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Assessment and Valuation of the Ecosystem Services Provided by Urban Forests
Abstract
This chapter reviews studies on ecosystem services provided by urban forests, and provides an overall assessment of the status
of the science. Case studies have provided a rich array of specific and objective data to verify in concrete terms many benefits
of urban greenery, some of which were in the past mainly advocated as broad-brush interpretations, assumptions, and postulates.
Particular attention is given to empirical studies of benefits generated by urban forests, including the identification of
ecosystem services, the intrinsic value embodied in such services, and the methods to assess their value. The extensive findings
from assessing ecosystem services should provide a firm basis for proceeding to the next logical step of valuation. Associated
potential applications are also discussed.
... Urban forests play a very significant role in urban ecosystems through providing a variety of important ESs for people, such as carbon storage and carbon sequestration [25,26], air quality improvement [25][26][27], water storage [28], recreation and aesthetic services [29,30], microclimate regulation [30], rainwater retention [30], health and psychological services [25,29,30], biodiversity conservation [30], education and sites for scientific research [30], energy conservation [27], wildlife habitats [30], and noise reduction [23,25,29]. ...
... Urban forests play a very significant role in urban ecosystems through providing a variety of important ESs for people, such as carbon storage and carbon sequestration [25,26], air quality improvement [25][26][27], water storage [28], recreation and aesthetic services [29,30], microclimate regulation [30], rainwater retention [30], health and psychological services [25,29,30], biodiversity conservation [30], education and sites for scientific research [30], energy conservation [27], wildlife habitats [30], and noise reduction [23,25,29]. ...
... Urban forests play a very significant role in urban ecosystems through providing a variety of important ESs for people, such as carbon storage and carbon sequestration [25,26], air quality improvement [25][26][27], water storage [28], recreation and aesthetic services [29,30], microclimate regulation [30], rainwater retention [30], health and psychological services [25,29,30], biodiversity conservation [30], education and sites for scientific research [30], energy conservation [27], wildlife habitats [30], and noise reduction [23,25,29]. ...
This paper aims to investigate the Beijing resident’s preferences over various options of urban forest management strategies. The literature investigation and expert Delphi method were conducted to classify the ecosystem services of urban forests into six categories: (1) fresh water provision, (2) noise reduction, (3) moderation of extreme events, (4) air quality regulation, (5) species diversity and wildlife habitat, and (6) recreation and spiritual experience. To elicit the relative preferences to ecosystem service (hereafter referred to as ES) of Beijing residents, we employed the choice experiment method. The data were collected by interviews with questionnaires conducted in October 2017, and a total of 483 valid questionnaires were analyzed. The subjects of this experiment were residents older than 19 years old who have lived in Beijing for more than 1 year and have visited any one of the urban forests located in Beijing more than once during 2016. The results were as follows: Firstly, the air quality regulation ES was considered as the most important service for Beijing residents in terms of their choices of urban forest. In addition, Beijing residents regarded the fresh water provision ES as the second most important ES. Beijing residents were willing to pay up to 1.84% of the average monthly income of Chinese households annually to expand urban forest ecosystems in order to improve air quality. Secondly, apartment owners were willing to pay more municipality tax for forest ESs than residents who did not own an apartment. Thirdly, residents were more willing to pay for urban forest ESs as their income increases. The results indicated that Beijing residents were willing to pay more tax in support of urban forestry for air quality improvement. This research suggests that urban environmental policy makers in Beijing should pay more attention to the regulation function of forests (especially improving air quality) when designing and managing urban forests.
... Studies in western countries mainly focus on energy savings, which can be caused by urban forest climate regulation effects on annual heating and cooling consumption in low-density residential neighborhoods [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33]. The emphasis is put on shading, air-temperature regulation, and windspeed reducing effects provided by city trees placed near and in the right direction of buildings. ...
... The emphasis is put on shading, air-temperature regulation, and windspeed reducing effects provided by city trees placed near and in the right direction of buildings. Several forest-related indicators such as leaf area index (LAI, defined as the ratio of leaf surface area to the land area of green cover), tree density, potential evapotranspiration rate, albedo, and land surface emissivity are involved in the estimating process [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]. ...
Suburban forest ecosystems have a great influence on local climate, especially for mitigating urban heat island effects and dry island effects. To quantify the climate regulation value of forest ecosystem, and provide a reference for regional ecosystem accounting and scientific land management, a new estimation method based on actual evapotranspiration (AET) is proposed and applied in this work. Based on remote sensing, meteorological, and soil data in the years 2000, 2010, and 2020, the annual AET of the forest ecosystem and its dynamic changes were calculated in the new urban area, Guanshanhu District, Guiyang, Guizhou Province, SW China. The climate regulation value is derived from differences in the annual AET of forest ecosystems relative to impervious surfaces. The results showed that: (1) the area of forest ecosystem in Guanshanhu District increased from 2000 to 2010 as a result of ecological engineering but decreased from 2010 to 2020 due to the establishment and expansion of the new urban area, while the area of the impervious surface increased rapidly; (2) the differences in annual AET of forest ecosystem relative to the impervious surface were calculated and subdivided according to different forest types. In 2000, 2010, and 2020, coniferous forests contributed the most to the annual AET difference, followed by coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forests, broad-leaved forests, shrubs, and other forests, respectively; (3) the total climate regulation value of forest ecosystem showed an increasing trend, on the whole, the estimation results were ¥ 8.78 × 108 in 2000, ¥ 12.62 × 108 in 2010, and ¥ 14.75 × 108 in 2020; (4) The average per unit area climate regulation value of all types of forests in the area, based on electricity price in the year 2000, was ¥ 8.06 × 104/ha in 2000, ¥ 8.11 × 104/ha in 2010, and ¥ 10.58 × 104/ha in 2020, the highest portion of per unit area climate regulation value was of coniferous forest, as ¥ 8.59 × 104/ha in 2000, ¥ 9.28 × 104/ha in 2010, and ¥ 11.05 × 104/ha in 2020. This study is a beneficial exploration of forest ecosystem climate regulation value estimation in Guanshanhu District, and the results can provide references for ecological construction in new urban areas.
... The environmental benefits include offsetting carbon emissions [8], removing air pollutants and reducing noise, absorbing rainwater, regulating the microclimate [9][10][11], and maintaining biodiversity [12][13][14][15]. Other benefits of green space include esthetic, recreational, and relaxation opportunities [16,17], as well as increased property values [18][19][20][21] and protected public health [22,23]. Additionally, current research has shown that urban greenspaces are becoming a good measure for the sustainability of a city [18,24,25], so that the importance of urban greenspaces in an urban ecosystem is being increasingly recognized [24]. ...
... In this context, more attention has recently been paid in most developing countries to urban green space planning for enhancing citizens' quality of life, and greenspace planning should be an integral component of any urban development or remodeling endeavor [25,26]. Urban public greenspace (UPGS) is an important part of the urban greenspace system, and also plays a major role in cities by providing aesthetic and recreational opportunities and improving physical and psychological well-being of citizens [16,[27][28][29][30][31]. ...
Urban greenspace planning plays a crucial role in improving the quality of human settlements and the living standard of citizens. Urban public greenspace (UPGS) is an important part of urban greenspaces. Existing literature rarely includes a scientific evaluation of greenspace plans (including of UPGS) and plan implementation effects. To bridge this gap, this study evaluated and monitored the UPGS plan enacted in 2010 in Kunming, China. Object-based image classification and visual interpretation of satellite images and Google Earth imagery were used to quantify the different periods of UPGS implementation. Six indicators and monitoring at four classic sites were applied to explore the change at two scales (overall scale and district scale) for monitoring the UPGS plan execution. The results showed that UPGS structure greatly improved after plan implementation. However, UPGS provision per capita has not reached the level of greenspace planning and the connectivity was poor. Significant implementation inequalities existed in each district and implementation has lagged behind schedule. This study contributes to a better understanding of greenspace planning and urban planning in general, which can help improve future planning and planning decisions.
... Research indicate that having urban green spaces may largely mitigate social problems in the urban areas and provide an attractive environment to residents, lessen urban heat island effect, act as carbon sink, increase the access to shade, improve water penetration, protect bio-diversity, and eventually improving well-being of people (Ulrich et al., 1991;Zhou and Rana, 2012;Rakhshandehroo et al., 2017). Further, green spaces increase the economic value of spaces, reduces the social gap in the community and ensures socio-environmental sustainability (Chen and Jim, 2008;Zhou and Rana, 2012). Conserving urban green spaces in the city is therefore an important strategy to maintain sustainability (Social, environmental and economic) and it is a major responsibility of municipalities to play a great role in preserving, improving, and maintaining parks in urban areas. ...
... Research shows that the availability of urban green space may largely mitigate social problems in the urban context and provide a beautiful and healthy environment to residents (Ulrich et al., 1991;Zhou and Rana, 2012). Urban green space can bring ecological, social, and economic benefits to people resulting in a better quality of life for people (Smith et al., 2005;Barbosa et al., 2007;Jorgensen et al., 2002;Ulrich et al., 1991;Takano et al., 2002;Jackson, 2003;Givoni, 1991;Heidt and Neef, 2008;Zhou and Rana, 2012;Chen and Jim, 2008). Therefore, it is vital to maintain green spaces in the urban areas. ...
Urban green spaces could bring cities and their inhabitants with vitality in terms of ecological, social, and economic benefits. Recognising and estimation of economic values of parks is important for their sound management and for justification of the current use over various alternative uses. Non recognition of values of the services of such green spaces may lead to unsound management and degradation resulting in depriving urban communities of those benefits. Viharamahadevi Urban Park is the oldest and largest park in Colombo which offers recreation and green space to the inhabitants and visitors of the city. The purpose of this study is to estimate the recreational value of the Park using Individual Travel Cost Method (ITCM). Visitors of Viharamahadevi Urban Park selected using purposive sampling method were interviewed with a structured questionnaire. Data on visitation frequencies, preferences for park characteristics and socio economic parameters were collected using face-to-face interviews. In order to cater for the data issues of the ITCM, a zero truncated negative binomial regression analysis was performed in estimating the demand function. Results indicate that household income and the enjoyment of the visitors significantly and positively determine the number of visits made by the people. The annual social welfare generated from the recreational value of the Viharamahadevi Park is LKR 55.7 billion. The estimated value will be able to provide significant guidance towards future park management decisions.
... Trees, especially large ones, are considered as keystone structures in many ecosystems, including urban areas [38,39]. Abundance and nature of trees plays a major role in determining the structure and composition of faunal assemblages [39][40][41], and providing ecosystem services [42,43] including cultural services and improvement of human health and well being [44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51]. The tree and other vegetations also provide various regulating ser-vices including improving air quality [52], maintaining temperature and humidity [53][54][55], mitigating the urban heat island effect [20,[56][57][58][59][60][61], noise pollution [48,62], and flood risk [63], carbon sequestration [36,64,65], and controlling winds [55,57]. ...
... Abundance and nature of trees plays a major role in determining the structure and composition of faunal assemblages [39][40][41], and providing ecosystem services [42,43] including cultural services and improvement of human health and well being [44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51]. The tree and other vegetations also provide various regulating ser-vices including improving air quality [52], maintaining temperature and humidity [53][54][55], mitigating the urban heat island effect [20,[56][57][58][59][60][61], noise pollution [48,62], and flood risk [63], carbon sequestration [36,64,65], and controlling winds [55,57]. Further, trees helps in reducing the nutrient leaching to groundwater [66] and increasing biodiversity [37] in urban area. ...
