 million dogs and nearly as many cats are kept as pets in the United States. Although over 30 human illnesses can be acquired from pets, 2 owners are often poorly informed about measures that prevent acquisition of these conditions. Despite the frequency of contact between pet and owner, most pet-associated illnesses are infrequent, and health care providers may not be aware of their patterns of transmission or of preventive measures. The topic of pathogens that are transmitted from animals to human beings (zoonoses) has received brief editorial attention recently. In this article, we review in more detail the epidemiology, diagnosis, and therapy of illnesses acquired from dogs and cats. In addition, we present practical guidelines to minimize the risk of contracting these disorders.

Household Pets in Training Schools Serving Delinquent Children

Article

May 1971

BORIS M. LEVINSON

112 returns were received in a survey of 150 (48% sample of children, 35% sample of institutions) children's training schools located in the United States inquiring as to the use of animals in farm programs and use of domestic animals as pets for children. 38 schools which had farm programs indicated that cows and hogs were the most popular farm animals. 46 schools which permitted their children to own pets stated that dogs and cats were the most popular pets. In most schools children and staff cooperated in caring for the pets. The school census was not related to the ownership of pets. The questionnaire elicited many volunteered comments regarding pet ownership in the training schools.

The effects of the presence of a companion animal of physiological arousal and behavioral distress in children

Article

Jan 1998
J Pediatr Nurs

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of the presence of a companion animal on physiological arousal and behavioral distress exhibited by preschool children during a routine physical examination. A within-subject, time-series design was used to study 23 healthy children ages 3 years to 6 years during two physical examinations, with and without a dog. Statistically significant differences were found with greater reductions in subjects' systolic and mean arterial pressure, heart rate, and behavioral distress when the dog was present. Findings support the use of a companion animal in reducing stress experienced by children during a physical examination.

Animal-assisted therapy - Magic or medicine?

Article

Oct 2000
J PSYCHOSOM RES

J.S.J. Odendaal

A sound theoretical basis supported by scientifically measured physiological parameters is needed to gain medical support for animal-assisted therapy. Six neurochemicals associated with a decrease in blood pressure were measured in humans (n=18) and dogs (n=18) before and after positive interaction. Results (P<.05) indicated that in both species the neurochemicals involved with attention-seeking or attentionis egens behavior have increased. This information can be used as a rationale for animal-assisted therapy.

An Exploration of the Potential Risks Associated With Using Pet Therapy in Healthcare Settings

Article

Aug 2002

• The widespread inclusion of companion animals into the homes and lives of humans has prompted a considerable amount of research into the health benefits of such relationships. • Findings seem to confirm that if humans interact with companion animals they are likely to experience various health benefits. • Programmes that encourage and facilitate pet visiting schemes in hospitals have developed and animals can often be found in in-patient and long-term care facilities, with the aim of contributing towards a positive therapeutic milieu. • Despite supportive research evidence, the adoption of such a therapeutic activity may have been restricted by the belief that client safety could be compromised by an increase in the risk of infection acquired from animals, allergic responses and bites. • This paper explores the literature on these risks and concludes that, in a controlled health care environment in urban Europe or North America and with responsible human behaviour the potential benefits of sharing our lives with companion animals, either at home or hospital, far outweigh the apparently insignificant risks. • Recommendations aimed at limiting the potential risk of infection and guidelines for the safe management of pet therapy are developed.

When teaching children about pets, be certain to address safety issues

Jan 2006
289-292

M Jalongo

Jalongo, M. (2006). When teaching children about pets, be certain to address safety issues. Early Childhood Education Journal, 33(5), 289–292.

Riding and the handicapped. Veterinary Clinic of North America Small Animal Practice

M Biery

Tango as teacher: Literacy learning with love. The Latham Letter

L Friesen

Characteristics of animal-assisted therapy/activity in specialized settings Handbook of animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice

B P Granger
L R Kogan

Conceptual foundations, implementation and impact of the green chimneys nature based programs

Green Chimneys

Equestrian therapy The loving bond: Companion animals in the helping professions

L Mccowan

Pet-oriented child psychotherapy

B Levinson

Welfare considerations in therapy and assistance animals Handbook of animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice

J Serpell

Social interaction and blood pressure: Influence of animal companions

Jan 1983
171-461

E Friedmann
A Katcher
S Thomas
J Lynch
P Messent

Friedmann, E., Katcher, A., Thomas, S., Lynch, J., & Messent, P. (1983). Social interaction and blood pressure: Influence of animal companions. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 171(8), 461–465.

Reading education assistance dogs: A program of the intermountain therapy animals

Mar 2008

Intermountain Therapy Animals. (2008). Reading education assistance dogs: A program of the intermountain therapy animals. Retrieved on January 31, 2009, from http://www.therapyanimals. org/read/article130.html.

Handbook of animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice

Jan 2006
263

B P Granger
L R Kogan
BP Granger

Exploring Animal-Assisted Programs with Children in School and Therapeutic Contexts

Abstract

No full-text available

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