Currently, urban environments are the fastest-growing land-use type and are expanding spatially to the sub-urban and the rural area leading to establishing an urban-rural gradient in terms of social, economic, and environmental changes. Trees help in improving the urban environment; however, they are sensitive to urban expansion. Considering these features of trees, there is an increasing demand for information on tree species and spectral diversity as well as their spatial distribution. Therefore, to address such demand and potential ecological problems detailed tree species maps are essential during urban landscape planning and management. This study examined the tree species and spectral diversity along the urban-rural gradient in a rapidly expanding Megacity of Bengaluru, India.
Tree species richness and abundance were recorded in 23 plots established by
FOR 2432 project in a 50 × 5 km transect running from the city center to the rural
surroundings. Crowns of solitary trees were digitized and mean reflectance of each
species (minimum 6 trees per species) was extracted from Blue (B), Green (G),
Yellow (Y), Red (R), Red Edge (RE), Near Infrared 1 (NIR1), and NIR2 bands of
single-date WorldView-3 image and examined for spectral variability between the
species growing along the urban-rural gradient. Tree species diversity decreased
with increasing distance to the city center. While the percentage of exotic species
decreased from 45.99 % in the urban area to 28.32 % in the rural surroundings,
the percentage of native species did not show a clear pattern with the maximum in
the sub-urban area (37.67 %) followed by the rural area (36.05 %) and the urban area
(34.64 %). The tree species were more or less evenly distributed in urban, sub-
urban and rural areas whereas their composition changed significantly between
the urban and the rural areas. The sub-urban and the rural area were found more
similar in terms of tree species diversity and floristic composition. The mean re-
flectance of species changed in the urban, suburban and rural area irrespective of the
spectral bands. Though the tree species did not show clear spectral separability;
NIR1, NIR2, G, R and RE bands showed potentiality for tree species discrimination. The findings of this research give a comprehensive description of tree
species and spectral diversity along the urban-rural gradient, which can be very
important for common citizens, researchers, planners and administrators dealing
with the tree diversity and maintaining greenery in Bengaluru India. They also
add-on the extremely limited information now available on this topic in South
Asia.
... Noise exclusion provides a mostly internal benefit, whereas natural sounds are preserved within the bounds of protected areas by prohibiting development and other forms of noise emission (Votsi, Kallimanis, & Pantis, 2017). Noise abatement, conversely, provides a mostly external benefit, whereas ambient noise is reduced in the surroundings of protected areas (Chen & Jim, 2008). The notable publication of the Buxton et al. (2017) contribution in Science concerning noise pollution in protected areas brought considerable new attention to soundscape conservation within protected areas (see Francis et al., 2017). ...
... Derkzen et al. (2015) conceptualize these ecosystem services as either direct-green spaces absorbing noise and destructing sound waves-or indirect-vegetation reducing wind speeds and soils absorbing noise. The masking of anthropogenic noise with natural sounds in urban areas is another important service of green space-with evidence showing that even narrow vegetation belts can abate noise (Chen & Jim, 2008). ...
... They provide opportunities for residents to stay in touch with nature. They play an important role in reducing pollution levels while also serve as recreational avenues (Chen and Jim 2008). In addition to these, Brunei's National Biological Resources (Biodiversity) Policy and Strategic Plan of Action also recognizes urban forests as useful in mitigating flooding, cycle nutrients, conserve biodiversity and also serve as ecological corridors connecting and green spaces (Biodiversity Research and Innovation Centre, n.d.). ...
Brunei Darussalam boasts one of the highest percentages of forest cover in the world. Local communities have been depending on their ecosystems for various ecosystem services since a long time. This includes the extraction of forest produces, agriculture, minerals and coal during various points on the historical timescale. After the emergence of oil and gas based economy, the pressure on ecosystems reduced. Consequently, Brunei has been successfully able to allocate a large proportion of its land surface area for the conservation of forests. To diversify and move away from the oil and gas based economy, Brunei has developed a new economic blueprint that emphasizes on economic growth that goes hand in hand with ecosystem conservation. The expansion of urban area that fragments the forest cover, loss of local knowledge, forest fires, climate change, pollution and declining yield from the fisheries sector are major challenges faced by the ecosystems today. Negotiating these challenges through culturally appropriate and locally relevant measures would help Brunei reach its goal of an environmentally sound diversified economy comfortably.
... The benefits from UGS can be called "ecosystem services", which are defined as benefits that people can derive directly or indirectly from an ecosystem [5,6]. The ecosystem services from UGS can enhance both the physical and psychological wellbeing of citizens [7]. ...
Faced with the prospect that the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and climate change will be far-reaching and long-term, the international community is showing interest in urban green space (UGS) and urban green infrastructure utilization as a solution. In this study, we investigated how citizens’ perceptions and use of UGS have changed during COVID-19. We also collected their ideas on how UGS can raise its usability. As a result, more people became to realize the importance of UGS. In particular, the urban environmental purification function from UGS was recognized as giving great benefits to respondents. On the other hand, the patterns of UGS use were mixed with decreasing UGS use to maintain social distancing or increasing UGS use to maintain health or substitute other restricted facilities. More than half of respondents had their UGS visit patterns impacted by COVID-19. In particular, the increase rate of UGS use was rather high in the group that seldom used UGS before COVID-19. In addition, they increased the use of UGS to replace other limited facilities, and thus tended to demand an increase in rest facilities. Based on these results, this paper suggested securing social support and sustainability for the policy by reflecting users’ demand in landscape planning related to the increase of UGS in the city. This study can contribute to improving the resilience of UGS and the sustainability of urban space planning.
... Urban forests are a crucial part of green infrastructure, which is planned sustainably using the framework for a multifunctional urban environment. Urban parks, woods, marshes, rivers, and other natural areas have a significant impact on urban ecosystem services, the urban environment, the fight against climate change, and ecological balance [93]. This cluster of terms included phrases such as "air pollution", "quality", and "heat island" because these ecosystem services improve environmental quality, human well-being, and sustainable urban development. ...
Urban areas are human–environmental systems that rely heavily on ecosystems for long-term sustainability, and ecosystems and their components are essential to city life. Previous reviews have drawn a range of conclusions relevant to the future analysis and implementation of ecological and facility assessments. Overall, however, there is still a need to develop more systematic methods to comprehensively assess and evaluate urban ecosystem services (UES) in a temporal dimension for use in both historical monitoring studies and prospective research. Using CiteSpace, this study assessed the history and current state of UES research from multiple angles, as well as identified research structures and emerging trends in this field. The main findings are as follows: (i) The study of UES can be divided into three distinct but interconnected stages: preparation, rise, and prosperity. There are substantial prospects for UES research to develop worldwide collaborative networks, since it is increasingly expanding from domains focused on ecological or environmental science to those that draw from a wider range of disciplines. (ii) UES has evolved slowly from large-scale research to more focused, smaller-scale studies. Research on the subject of UES focuses primarily on two primary areas: land-use change and the development of green infrastructure. (iii) Sustainability in cities is currently a hot issue, and an important area of this study is the role that urban ecosystem services plays in ensuring residents' health and happiness.
... These areas should be marked out and should create an organic network of mutual relations, penetrating built-up areas (Sandström 2002). It is this local network of connections that has the greatest impact on the quality of inhabitation in the city, climate improvement (Chen, Jim 2008, Liu, Li 2012, Hesslerová et al. 2022, natural biodiversity (Kattwinkel et al. 2012) and spatial structure of the city (Kotus 2006). ...
The greenery and water structure, in the form of wedges cutting into the city, is a characteristic and unique element of Poznań’s urban model. Already before the Second World War, it became the matrix setting the framework for spatial and natural connections within and around the city. These areas were originally clearly demarcated and formed an organic network that permeated the built-up areas. It was this local network of linkages that was to have the greatest impact on the quality of urban living, climate improvement, biodiversity and the functional and spatial structure of the city. In the idea of the socialist city, ensuring access to green spaces for the masses, was one of the essential policy elements of the time. However, over time, in the various models of the city proposed by successive planners, these interconnections began to disappear and the individual bands were narrowed and sometimes discontinued altogether. This study aims to verify the urban planning models of the city of Poznań against the original idea of a wedge-ring system of greenery and water areas, before and after the political transformation in 1989. How does this original structure function today and how have the socio-economic changes that followed the fall of communism affect the greenery and water solutions proposed in the new city model? A comparative analysis of changes in green and water structure in the different spatial models of the city of Poznań, before and after the political transformation, makes it possible to observe the pace and directions of these changes. The analysis was based on the findings of the then-current master plans and on the studies of spatial development conditions and directions, which are an expression of the city’s spatial policy. It can be used to verify the assumptions made or even to change the current model of the city.
... Forestland also plays essential roles in lowering the surface temperature, collecting dust, minimizing wind, fixing soil fixation, beautifying the area, and greening cities [49]. Forestland is thought to play a large part in maintaining the stability of the urban environment; hence, its resistance value is 75, ranking second. ...
The acceleration of urbanization has significantly impacted the changing regional thermal environment, leading to a series of ecological and environment-related problems. A scientific evaluation of the urban thermal security pattern (TSPurban) strongly benefits the planning and layout of sustainable development and the construction of comfortable human settlements. To analyze the characteristics of the TSPurban under cross-regional differences and provide targeted solutions to mitigate the urban heat island effect in later stages, the logical system research framework of the TSPurban based on the “construction–evaluation–optimization” model was explored using reverse thinking. This study selected the Wuhan metropolitan area in China as the research object. First, a morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA) model was used to extract the top 30 core heat island patches, and Conefor 2.6 software was used for connection analysis to evaluate their importance. Second, based on the characteristics of various land cover types, the friction (cost) map of surface urban heat island (SUHI) diffusion was simulated. The spatial attributes of the heat island resistance surface were examined using a standard deviation ellipse and hot spot analysis. Finally, this paper used circuit theory to find 56 low-cost heat island links (corridors) and circuit scape software to find widely distributed vital nodes. The optimization of the TSPurban network was then investigated using a reverse thinking process. Heat island patches, corridors, and vital nodes are among the crucial components of the TSPurban. By obstructing corridor links and disturbing important nodes, it is possible to appropriately and proficiently reduce the TSPurban network’s connection efficiency and stability, which will have a positive influence on regional climate mitigation and the heat island effect.
... Other environmental benefits include improving air quality, mitigating noise, and limiting urban heat island effects (Sicard et al., 2018). Moreover, Chen and Jim (2008) stated that urban green space also acts as a second classroom for children as it helps in the development of imagination and a sense of diversity. Additionally, it also serves as a good site for scientific studies of vegetation, animal science, and ecology (Zhou & Rana, 2012). ...
Urban green spaces provide important recreational, social, and ecological benefits in urban settings. Understanding of the use and benefits associated with green spaces amongst urban residents is crucial in developing appropriate urban green infrastructure strategies. This study explored visitors' levels of satisfaction with the benefits, characteristics, and determined factors influencing visitor satisfaction with urban green spaces. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey from a random sample of 125 visitors from three urban green spaces in the capital city of Bhutan, Thimphu. Visitors' satisfaction with urban parks was assessed based on their quality, social, and environmental benefits. Descriptive statistics and an ordered logistic-regression model were used to analyze the data. Results indicate that visitors were satisfied with quality as well as the social and ecological benefits of green spaces. Results also revealed that factors significantly influencing visitor satisfaction included educational level, frequency of visit, day visit, distance from home, quality of the urban park, social benefits, and ecological benefits. Overall, the study stresses the importance of optimizing green infrastructure planning in order to promote social and environmental well-being in the face of the growing populations in urban areas.
... 2013) . In developing countries there are still situations where aspects related to green space are skipped or marginalized in the process of spatial planning (Luttik 2000;Tajima 2003) . 1 The positive effect of green space in urbanized areas comprises its influence on biodiversity, air quality, reduction of noise nuisance intensity, stabilization of the urban climate and reduction of temperature in urban heat islands (Chen and Jim 2008;Chiesura 2004;Gill et al . 2007;Kattwinkel, Biedermann, and Kleyer 2011;Liu and Li 2012;Schwarz, Bauer, and Haase 2011) . ...
The influence of public green space on the value of real estate has been proven many times in different publications. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate which factors, in Poznań inhabitants’ opinions, influenced the real estate value and if residents of individual parts of the city noticed the influence of public green space on the value of their real estate. From April to July 2015 we conducted preliminary research on asking prices of residences in Poznań (n = 480 ). We conducted quantitative analysis (n = 366 ) for a questionnaire survey. The most expensive residences in Poznań are located in the sector with the greatest amount of public green space. However, in spite of the fact that there had been proven differences in the prices of residences, only a slight majority of respondents (54%) saw the influence of green space on these prices. In our study the respondents indicated that the choice of residences was mostly influenced by the price and living space area. Only 1 out of more than 12 respondents found access to public green space to be important for making a decision about the choice of residences. Green space in Poznań is poorly used as a tool increasing the attractiveness of public space in the city and the city inhabitants are too rarely aware of the fact that it influences real estate value.
... The community or social benefits of urban trees have received significantly less attention than environmental benefits, especially regarding the amount of empirical research conducted (Dobbs et al., 2017). Tree cover provides both physical and psychological health benefits in cities (Ulmer et al., 2016;Van den Bosch, 2017), is associated with an increase in property values (Donovan & Butry, 2010;Sander et al., 2010), and provides recreational benefits (Chen & Jim, 2008). Qualitative benefits include connections to place, nature, and neighborhoods (Fisher et al., 2011;Foster, 2018;Jones & Cloke, 2002;Pearce et al., 2015). ...
Many cities are working to increase greenspace and tree canopy to improve residents’ quality of life. However, from an environmental justice perspective, it is important to ask where greenspace is increased and whose quality of life is improved. This research investigates the environmental justice implications of urban tree canopy distribution and change in Philadelphia. Specifically, we conduct three distinct, yet interrelated analyses: (1) an evaluation of the environmental justice implications of Philadelphia’s 2018 tree canopy distribution, (2) a description of tree canopy change in the city between 2008 and 2018, and (3) an assessment of the environmental justice implications of tree canopy change during this period. Thus, our study expands upon previous urban forest environmental justice research by evaluating the environmental justice implications of current tree canopy distribution and temporal changes in tree canopy coverage. We found that neighborhoods in Philadelphia with higher proportions of racialized minorities had lower levels of tree canopy coverage in 2018 and were less likely to gain tree canopy between 2008 and 2018. We argue that cities should use past changes in urban tree canopy, along with an understanding of the current distribution, to make future cities more green and just.
... Trees and shrubs, which support a number of urban ecosystem services, have a direct effect on the economic value of greenery (Seth 2003;Nowak and Dwyer 2007;Chen and Jim 2008). Failure to consider the multiple benefits provided by trees and shrubs to the functioning of cities and to their inhabitants may result in underinvestment in urban greenery Koeser et al. 2016;Donovan 2017). ...
Key message
Comprehensive management of urban greenery is a key approach to control fungal diseases of trees and shrubs to avoid the deterioration in their health status.
Abstract
Preliminary investigations on the health status related to fungal diseases of trees and shrubs growing in four green squares in Warsaw were conducted in 2017–2019. The examined plants were affected by diseases that are commonly identified in urban greenery, e.g., powdery mildew (causal agents: Sawadaea tulasnei , S. bicornis , Podosphaera leucotricha , Podosphaera sp., Erysiphe alphitoides , E. magnifica , E. berberidis , E. flexuosa and E. adunca ), rusts ( Gymnosporangium sabinae , Melampsora laricis-populina ), apple scab ( Venturia inaequalis ), tar spot of maple ( Rhytisma acerinum ), and oyster mushroom ( Pleurotus ostreatus ). The causal agents of the diseases were identified based on their morphological (macro- and microscopic) features. Preventing and managing fungal plant diseases and reduction of their effects are the key tasks in conscious management of urban greenery. To address this issue, the study presents basic guidelines based on the application of various recommended actions and good practices, which constitute a comprehensive and sustainable strategy for integrated protection of trees and shrubs against these diseases. The implementation of the strategy for complex management of urban greenery is a crucial measure aimed at maintenance of a high health status of urban plants.
... Recently many studies that endeavour to work out the fiscal worth of the ecosystem services provided by plant life have paid their attention on both native and deliberately cultured landscapes floral communities (Bolund et al., 1999;Chen et al., 2008;Tyrväinen et al., 2005). Now the ecologists approach to understand that an assessable level of ecological functionality can be accomplished by a sophisticated collection of species (Hobbs et al., 2009;Pickett et al., 2008). ...
Iqbal et al.: Parasitic activity of powdery mildew (Pathogen strain HMLAC226) on prostrate knotweed (Polygonum aviculare L.) at various locations of Shenyang, Northeast China-13383-APPLIED ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 17(6):13383-13394. Abstract. Prostrate knotweed (Polygonum aviculare L.) is a persistent native weed of China. This weed is characterized by high genetic and biological plasticity having a capacity to spread on a landscape scale. The present study planned to investigate the infection of a plant parasitic powdery mildew on P. aviculare on a landscape scale in three different locations of Shenyang during 2018. These locations were selected with a control treatment for proper comparison. Different growth parameters were observed and calculated by coefficient of determination (R²). Maximum temperature (Maxt) ranged 25-30 °C and Minimum temperature (Mint) between 17-20 °C with relative humidity 64-78% played a vital role for the emergence and flourishing of pathogen pressure on the plant. The elevated value of R² = 0.97 for Mint with RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) < 5 recorded excellent prediction followed by R² = 0.82 with RMSE < 5-10 for Maxt recorded very good model prediction. Highly significant (P < 0.001) height of Polygonum aviculare was recorded (23.125 ± 0.59) in parasite free plants compared to (20.99 ± 0.96) location-I having Mean ± SD. Both temperature ranges has a significant effect (P < 0.0001) with (F = 5.917; P < 0.0001; F = 25.721; P < 0.0001) three locations; however, the effect of the locations on plants height (P. aviculare) did not differ statistically (F = 2.102; P > 0.05) between two temperature ranges from 25-30 °C and 17-20 °C. According to our findings, plant parasitic powdery mildew (pathogen strain HMLAC226) affected significantly with growth characteristics of prostrate knotweed.
... For example, the analysis of the environmental effects of Beijing's meteorological data from 1994 to 2003 shows that the Beijing urban heat island effect has a gradual increase from 1994 to 2003, but this trend is in Since the strengthening of urban greening in 1999, it has eased. These cooling effects on the environment can reduce urban residents' demand for air-conditioning, thereby reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions [7]. When encountering extreme rainfall, urban forests can also help alleviate the destructiveness of urban floods through interception and stagnation. ...
... The urban forest provides convenience for its surroundings, including the ecosystem balance through its bio-ecological function. Moreover, the vegetation cover of 11% and 33% reduces the carbon emissions up to 3.8% and 3.9% because it can absorb the gas particulate through its leaf [6], [7]. However, those functions will work optimally depends on the environment, weather, vegetation type, and health. ...
Universitas Indonesia (UI) Urban Forest is located in the middle of an urban area. Vegetation analysis is one way to define the vegetation health to reach the urban forest sustainability. On the other hand, the vegetation analysis in UI Urban Forest was done thirteen years ago and needed to be updated. Moreover, there has not been vegetation analysis yet of UI Urban Forest using remote sensing combining the microclimate also biodiversity. This research method combines remote sensing and primary data collection. It classify the Landsat 8 (OLI) to the NDVI as the unit analysis (low, medium, high). Primary data collection started by random stratified sampling with a sampling intensity of 0.77% (18 plots), where in each plot, the temperature-humidity was measured, and the vegetation and bird were identified. As a result, the map of temperature and humidity was produced, and it correlates to the vegetation cover where the vegetation is high, the temperature is low, and the humidity is high. On the other hand, the vegetation structure and composition were analyzed. In conclusion, there is a significant difference between the NDVI vegetation class to the UI Urban Forest microclimate and its biodiversity (vegetations and birds).
... The benefits provided by urban forests are predominantly witnessed in energy savings through canopy shading of impervious surfaces and temperature regulation via evapotranspiration (Lee et al., 2018). However, other benefits include aesthetic appeal, increased property values (McPherson et al., 2007), windbreaks and noise reduction, (Chen and Jim, 2008), storm water interception (Berland and Hopton, 2014), carbon sequestration (Raciti et al., 2014), and pollution mitigation (Scholz et al., 2018). ...
Mature urban tree canopy cover disrupts the local effects of urban heat islands and provides important ecosystem services such as energy savings through evaporation and shading, pollution removal, storm runoff control, and carbon sequestration. Sustainable urban tree canopy relies on the planting of juvenile trees. Typically, tree planting programs are only evaluated by the number of trees planted and there is a lack of analysis of juvenile trees post-planting. This study examines the value and distribution of energy savings provided by juvenile trees and how that value changes considering predicted tree growth and mortality by 2050. Using i-Tree Eco software, this study models the current and future ecosystem services provided to residents based on a juvenile tree inventory of 2,271 street and residential trees planted in Massachusetts (USA) from 2014-2015 by the Greening the Gateway Cities Program (GGCP) in Chicopee and Fall River, MA. Juvenile trees planted by the GGCP provided $776 and $1,520 (2018) in annual savings from ecosystem service in Chicopee and Fall River while services modeled to mature tree 2050 conditions show increased total annual savings of $2,911 and $5,840 in Chicopee and Fall River (2050). The mean total savings per tree per household were $0.77 in 2018 and $13.60 in 2050, with the majority from cooling energy savings in the summer. Services were maximized in neighborhoods where large numbers of trees were planted or when tree planting location (distance and orientation to the house) was optimized for highest savings. Analysis of the distribution of benefits reveals different planting strategies in Chicopee and Fall River. Ecosystem services from juvenile trees are concentrated in US Census block groups with more pre-existing tree canopy cover and lower median income. A tree planting density of two to three trees per acre was able to achieve the largest energy savings. Results of this study reinforce the importance of tree survivorship on sustaining the urban tree canopy to provide ecosystem services.
... This causes a decrease in the provision of regulating services but an increase of recreational services, which are respectively related to the fulfillment and the limitations of natural ecological functions. In other words, UGI can contribute substantially to the SD of cities through the provision of ES and avoid disservices [2][3][4][5]. ...
Urban green infrastructure (UGI) can alleviate many of the problems that the growing urban population is facing. This study performed a literature review about UGI and sustainable development (SD) using the Web of Science (WoS) and the software VOSviewer. Of 195 papers selected, 89 are qualitative, focusing on theoretical approaches and design; equally, 89 are quantitative, dealing with metrics and spatial analysis and 17 combined both approaches. A high connectivity between “green infrastructure”, “ecosystem services”, “urban planning” and “sustainable development” was observed. Only 39 of the documents embrace environmental, social and economic aspects. Most of the papers are related to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11, “to make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable” and SDG 15, “protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems”. Further research integrating the three pillars of sustainability and relating UGI to all the SDGs is recommended.
... Vegetation creates an aesthetically pleasing landscape by creating various colors, shapes, and textures ( Fig.12.4). Besides, vegetation is sometimes utilized as a screen and plays a significant role in blocking undesirable views, channeling people's sight toward pleasant scenes, and furnishing a natural frame for scenery (Chen and Jim 2008). These characteristics of flora can be affected by O3 pollution (Yang et al. 2016). ...
Anthropogenic activities trigger the emission of a wide array of pollutants in the atmosphere, including the secondary pollutant tropospheric ozone (O3), a damaging phytotoxicant. However, the ecosystem's responses to O3 will feedback directly or indirectly on the meteorology and atmospheric composition, global productivity, different ecosystem services, and global biodiversity. Here we tried to review the influence of past, future, and current trends of O3 concentration on various ecological services and related processes that are interlinked in nature. Experimental studies exhibit the negative impacts of O3 on plant growth, reproductive structures, primary productivity, timber production, water economy, species composition, nutrient cycling, below-ground processes, carbon sequestration, pollination, aesthetic values, and human health. Such processes are categorized into four major ecosystem services: supporting, provisioning, regulating, and cultural. This chapter marks the compilation of these processes based on information related to the ecological system's services. It thereby highlights the potential overall implications of O3 on such services and biodiversity. It shows the necessity for adopting a multi-sectoral approach to decision- and policymaking systems related to air pollutants for humanity's future well-being.
... Vegetation creates an aesthetically pleasing landscape by creating various colors, shapes, and textures ( Fig.12.4). Besides, vegetation is sometimes utilized as a screen and plays a significant role in blocking undesirable views, channeling people's sight toward pleasant scenes, and furnishing a natural frame for scenery (Chen and Jim 2008). These characteristics of flora can be affected by O3 pollution . ...
Tropospheric ozone (O3) is the third most important greenhouse gas that is transported from the stratosphere or formed locally by photochemical reactions among precursors such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN). The lifetime of tropospheric O3 is long enough, i.e. a few days in the boundary layer to a few months in the free troposphere, allowing its (and its precursors) long–range transport from regional to hemispheric scale through trans–Atlantic, trans–Pacific, and trans–Eurasian transport. Therefore, remote areas such as the Arctic region can be affected. The current annual mean background O3 concentrations at surface–layer are 35–50 ppb in North Hemisphere and 15–25 ppb in South Hemisphere. At regional and local scales, the O3 production depends on the VOCs/NOx ratio. Since the 1990s, anthropogenic O3 precursor emissions decreased in North America and Europe, while eastern Asian emissions have increased. Therefore, both mean and peak O3 concentrations decreased in North America and Europe and increased in East Asia. The reduction in O3 mean concentrations and higher percentiles is associated with reductions in NOx and VOCs emissions in the EU and North America since the 1990s. The increase in lower concentrations and percentiles can be attributed to a reduction in local NOx emissions, due to e.g. vehicle emission controls, resulting in lower O3 titration by NO. Generally, the global background O3 increase can be driven by the net impacts of climate change, i.e. increase in stratospheric O3 inputs, higher CH4 emissions, changing lightning NOx emissions, weakened NO titration and impacting reaction rates, through sea surface temperatures and relative humidity changes. (note: the final abstract might slightly differ due to copy editing)
... For this purpose, several scientific publications underline the need for a "more ecological perspective" of UF stakeholders and the focus to establish "more sustainable and biologically rich urban forests" (Alvey, 2006, p. 200). The aspired ecosystem functions and services can only be harvested if the overall ecosystem created is diverse, healthy, and has sufficient space for its natural development (Chen & Jim, 2008;Dobbs, Escobedo, & Zipperer, 2011). The nature-oriented ecosystem is in addition selfregulating and more resilient than pure artificial ones (Szigeti, Czupy, & Vagvölgyi, 2019). ...
Increasing the number of trees and green spaces within cities are often-cited solutions to issues regarding urban space and global crises. Approaches referred to as Urban Forestry were found to represent promising practices in this matter. However, the disparity among understandings of this topic and the lack of a tangible, applicable concept hinder their comprehensive implementation.
The present research was conducted to facilitate the promotion and application of Urban Forestry into local practice by creating an overview of relevant actions and conditions. For this purpose, definitions of concepts related to Urban Forestry were combined to propose one coherent terminology. The further compiling of related initiatives from cities in Europe, North America, and Australia enabled the identification of 93 tasks guiding practitioners towards successful practice. Findings from scientific literature provided indications on complementary requirements as well as possible constraints and solutions. Finally, the results of this good practice review were used to investigate the ongoing Urban Forestry initiative in the city Niort in France. The consultation of concerned practitioners and related documents led to the exposure of current barriers and needs, as well as given potential which may condition their further advancement.
The research revealed that the lack of a reliable long-term strategy, inefficient working structures, and missing communication can be significant obstacles for the conversion of Urban Forestry actions into actual practice. If conceived as innovative approach, a guideline may help to overcome these barriers and harness the given local potential. For this purpose, possibilities must be discovered to establish efficient connections, ensure coherence, and foster dynamic learning. The final goal should rather be the creation of a framework which enables the reorganization of current structures and practices than the introduction of a supplementary document.
... Rapid urbanization and booming population number caused problems like reduced ecosystem's capacity for providing ecosystem services and biodiversity (Milinium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005;Wu et al., 2011;Weng, 2012;McDonald et al., 2013;He et al., 2014;Bai et al., 2016), the increment of urban heat stress (Kweon et al., 1998;Chen and Jim, 2008;Lafortezza et al., 2009;Lee and Maheswaran, 2011;Nutsford et al., 2013;Krzyzanowski et al., 2014;Grêt-Regamey et al., 2013;Musango et al., 2017), noise pollution (Gidlöf-Gunnarsson and Öhrström, 2007), loss of spaces promoting public mental and physical health (Grahn and Stigsdotter, 2010;Hedblom et al., 2019), and poor air quality that caused acute diseases (Lovasi et al., 2008;Shah et al., 2011). ...
Urban green space (UGS) is part of urban land covered with vegetation which has an immense benefit for sustainable urban development. The main objective of this study was urban green space supply analysis and evaluation for Debre Berhan town, Ethiopia. To realize this objective, we generated UGSs information by using normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) which was calculated from Sentinel 2 satellite image. Then, the result of NDVI calculation was classified as small vegetation and high vegetation with over all accuracy of 87.29% and kappa value of 0.808. According to the result, there are 15.85% and 1.55% supply of urban green space for small and high vegetation respectively. In addition, the UGS supply in inner and outer part of the town for each land use was quantified. The result showed that in the inner part of the town, service, green area, and vacant land uses have 30.12%, 30.06%, and 13.32% of UGS supply respectively. Conversely, recreation, commercial, and administration land uses are least supplied with 0.11%, 0.26%, and 0.40% share of UGS. Furthermore, the UGS supply was evaluated against the new urban planning strategy of Ethiopia (30% coverage) and World Health Organization standard (9m ² per person). The coverage of small vegetation and high vegetation was 15.85% and 1.55% respectively. The UGS per capita for small vegetation was about 75.16m ² while the value for high vegetation was 7.33m ² . The results of our analysis can be used as an input for urban planning and master plan revision.
... UGS is an important component of urban ecosystems, and its degradation disrupts the structure and process of urban ecosystems and affects urban sustainability. Increasing attention has been paid to the ecosystem service of UGS, including the improvement of microclimate regulation [7], mitigation of urban heat island effects [8], urban pollution controlling [9], providing aesthetic enjoyment and entertainment opportunities and maintaining wellbeing physically and psychologically [10]. ...
Urbanization has led to the continuous expansion of built-up areas and the ever-growing urban population, threatening the quantity and quality of urban green space (UGS). Exploring the spatiotemporal variations of UGS is substantially conducive to the formulation of land-use policies to protect the ecosystems. As one of the largest megacities all around the world, Shanghai has experienced rapid urbanization in the past three decades. Insights into how UGS changes in response to urbanization and greening policies are essential for guiding sustainable urban development. This paper employed integrated approaches to characterize the changing patterns and intensities of green space in Shanghai, China from 1990 to 2015. The spatiotemporal dynamics of the UGS pattern were derived through four main methods: green space ratio, dynamic change degree (DCD), transition matrix and landscape metrics. The results showed that Shanghai’s green space decreased from 84.8% in 1990 to 61.9% in 2015 while the built-up areas increased from 15.0% to 36.5%. Among the green space sub-types, farmland was largely encroached and fragmented by urban sprawl, especially in the Outer Ring Expressway and Suburban Ring Expressway belts of the city. About 1522 km2 of the green space has transferred into built-up areas, followed by farmland, waterbody, forest, and grassland in descending order. The 2000–2010 period witnessed the strong urban expansion and dramatic changes in UGS, but then the change around 2015 turned down and stable. The landscape pattern metrics showed that the entire green space in Shanghai was growingly fragmented and isolated during the past 25 years. Combined with the green space-related planning and policies issued in 1990–2015, the results revealed that both rapid urbanization and greening policies accounted for the spatiotemporal dynamics of UGS. Based on the results, some implicants to new urban planning and policies of Shanghai were highlighted.
... Trees are a traditional component of urban spaces, mostly planted for ornamental purposes or for their shade. The multi-faceted role of urban trees is now well recognized since they provide ecosystem services critical to urban citizen wellbeing: green places for leisure, noise reduction, climate mitigation, air and water purification, energy savings, habitats for biodiversity, and carbon sequestration [14][15][16]. In tropical regions, urban trees also contribute to diets [17,18]. ...
Trees are a traditional component of urban spaces where they provide ecosystem services critical to urban wellbeing. In the Tropics, urban trees' seed origins have rarely been characterized. Yet, understanding the social dynamics linked to tree planting is critical given their influence on the distribution of associated genetic diversity. This study examines elements of these dynamics (seed exchange networks) in an emblematic indigenous fruit tree species from Central Africa, the African plum tree (Dacryodes edulis, Burseraceae), within the urban context of Yaoundé. We further evaluate the consequences of these social dynamics on the distribution of the genetic diversity of the species in the city. Urban trees were planted predominantly using seeds sourced from outside the city, resulting in a level of genetic diversity as high in Yaoundé as in a whole region of production of the species. Debating the different drivers that foster the genetic diversity in planted urban trees, the study argues that cities and urban dwellers can unconsciously act as effective guardians of indigenous tree genetic diversity.
... Trees are a traditional component of urban spaces, mostly planted for ornamental purposes or for their shade. The multi-faceted role of urban trees is now well recognized since they provide ecosystem services critical to urban citizen wellbeing: green places for leisure, noise reduction, climate mitigation, air and water purification, energy savings, habitats for biodiversity, and carbon sequestration [14][15][16]. In tropical regions, urban trees also contribute to diets [17,18]. ...
Trees are a traditional component of urban spaces where they provide ecosystem services critical to urban wellbeing. In the Tropics, urban trees' seed origins have rarely been characterized. Yet, understanding the social dynamics linked to tree planting is critical given their influence on the distribution of associated genetic diversity. This study examines elements of these dynamics (seed exchange networks) in an emblematic indigenous fruit tree species from Central Africa, the African plum tree (Dacryodes edulis, Burseraceae), within the urban context of Yaoundé. We further evaluate the consequences of these social dynamics on the distribution of the genetic diversity of the species in the city. Urban trees were planted predominantly using seeds sourced from outside the city, resulting in a level of genetic diversity as high in Yaoundé as in a whole region of production of the species. Debating the different drivers that foster the genetic diversity in planted urban trees, the study argues that cities and urban dwellers can unconsciously act as effective guardians of indigenous tree genetic diversity.
... These wetlands help to improve the environmental condition of an urban area by supplying several environmental benefits such as offsetting carbon emission 114 , air pollutants reduction 115 , regulation of microclimate 116 , amenities and recreation 117 . These ultimately help to maintain sustainable urban development [118][119][120][121] . ...
The loss of peri-urban wetlands is a major side effect of urbanization in India in recent days. Timely and proper assessment of wetland area change is essential for the conservation of wetlands. This study follows the integrated way of the peri-urban wetland degradation assessment in the case of medium and small-size urban agglomerations with a special focus on Chatra Wetland. Analysis of land-use and land cover (LULC) maps of the past 28 years shows a decrease of 60% area of the wetland including marshy land. This has reduced the ecosystem services value by about 71.90% over the period 1991–2018. From this end, The Land Change Modeler of IDRISI TerrSet using the combination of MLPNN and Markov Chain has been used to predict the LULC map of this region. The scenario-based modeling following the LULC conversion and nine explanatory variables suggests the complete loss of this wetland by 2045. However, the authors have also tried to present a future LULC pattern of this region based on an environmental perspective. This proposed map suggests possible areas for built-up expansion on the western side of the city without significantly affecting the environment.
... According to the Landscape Institute (2009), the crucial feature of GI projects is that they promote the interaction between the quality of natural elements and environmental, social, and economic performance. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in special GI projects, which in general aim to deliver an extensive range of eco-facilities including water purification, climate mitigation, air superiority, special zones for recreation, improved energy use efficiency, noise reduction, and aesthetic improvement, Chen and Jim (2008), Dunnett and Kingsbury (2008). These projects aim also at improving the environmental conditions, and people's health and quality of life, as well as enhancing the green economy and creating job opportunities, Mell et al. (2016). ...
A complex Green Infrastructure (GI) plan has been recently put into operation in the city of Drama located in the northeastern part of Greece, aiming at the upgrading of the environmental, bioclimatic, and economic conditions of the city downtown area. Within the project, a governance network has been established to promote active social participation and increase the project’s social acceptability. This work presents the preliminary results of the first of a series of social surveys carried out within the governance network’s function to explore the attitudes of the entrepreneurs of the area, who are expected to be heavily affected by the GI plan. A total of 117 responses were collected using a questionnaire and joint dimension reduction, and clustering of the data was conducted to identify the main factors comprising the entrepreneurs’ attitudes patterns toward the GI plan. These factors involve the perceived negative impacts during the project implementation phase, the potential usefulness of the GI infrastructure, and the perceived benefits after the project completion. Three groups of entrepreneurs were identified in terms of their attitudes toward the GI plan: (a) negative to change, (b) utilitarians, and (c) positive to change. Each group was profiled according to its sociodemographic characteristics.
... According to the Landscape Institute [1] , the GI projects promote the interaction between the quality of natural elements and environmental, social and economic performance, aiming at improving peoples' health and quality of life, as well as creating job opportunities through green economy initiatives. In this context, the GI projects usually include ecologically oriented facilities, which are designed to provide diverse services, such as water purification, clean air, climate change mitigation, improved recreation opportunities, energy use efficiency, noise reduction and aesthetic improvement [2][3][4][5][6] . ...
A complex Green Infrastructure (GI) plan has been designed for the city of Drama, which is located in northeastern Greece. This plan is being implemented since 2018 and it is expected to be completed in the succeeding three years. The Drama city GI plan aims to upgrade and enhance the bioclimatic, environmental and socioeconomic conditions of the downtown area of the city, by inducing drastic changes in the city landscape environment. Due to the project complexity and its long implementation time, the everyday life in the city GI intervention area has been upset and several stakeholder groups are being directly affected. To contribute to the GI plan implementation success, a governance network was put into operation in order to improve the GI plan social acceptability by promoting active social participation. This paper presents the results of a survey carried out through the governance network's operation with the aim to explore the attitudes towards the GI plan of the residents of the GI plan intervention area, who are among the stakeholder groups that are being directly affected. We used purposive sampling in a way that the participants were deliberately chosen because they were residents in the intervention area of the GI plan. A total of 129 responses were collected through face-to-face interviews on site based on a specifically designed questionnaire, just before the inception of the GI project works. Subsequently, Principal Component Analysis and clustering methods were used to analyze the data collected. Three groups of residents according to three distinct attitude patterns towards acceptance of the GI plan were revealed through the analysis: a) the utilitarians, who appeared particularly interested in the perceived usefulness of the infrastructure constructions, b) the negative to change, who focused on the perceived negative impacts of the GI plan during the implementation phase and c) the positive to change, who placed more emphasis on the perceived positive impacts of the GI plan after its completion. Each group was profiled according to socio-demographic characteristics. The results of the current research are intended to be used in combination with follow-up surveys to monitor potential changes in the residents' social acceptability of the Drama city GI plan. Furthermore, the empirical results of this study could be useful for the planning agencies in other places where GI plans are to be implemented and stakeholders' involvement is sought.
... Level 1 classification includes Non-woody Vegetation divided into Level 2, Grassland, Cropland, and Urban Grassland; Level 1, Woody Vegetation, divided into Level 2 Tree and Shrub; Level 1, Impervious, Water and Bare Soil (Sanborn, 2014). Urban forests include urban forest cover, forest health and ecosystem services benefits contributing to local climate and energy use, air quality, climate change, water flow and soil quality, land value, and individual and community well-being (Chen & Jim, 2007;Nowak et al., 2010). ...
CITYgreen Geographic Information Systems software was used to develop a campus wide cover type map for Stephen F. Austin State University in an environmental science landscape ecology course. The finding indicated an equal division of forest cover type compared to impervious surface of buildings and paved surface. Once the classification was completed, students chose an area for reforestation identified in CITYgreen, while raising funds for the purchase of trees for the project. Before completing the project, students reviewed tenets of landscape ecology, civic ecology education, and benefits of urban forestry. At the completion of the project, students reviewed service-learning aspects of campus beautification reflecting on making a difference, working outdoors, and using high end technology to complete a real-world environmental project incorporating partnerships and teamwork. The outcome demonstrates the benefits of applying ecological planning to complete an environmental project based on a perceived need within a campus setting.
... The PM concentration in Korea is usually expressed as the same concentration according to the area where the national atmospheric monitoring station is installed. However, the actual PM values vary, and they change in accordance with the existence of the urban green areas [1,2]. Thus, citizens want to know information about the PM concentration under the forest canopy at hiking time. ...
The utilization of urban green areas has increased, but it is unclear whether urban green areas can decrease the concentration of particulate matter at an industrial complex city in Korea. We measured the extent of particulate matter (PM) reduction at a buffer green area in the Sihwa Industrial Complex. PM was measured at the industrial complex, the urban green area, and a nearby residential area from April to October 2019. PM reduction rates were highest at the urban green area in August and October, which is related to increased atmospheric mixing height and the active west wind blowing from the industrial complex to the residential area. Reduction rates of PM10 and PM2.5 at the urban green area showed the lowest values, namely 14.4% and 25.3%, respectively. The air temperature, wind speed, and humidity could affect the PM reduction rate by influencing the movement and dispersion of PM at the micro-spatiotemporal scale. These results indicated that PM concentration could be reduced by the structural change of a forest layer at a micro scale in urban green areas.
... The ecological functions and services of urban forests have been investigated extensively in recent decades [7][8][9][10][11]. Benefits include the ability of trees to reduce greenhouse gases through carbon storage [12][13][14], decrease stormwater runoff through interception and absorption of rainwater [15], and mitigate the urban heat island effect through reductions in surface and air temperatures at a local scale [16,17]. ...
The urban forest is a green infrastructure system that delivers multiple environmental, economic, social and health services, and functions in cities. Environmental benefits of urban trees are well understood, but no review to date has examined how urban trees affect human health. This review provides a comprehensive summary of existing literature on the health impacts of urban trees that can inform future research, policy, and nature-based public health interventions. A systematic search used keywords representing human health, environmental health, and urban forestry. Following screening and appraisal of several thousand articles, 201 studies were conceptually sorted into a three-part framework. Reducing Harm, representing 41% of studies, includes topics such as air pollution, ultraviolet radiation, heat exposure, and pollen. Restoring Capacities, at 31%, includes attention restoration, mental health, stress reduction, and clinical outcomes. Building Capacities, at 28%, includes topics such as birth outcomes, active living, and weight status. The studies that were reviewed show substantial heterogeneity in purpose and method yet indicate important health outcomes associated with people’s exposure to trees. This review will help inform future research and practice, and demonstrates why urban forest planning and management should strategically promote trees as a social determinant of public health.
... Urban wetlands/peri-urban wetlands generate diverse and large number of critical provisioning, regulating, and cultural ecosystem services like offsetting carbon emission (Melton et al., 2013), reducing air pollutants (Nakayama, 2017) regulating the microclimate (Dixon et al., 2016), recreation and amenity (Carpenter and Bennett, 2011). Collectively, they contribute to improving environmental quality and quality of life which promotes sustainable urban development (Miller, 1997;Jensen et al., 2000;Li et al., 2003;Chen and Jim, 2008). The international agencies and foundations have recognized the importance of urban wetlands/peri-urban wetlands to achieve Sustainable Development Goals. ...
Application of importance-performance analysis (IPA) has received wide applicability to reveal resident’s satisfaction with the performance of ecological services. In recent days, researchers have expanded the horizon of IPA through the implication of this technique in case of different ecosystem services to find out the satisfaction of local people with ecosystem services. However, a little contribution has been made in the field of wetland study through IPA. This study has tried to apply IPA in this field by taking into consideration of 10 common ecosystem services. The study unit is Chatra Wetland, which is a peri-urban wetland of the English Bazar city. Analysis of LULC of the past 18 years suggests that the net area of Chatra Wetland got reduced by >50 percent during this time. Besides this, decreasing the value of LPI, PLAND, cohesion, and CONTAG represents the fragmentation of the landscape of Chatra Wetland. The predicted LULC shows that this wetland will disappear by 2040 if the LULC conversion rate remains the same. In this regard, IPA is performed to understand the satisfaction level of the citizen of English Bazar city and the people of surrounding villages with the performance of Chatra Wetland. The output of IPA reveals that people are dissatisfied with the performance of five ecosystem services. These are biodiversity, flood control, water supply, identity, and cooling effect. All of them require the urgent need of attention to restoring the ecological condition in the study area. Overall, the performance rate of Chatra Wetland at present is perceived by the urban people as only 55.14 percent. However, the rate of perceived performance varies ward-wise and village-wise. It is observed that place attachment and proximity to Wetland have made a vital role in the perception of people. The perceived performance of Chatra Wetland is increasing gradually with increasing distance from the Chatra Wetland. The output of this study helps to reveal the importance of this wetland to the urban people as well as to the local villagers by identifying their satisfaction level and their enjoyment with the urban blue space. It also serves as a basis of the bottom-up approach of environmental management to the decision-makers by displaying the demand of people in case of ecological restoration.
... Forests, as an important part of urban ecosystems, contribute greatly to environmental improvement and biodiversity protection, including absorbing carbon dioxide and air pollutants, relieving the urban heat island effect, and providing habitat conservation (Bowler, Buyung-Ali, Knight, & Pullin, 2010;Chen, Jim, Carreiro, Song, & Wu, 2008;Estoque, Murayama, & Myint, 2017;Hall, Skakun, Arsenault, & Case, 2006). However, rapid urban expansion is producing disturbances globally by changing forest cover and its connectivity (Hernando, Vel� azquez, Valbuena, Legrand, & García-Abril, 2017), such as by encroachment on local vegetation (Gong, Yu, Joesting, & Chen, 2013;Mckinney, 2002) and the division of unbroken forests into small and isolated fragments (Lord & Norton, 1990). ...
... Sustainability 2020, 12, 1630 2 of 16 specific planning goals or expectations [16,23]. Furthermore, many studies focus on the different ecofunctions of various vegetation communities within the urban area [24][25][26][27][28][29], while there are few studies that analyze variations in types and functions of urban green spaces at finer scales [1,22,30]. Urban green spaces are divided into several types, reflecting the different needs that these spaces meet, which could further affect the different ecosystem services provision. ...
Urban green spaces play a crucial role in maintaining urban ecosystem sustainability by providing numerous ecosystem services. How to quantify and evaluate the ecological benefits and services of urban green spaces remains a hot topic currently, while the evaluation is barely applied or implemented in urban design and planning. In this study, super-high-resolution aerial images were used to acquire the spatial distribution of urban green spaces; a modified pre-stratified random sampling method was applied to obtain the vegetation information of the four types of urban green spaces in Luohe, a common plain city in China; and i-Tree Eco model was further used to assess the vegetation structure and various ecosystem services including air quality improvement, rainfall interception, carbon storage, and sequestration provided by four types of urban green spaces. The modeling results reveal that there were about 1,006,251 trees in this area. In 2013, all the trees in these green spaces could store about 54,329 t of carbon, sequester about 4973 t of gross carbon, remove 92 t of air pollutants, and avoid 122,637 m³ of runoff. The study illustrates an innovative method to reveal different types of urban green spaces with distinct ecosystem service productivity capacity to better understand their various roles in regulating the urban environment. The results could be used to assist urban planners and policymakers to optimize urban green space structure and composition to maximize ecosystem services provision.
... The forest cultures of northern Europe, in the Baltic countries and Fennoscandia are rather similar, in that the forest is a significant element of everyday life, is important in national economies, and is a major element of the landscape (Matilainen et al., 2019Tyrväinen et al., 2006Bell, 2008). In this respect, the recreational and aesthetic benefits of urban forests -into which the urban areas have encroached over time -are also traditionally important in this region (Gunnarsson and Øhrstroom, 2007;Chen and Jim, 2008). This is different from central Europe, where land conversion processes have been profound. ...
Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI) serves both inhabitants’ and visitors’ numerous and various needs. This research aimed to enhance knowledge regarding the role of UGI in urban tourism. The research questions addressed tourists’ perceptions of UGI, their understanding and uses of UGI, and the ways that this understanding influenced their travel choice to specific urban destinations. A cross-cultural comparative study among urban tourists was carried out in eight European countries. The selection of case studies followed a roughly comparative logic, employing the same on-site questionnaire survey administered in a sample of large and medium size cities in Southern European, Central European and Northern European countries. Looking from the perspective of the tourists’ countries of origin, our findings validate a well-established trend in international tourism, namely the fact that neighbouring countries tend to be the most significant tourist markets of an urban destination. The other major finding confirmed the most well-known tourist movement patterns of Northern and Central Europeans travelling to the Mediterranean for tourism purposes. While the study revealed that the majority of the tourists interviewed were not very familiar with the term ‘Green Infrastructure’, nor with specific UGI features offered in the visited cities, the importance of UGI was acknowledged and viewed in a mostly very positive light. The majority of respondents enjoyed visiting UGI and used it for some light physical activity or for purposes of relaxation, socialization, and in order to explore the culture and society of the destination city. The fact that most UGI in the case study cities is located around or within a short distance from important heritage sites provided UGI with an indirect possibility of being included in the tourists’ visiting plans. In conclusion, the results of this study may prove to be very helpful to local and regional authorities in considering how to plan, manage and promote an urban tourism destination’s green infrastructure as part of the tourism offer.
... Recently many studies that endeavour to work out the fiscal worth of the ecosystem services provided by plant life have paid their attention on both native and deliberately cultured landscapes floral communities (Bolund et al., 1999;Chen et al., 2008;Tyrväinen et al., 2005). Now the ecologists approach to understand that an assessable level of ecological functionality can be accomplished by a sophisticated collection of species (Hobbs et al., 2009;Pickett et al., 2008). ...
Abstract. Prostrate knotweed (Polygonum aviculare L.) is a persistent native weed of China. This weed is characterized by high genetic and biological plasticity having a capacity to spread on a landscape scale. The present study planned to investigate the infection of a plant parasitic powdery mildew on P. aviculare on a landscape scale in three different locations of Shenyang during 2018. These locations were selected with a control treatment for proper comparison. Different growth parameters were observed and calculated by coefficient of determination (R²). Maximum temperature (Maxt) ranged 25-30 °C and Minimum temperature (Mint) between 17-20 °C with relative humidity 64-78% played a vital role for the emergence and flourishing of pathogen pressure on the plant. The elevated value of R² = 0.97 for Mint with RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) < 5 recorded excellent prediction followed by R² = 0.82 with RMSE < 5-10 for Maxt recorded very good model prediction. Highly significant (P < 0.001) height of Polygonum aviculare was recorded (23.125 ± 0.59) in parasite free plants compared to (20.99 ± 0.96) location-I having Mean ± SD. Both temperature ranges has a significant effect (P < 0.0001) with (F = 5.917; P < 0.0001; F = 25.721; P < 0.0001) three locations; however, the effect of the locations on plants height (P. aviculare) did not differ statistically (F = 2.102; P > 0.05) between two temperature ranges from 25-30 °C and 17-20 °C. According to our findings, plant parasitic powdery mildew (pathogen strain HMLAC226) affected significantly with growth characteristics of prostrate knotweed.
... By 2050, 80% of the world population is expected to live in cities (Cohen, 2003). Supplying future communities with an adequate level of natural ecosystem exposure thus represents a challenging issue (Chen and Jim, 2008;Klemm et al., 2015). In the framework of urban environmental policies, the green infrastructure, such as parks and street greeneries established in cities all around the world, are key elements that mitigate, for example, urban noise and air pollution, and improve urban biodiversity (Costanza and Folke, 1997;Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999;Thaiutsa et al., 2008;Seamans, 2013). ...
Street greeneries and other green spaces within the urban matrix can potentially reduce air pollution and increase urban biodiversity. Yet, these services can be negatively affected by anthropogenic stress factors. In the boreo-nemoral zone, large amounts of salts are spread each year for deicing the pavement. To address the effect of deicing salt on street lines of lime trees and how this cascades up to influence the surrounding arthropod biodiversity, we compared heavily salt-polluted, and less polluted sites in the city of Riga, Latvia. We analyzed the impairment of foliar functions and development of aphid colonies using a common garden experiment. We found marked variation in the soil physico-chemical properties in polluted vs. unpolluted sites, and the overall composition of arthropod communities, considering their abundance together with their diversity, significantly responded to site contamination. In a common garden experiment, we also showed that the exposure to increased salt levels in the soil caused functional as well as structural injuries within foliage and slowed down the development of aphid colonies. Finally, the damage inflicted by the lime tree aphids, especially in unpolluted sites, was positively correlated to the production of mucilage in the leaves, suggesting herbivore-induced mucilage production in leaves. The effects of de-icing salts thus appeared to cascade up through the trophic chain and to negatively affect not only the trees but also the associated arthropod biota. These findings point at the necessity of a wider screening of plant species and cultivars that not only better tolerate anthropogenic stress but also promote the biodiversity in cities.
... As a final remark, we would like to emphasize that the results of this study should not be interpreted from a negative perspective, but as information to take into account when making the net balance of ES provided by the elements of urban forest [98]. Many of the cities that participated in this study have an important historical and cultural past, which has survived to this day in the form of historic parks and gardens [99]; while other cities have experienced important urban transformations, in which the greening process has changed the urban landscape to a great extent [100]. ...
The impact of allergens emitted by urban green spaces on health is one of the main disservices of ecosystems. The objective of this work is to establish the potential allergenic value of some tree species in urban environments, so that the allergenicity of green spaces can be estimated through application of the Index of Urban Green Zones Allergenicity (IUGZA). Multiple types of green spaces in Mediterranean cities were selected for the estimation of IUGZ. The results show that some of the ornamental species native to the Mediterranean are among the main causative agents of allergy in the population; in particular, Oleaceae, Cupressaceae, Fagaceae, and Platanus hispanica. Variables of the strongest impact on IUGZA were the bioclimatic characteristics of the territory and design aspects, such as the density of trees and the number of species. We concluded that the methodology to assess the allergenicity associated with urban trees and urban areas presented in this work opens new perspectives in the design and planning of urban green spaces, pointing out the need to consider the potential allergenicity of a species when selecting plant material to be used in cities. Only then can urban green areas be inclusive spaces, in terms of public health.
L'augmentation du nombre d'arbres et d'espaces verts dans les villes est une solution souvent citée aux problèmes liés à l'espace urbain et aux crises mondiales. Les approches regroupées sous le terme de foresterie urbaine se sont avérées être des pratiques prometteuses à ce propos. Toutefois, la disparité entre les conceptions de ce sujet et l'absence d'un concept tangible et applicable entravent leur mise en œuvre complète.
La présente recherche a été menée pour faciliter la promotion et l'application de la foresterie urbaine dans la pratique locale en créant une vue d'ensemble des actions et conditions pertinentes. À cette fin, les définitions des concepts liés à la foresterie urbaine ont été combinées pour proposer une terminologie cohérente. La synthèse des initiatives associées des villes d'Europe, d'Amérique du Nord et d'Australie a permis d'identifier 93 tâches pour guider les praticiens vers une pratique réussie. Les résultats de la littérature scientifique ont fourni des indications sur les exigences complémentaires ainsi que sur les contraintes et les solutions possibles. Enfin, les résultats de cette revue des bonnes pratiques ont été utilisés pour étudier l'initiative de foresterie urbaine en cours à la Ville de Niort en France. La consultation des praticiens concernés et des documents correspondants a permis de mettre en évidence les obstacles et les besoins actuels, ainsi que les possibilités qui pourraient conditionner leur avancement.
La recherche a révélé que le manque d'une stratégie solide à long terme, l'inefficacité des structures de travail et le manque de communication peuvent être des obstacles importants à la conversion des actions de foresterie urbaine en pratique réelle. Si elle est conçue comme une approche innovante, une ligne directrice peut aider à surmonter ces obstacles et à exploiter le potentiel local donné. À cette fin, il est indispensable de découvrir les possibilités d'établir des interconnexions efficaces, d'assurer la cohérence et de favoriser un apprentissage dynamique. L'objectif final devrait plutôt être la création d'un cadre permettant la réorganisation des structures et pratiques actuelles que l'introduction d'un document supplémentaire.
Trees are integral components of the urban environment and smart city missions to accelerate the aesthetic and ecological values of urban life. Directly or indirectly trees provide numerous benefits and ameliorate the living quality of urban residents. Trees absorb CO 2 , release O 2 , filter air pollutants, reduce urban heat island, reduce noise and improve water infiltration to ground and reduce runoff, besides the direct ecosystem services, food security, environmental security, and health security. Although trees are vital for urban sustainability, there are increasing incidences of tree vandalism worldwide, and therefore trees are unable to contribute their services and become victims of vandalisation. This chapter highlights the benefits of urban trees, and incidences of tree vandalism in cities, identifying criteria for tree vandalism. Study shows that urban tree vandalism is mostly in trees neighbouring individual houses and properties across trees, followed in trees having higher utility. Based on the reviewed literature, the top five criteria have been identified each for three broad categories, and suggest some solutions to reduce tree vandalism. If the urban planner and government authority choose ‘right trees in right location’, with other initiatives like adopting a tree, memory tree, awareness campaign, and reward to informers, etc., the cases of vandalism can be minimised and urban trees can contribute sustainably to several decades with changing climate in future.
Urban green spaces are a crucial component in regards to the quality of life, ecosystem balance and recreational services of populations, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. This study aimed to explore spatial patterns of accessibility to public parks on a neighbourhood scale in the Sohar Wilayat, Oman. Utilising GIS techniques and landscape metrics, we investigated the spatial variations of green patches relevant to other land use types predominantly residential buildings in each local area. The entropy index, the landscape shape index (LSI) and the area-weighted mean shape index (AWMSI) were calculated to analyse landscape spatial patterns of urban green spaces across the study area. The results of this study indicated that the large numbers of green space patches in the majority of neighbourhoods were associated with large population size. In measuring spatial accessibility to public parks, the central neighbourhoods were characterised by low scores and long distances from green spaces, while neighbourhoods in the south and north showed short distances and high scores for residents’ accessibility to the nearest park. High rates of fragmentation and irregular shapes, particularly within marginal and inner neighbourhoods, can be attributed to rapid urbanisation and sprawl, which has extensively transformed urban green spaces and vacant land into dwellings. Our findings suggest that a spatial quantification and identification of green space distribution patterns and the accessibility of public parks could provide decision-makers and municipality planners with invaluable guidelines for allocating green parks and recreational amenities equitably and efficiently to urban residents.
The expression of nature and ecology in cities is adaptive, as planners and managers address multiple urbanization challenges and pursue multiple goals. Human health and wellness are benefits of nearby nature experiences, elevating the importance of natural areas and urban ecology for health promotion. Engineered and gray infrastructure systems can address the sanitary needs of residents such as hygiene and disease prevention. More recent innovations that integrate built and natural systems for green infrastructure provide necessary services by relying more on ecological functions. While addressing practical needs, the reintroduction of nature in cities can also be planned to offer places that reduce human stress, provide solace, and promote community—the civic sacred. Sacred spaces are often socially constructed. They may be distinctive natural features that are culturally revered outdoor spaces, or are sites created and consecrated as secular memorials, or places that take on meaning through community engagement. The health benefits of such spaces extend from individuals to entire communities, and positive experiences can lead to place attachment and environmental stewardship commitments. Local government policies, programs, and research are needed to better understand and implement sacred spaces in cities, including attention to equity to assure that all residents have access.
Urban parks provide a great variety of environmental, social and economic benefits. The value of these benefits is elusive and oftentimes studies overlook it. In a search for urban park economic valuation-related papers in databases and search engines, an explanatory analysis of the overall characteristics of the economic valuation models applicable to urban parks could not be found. The objective of this work is to perform such an endeavor. By conducting an explanatory-descriptive research, through a longitudinal study, 120 publications in the English and Spanish languages, corresponding to a period of 57 years (1963-2020) were analyzed. Publications were categorized in hedonic price model, travel cost model, and contingent value. For each of these three schemes the subcategories primary theory, secondary theory, opinion, review and case study were also considered. The aim was to analyze and understand the context and circumstances in which they were conducted, and to evaluate their relevance, strengths, and weaknesses. This approach led to realize what models are still in use and how they are adopted. The hedonic pricing model using the semi-logarithmic regression format is the most widely used for valuation, mainly in the United States and Europe. In can be concluded that the economic valuation of urban parks is a subject of global interest due to its contribution to attain sustainability in the urban realm.
Creating or restoring habitat is a well-established approach to improve pollinator populations. Rural and exurban properties might constitute a straightforward opportunity to convert land to native plants that are beneficial to pollinators given that, in Ohio, these parcels typically contain substantial lawn cover. The purpose of this study is to gauge the public’s acceptance of planting native plants on low-density rural properties. Out of 7557 properties in Butler County, Ohio (U.S.A.), that had at least ¼ acre lawn, were between 1 and 20 acres, and had a dwelling, 200 were randomly selected to receive a survey; half via the drop-off pick-up method and half via mail (for a combined 58% response rate). Pollinator beneficial plants of differing appearance, management, and pollinator service were shown in the questionnaire: Echinacea purpurea, Monarda fistulosa, Asclepias syriaca, and wildflower prairie (multiple species). Respondents were significantly less likely to be willing to plant Asclepias syriaca compared to the other plants shown. If all respondents planted what they said they would consider planting in the more accepted plants, these potentially new plantings would cover 5.4% of the 146.2 km2 devoted to these rural and exurban parcels in the county. However, that proportion decreases to 1% if we only take into account those that said they would make those changes within the year. We discuss what we see as challenges and opportunities to increase pollinator plantings on exurban properties and small working farms in the Midwest. We also describe implications for voluntary habitat restoration on these private lands.
Urban vegetation can regulate ecological balance, reduce the influence of urban heat islands, and improve human beings’ mental state. Accordingly, classification of urban vegetation types plays a significant role in urban vegetation research. This paper presents various window sizes of completed local binary pattern (CLBP) texture features classifying urban vegetation based on high spatial-resolution WorldView-2 images in areas of Shanghai (China) and Lianyungang (Jiangsu province, China). To demonstrate the stability and universality of different CLBP window textures, two study areas were selected. Using spectral information alone and spectral information combined with texture information, imagery is classified using random forest (RF) method based on vegetation type, showing that use of spectral information with CLBP window textures can achieve 7.28% greater accuracy than use of only spectral information for urban vegetation type classification, with accuracy greater for single vegetation types than for mixed ones. Optimal window sizes of CLBP textures for grass, shrub, arbor, shrub-grass, arbor-grass, and arbor-shrub-grass are 3 × 3, 3 × 3, 11 × 11, 9 × 9, 9 × 9, 7 × 7 for urban vegetation type classification. Furthermore, optimal CLBP window size is determined by the roughness of vegetation texture.
Trees are a traditional component of urban spaces where they provide ecosystem services critical to urban wellbeing. In the Tropics, urban trees’ seed origins have rarely been characterized. Yet, understanding the social dynamics linked to tree planting is critical given their influence on the distribution of associated genetic diversity. This study examines elements of these dynamics (seed exchange networks) in an emblematic indigenous fruit tree species from Central Africa, the African plum tree (Dacryodes edulis, Burseraceae), within the urban context of Yaoundé. We further evaluate the consequences of these social dynamics on the distribution of the genetic diversity of the species in the city. Urban trees were planted predominantly using seeds sourced from outside the city, resulting in a level of genetic diversity as high in Yaoundé as in a whole region of production of the species. Debating the different drivers that foster the genetic diversity in planted urban trees, the study argued that cities and urban dwellers can unconsciously act as effective guardians of indigenous tree genetic diversity.
Atmospheric particulate matter (PM)pollution is becoming a growing global problem with the rapid process of urbanization. Urban green space (UGS)can effectively alleviate PM; however, few studies have investigated the effects of the UGS morphological pattern on PM, especially from a spatial strategy perspective. This study probed the contribution and strength of UGS on variation of PM 2.5 concentration based on morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA). Three relative indicators (range, duration, and rate)were used to represent PM 2.5 changes, and seven MSPA classes (core, islet, perforation, edge, loop, bridge, and branch)were performed to measure UGS morphological patterns. Stepwise regression analysis was used to build the PM 2.5 estimation models and partial correlation analysis was used to further analyze how well different MSPA classes influence PM 2.5 . Results showed that MSPA classes and meteorological factors combined can explain more of PM 2.5 increase variance at a high PM 2.5 level, and 40.7–81.4% for PM 2.5 reduction variance, and meteorological factors contributed more to PM 2.5 increase and reduction. Higher proportions of the core and bridge were conducive to restrict the growth and promote the reduction of PM 2.5 concentration, however, a higher proportion of perforation, islet, and edge showed opposite results. The effects of loop and branch were complex. In addition, higher air temperature and lower relative humidity were effective in reducing PM 2.5 . Wind speed, also a significant factor, had an unstable influence. The study results may provide important insights and effective spatial strategies for urban managers to mitigate PM 2.5 .
As urban forestry continues to evolve as a profession, foresters and arborists can expect many challenges as well as opportunities. The continuing development of cities has become linked to a much greater emphasis on urban vegetation, the growing demand for recreation amenities within the urban environment, and the careful and successful management of vegetation in an urban ecosystem. New ways to incorporate the highly versatile urban forest resource into the urban fabric will undoubtedly benefit the lives of its residents.
In recent decades, concerns have arisen about the proper valuation of the world’s forests. While some of these concerns have to do with market distortions for timber products or inadequate data on non-timber forest products, an additional challenge is to uncover the economic worth of nonmarket services provided by forest ecosystems (Kramer et al. 1997). This has led to a growing number of publications addressing the valuation of forest ecosystem services, on topics such as carbon sequestration and endangered species habitat. In this chapter, we focus on the contingent valuation method (CVM) to assess the structure, health, and extent of forest ecosystems.1
Urban vegetation can directly and indirectly affect local and regional air quality by altering the urban atmospheric environment. Trees affect local air temperature by transpiring water through their leaves, by blocking solar radiation (tree shade), which reduces radiation absorption and heat storage by various anthropogenic surfaces (e. g., buildings, roads), and by altering wind characteristics that affect air dispersion. During the summertime, trees predominantly reduce local air temperatures, but may increase within- and below-canopy air temperature due to reduced turbulent exchange with above-canopy air (Heisler et al., 1995). Reduced air temperature due to trees can improve air quality because the emission of many pollutants and/or precursor chemicals are temperature dependent. Decreased air temperature can also reduce ozone (O3) formation (Cardelino and Chameides, 1990).
Urban land in the United States currently occupies about 69 million acres with an estimated average crown cover of 28% and an estimated tree biomass of about 27 tons/acre. This structure suggests that the current total urban forest carbon storage in the United States is approximately 800 million tons with an estimated annual net carbon storage of around 6.5 million tons. Besides directly storing carbon, urban trees also reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by cooling ambient air and allowing residents to minimize annual heating and cooling. A method is provided for organizations to calculate the number of trees necessary to offset the CO2 emissions associated with the energy used in their office buildings. Tables are also provided to show how many trees an American could steward or plant to offset his or her per capita carbon emissions (2.3 tons/year). -from Authors
Understanding the value of an urban forest can give decision makers a better foundation for urban tree management. Based on tree-valuation methods of the Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers and field data from eight cities, total compensatory value of tree populations in U.S. cities ranges from $101 million in Jersey City, New Jersey, to $5.2 billion in New York, New York. Compensatory values represent compensation to owners for the loss of an individual tree and can be viewed as the value of the tree as a structural asset. Based on national urban forest tree cover data, the total compensatory value for the urban forests of the 48 adjacent United States is estimated at $2.4 trillion.
Organisation of the Book. ....
The papers brought together in this volume occupy various points on a continuum. For presentation purposes it is useful to identify three points of reference: (1) the conception of valuation exercises (what does it do, or try to do, what should it try to do?); (2) the tool box of methods, empirical enquiry procedures and analytical procedures that might be implemented; (3) the situations or socio–institutional contexts in which valuation practices may be envisaged.
• Early papers, chapters 2 to 5 of the book, explore valuation issues essentially at conceptual and methodological levels. The primary concern is with establishing a view about the nature of the problem/process of environmental valuation. What is valuation seeking to do as a measurement and decision support practice? Inevitably this means addressing the question as to what are the important social as well as ecological features of the situations being addressed, so scientific measurement and socio–institutional context issues interact — they cannot be maintained as isolated methodological compartments.
• Papers in the middle of the book, chapters 6 to 10 are primarily empirical in character, being attempts at discovering, eliciting or appraising or resolving conflicts over environmental values. They are state–of–the–art examples, in quite diverse contexts, that grapple with the real dilemmae of quantification and interpretation of multidimensional realities.
• Papers towards the end, chapters 11 to 16, represent a return to methodological themes, where the emphasis is on the formulation of evaluation practices that are adequate for particular sorts of environmental problems and institutional (policy, decisionmaking) contexts.
This division is, of course, a bit artificial. The various methodological discussions are supported by empirical illustrations, and the empirical studies are themselves the sites for methodological reflection (in some cases after the fact, in other cases intentionally). The selection as a whole represents, thus, a good spectrum — principally of European origins — of contemporary thinking and environmental valuation practice.
A dry deposition model was employed to estimate air pollutant uptake by Sacramento's urban forest. Assuming 1990 air pollutant concentrations, model simulations estimated that approximately 1,457 metric tons of air pollutant are absorbed annually, at an implied value of US$28.7 million. The growing season daily uptake for ozone was approximately 2.4 metric tons per day, while particulate matter (< 10 μ diameter, PM10) uptake was slightly greater, at 2.7 metric tons per day. Daily uptake of NO2 and particulate matter represented 1% to 2% of anthropogenic emissions for the county. Estimated growing-season annual air pollutant uptake rates averaged 10.9 kg/(ha land area per yr) for the entire study area, 13.9 kg/(ha land area per yr) for urban areas and 4.2 kg/(ha land area per yr) for rural areas. Pollutant uptake rates decreased with decreasing tree canopy cover, along an urban-to-rural gradient.
A one-dimensional mass and energy balance model was developed to simulate rainfall interception in Sacramento County, California. The model describes tree interception processes: gross precipitation, leaf drip, stem flow, and evaporation. Kriging was used to extend existing meteorological point data over the region. Regional land use/land cover and tree canopy cover were parameterized with data obtained by remote sensing and ground sampling. Annual interception was 1.1% for the entire county and 11.1% of precipitation falling on the urban forest canopy. Summer interception at the urban forest canopy level was 36% for an urban forest stand dominated by large, broadleaf evergreens and conifers (leaf area index = 6.1) and 18% for a stand dominated by medium-sized conifers and broadleaf deciduous trees (leaf area index = 3.7). For 5 precipitation events with return frequencies ranging from 2 to 200 years, interception was greatest for small storms and least for large storms. Because small storms are responsible for most pollutant washout, urban forests are likely to produce greater benefits through water quality protection than through flood control.
Based on field data from 10 USA cities and national urban tree cover data, it is estimated that urban trees in the coterminous USA currently store 700 million tonnes of carbon ($14,300 million value) with a gross carbon sequestration rate of 22.8 million tC/yr ($460 million/year). Carbon storage within cities ranges from 1.2 million tC in New York, NY, to 19,300 tC in Jersey City, NJ. Regions with the greatest proportion of urban land are the Northeast (8.5%) and the southeast (7.1%). Urban forests in the north central, northeast, south central and southeast regions of the USA store and sequester the most carbon, with average carbon storage per hectare greatest in southeast, north central, northeast and Pacific northwest regions, respectively. The national average urban forest carbon storage density is 25.1 tC/ha, compared with 53.5 tC/ha in forest stands. These data can be used to help assess the actual and potential role of urban forests in reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse gas.
The law locks up the man or woman, who steals the goose from the common. But the greater villain the law lets loose, who steals the common from the goose." —Anonymous (17th Century) In Our Own Backyard Conserving Urban Wildlife M By Lowell W. Adams ake no mistake, urbanization has a tre-mendous effect on wildlife. With our con-tinuing demand for more houses, more roads, more energy, and our advanced technologies and sophisticated machines for meeting those demands, humans place ever greater pressure on the habitats of other living creatures. The magnitude of these actions has increased in recent hu-man history, but the process of habitat al-teration, and its effect on wildlife, has been recognized for a long time, as the lines quoted above reflect. Knowingly or unknowingly, we are all responsible to some degree for "stealing the common from the goose." Although our knowledge of wildlife communities in urban areas is still incomplete, some pat-terns are emerging. We know that the ur-ban development process fragments the natural landscape. In so doing, it destroys habitat required for many species, modi-fies the habitat of some, and creates new habitat for others. Natural vegetation de-stroyed in the development process gener-ally affects species classified as habitat spe-cialists most severely. For example, birds like flycatchers, vireos, and many of the woodland warblers require substantial tracts of woodland. They cannot live in downtown centers, open habitats consist-ing of lawns and shrubs, or even the scat-tered trees of most suburban areas. As development intensifies, the num-ber of native species declines and exotic species increase in the community. Modi-fied habitat and newly created habitat in the wake of urbanization are most attrac-tive to species called habitat generalists— those capable of using a wider range of
The 3-year Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project examined how trees affect these components of the regional urban ecosystem. The region`s tree cover has increased from a presettlement level of about 13 percent to nearly 20 percent today. There are an estimated 50.8 million trees in the region; 66 percent in good or excellent condition. The trees tend to be small; 77 percent less than 15 cm d.b.h. Street trees are only 10 percent of the city`s trees, but 24 percent of leaf surface area because they are typically larger than off-street trees. During 1991, the region`s trees removed an estimated 6,145 tons of air pollutants, providing air cleansing worth $9.2 million. Each year they sequester an estimated 315,800 metric tons of carbon and provide residential heating and cooling energy savings that, in turn, reduce carbon emissions from power plants by 12,600 tons annually. Increasing tree cover 10 percent or planting about three trees per building lot is estimated to save annual heating and cooling costs by $50 to $90 per dwelling unit once the trees mature. The net present value of services trees provide is estimated as $38 million, or $402 per planted tree. The present value of long-term benefits are more than twice the present value of costs.
This paper summarizes our efforts to calculate the potential annual energy savings, peak power avoidance and annual CO2 reduction from heat island reduction (HIR) measures (i.e., shade trees, reflective roofs, reflective pavements and urban vegetation) in three cities: Baton Rouge, Sacramento and Salt Lake City. We focused on three building types that offer most savings potential: single-family residence, office and retail store; and characterized each by old or new construction and with a gas furnace or electric heat pump. We simulated the impact of HIR measures on building cooling and heating energy use and peak power demand using the DOE-2.1E model. Our simulations included the impact of (1) strategically-placed shade trees near buildings, (2) use of high-albedo roofing material on building, (3) combined measures 1 and 2, (4) cooling of ambient air resulting from implementation of HIR measures, and (5) combined measures 1, 2 and 4. The results show that in Baton Rouge potential annual energy savings of $15M could be realized by rate-payers from the implementation of HIR measures, additionally, peak power avoidance is estimated at 133 MW and the reduction in annual carbon at 41 kt. In Sacramento the potential benefits are estimated at $26M, 486 MW and 92 kt, and in Salt Lake City, $4M, 85 MW and 20 kt.
Attention Restoration Theory suggests that contact with nature supports attentional functioning, and a number of studies have found contact with everyday nature to be related to attention in adults. Is contact with everyday nature also related to the attentional functioning of children? This question was addressed through a study focusing on children with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). This study examined the relationship between children’s nature exposure through leisure activities and their attentional functioning using both within and between-subjects comparisons. Parents were surveyed regarding their child’s attentional functioning after activities in several settings. Results indicate that children function better than usual after activities in green settings and that the “greener” a child’s play area, the less severe his or her attention deficit symptoms. Thus, contact with nature may support attentional functioning in a population of children who desperately need attentional support.
Although vegetation has been positively linked to fear of crime and crime in a number of settings, recent findings in urban residential areas have hinted at a possible negative relationship: Residents living in "greener" surroundings report lower levels of fear, fewer incivilities, and less aggressive and violent behavior. This study used police crime reports to examine the relationship between vegetation and crime in an inner-city neighborhood. Crime rates for 98 apartment buildings with varying levels of nearby vegetation were compared. Results indicate that although residents were randomly assigned to different levels of nearby vegetation, the greener a building's surroundings were, the fewer crimes reported. Furthermore, this pattern held for both property crimes and violent crimes. The relationship of vegetation to crime held after the number of apartments per building, building height, vacancy rate, and number of occupied units per building were accounted for.
Since 1950 the population of the world has more than doubled, and the proportion of people living in cities has increased by a factor of four. In the year 2000 nearly half of the world's population will live in urban areas. Air pollution has always been one of the major nuisances of urban living, but in recent decades the sources of pollution have changed in importance in most of the industrialised world. Earlier they were dominated by individual heating systems, industry and local power plants; now they are mainly related to traffic. Concurrent with this development, the composition of the pollution has changed; it is now dominated by nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and small particles arising from diesel exhaust.
Urban Air Pollution - European Aspects was initiated within the European Community COST-Citair programme, in which many of the authors participated. The book presents an up-to-date account of the situation with special reference to European cities. The structure of the book follows by and large the logical chain of events in air pollution, from sources, through dispersion and deposition, to impacts, with additional chapters on experimental or computational techniques and regulatory aspects. The target group is university students at graduate level, but the book should also be useful for technical experts in international, governmental and municipal institutions as well as in private consulting companies and non-governmental organizations.
In order to understand the effect of urban development on the functioning of forest ecosystems, during the past decade we have been studying red oak stands located on similar soil along an urban-rural gradient running from New York City ro rural Litchfield County, Connecticut. This paper summarizes the results of this work. Field measurements, controlled laboratory experiments, and reciprocal transplants documented soil pollution, soil hydrophobicity, litter decomposition rates, total soil carbon, potential nitrogen mineralization, nitrification, fungal biomass, and earthworm populations in forests along the 140 × 20 km study transect. The results revealed a complex urban-rural environmental gradient. The urban forests exhibit unique ecosystem structure and function in relation to the suburban and rural forest stands these are likely linked to stresses of the urban environment such as air pollution, which has also resulted in elevated levels of heavy metals in the soil, the positive effects of the heat island phenomenon, and the presence of earthworms. The data suggest a working model to guide mechanistic work on the ecology of forests along urban-to-rural gradients, and for comparison of different metropolitan areas.
Rationality is a complex behavioral theory that can be parsed into statements about preferences, perceptions, and process. This paper looks at the evidence on rationality that is provided by behavioral experiments, and argues that most cognitive anomalies operate through errors in perception that arise from the way information is stored, retrieved, and processed, or through errors in process that lead to formulation of choice problems as cognitive tasks that are inconsistent at least with rationality narrowly defined. The paper discusses how these cognitive anomalies influence economic behavior and measurement, and their implications for economic analysis.
One of the central themes in the field of environmental economics has been the valuation of environmental amenities, usually within the framework of benefit cost analysis (BCA) or natural resource damage assessment. Much of the research associated with BCA has sought to expand the types of benefits that can be quantified and measured in money terms. The result has been a broadened interpretation of the norms of conventional BCA (i.e. the dual assumptions of individual utility maximization from consumption and the expression of value through market transactions). With these advances, there has been a progressive movement of commodities from the set without measures (usually designated as intangibles) to the set with measures. For example, recreational services associated with water resource projects, were regarded as intangible until the development of the travel cost method (TCM) for estimating the demand for outdoor recreation sites (Clawson and Knetsch, 1966; Desvouges et al., 1983; McConnell, 1985). Currently, attention has been focused on one major category of intangibles in BCA: nonuse values (NUV) associated with natural environmental resources.
Emissions from motor vehicles dominate to a very large extent the emissions over urban areas. From both an emissions and usage standpoint the following major motor vehicle categories have to be distinguished:
Passenger Cars are vehicles used for the carriage of passengers, they comprise not more than eight seats and have a weight not exceeding 2.5 tonnes. Passenger cars can be either petrol (spark ignition engine) or diesel (compression ignition engine) powered. In some countries (e.g. The Netherlands and Italy) a substantial share of LPG powered passenger cars is found. In addition, passenger cars can be used as private cars or as taxis, the latter being almost exclusively diesel powered. During the recent years an important part of private automobiles consists of “company” cars.
Urban Buses are used for the carriage of passengers and have a maximum weight exceeding 5 tonnes. They are almost exclusively diesel powered (However there are also few electric trolley buses and recently in pilot projects natural gas powered buses started to make their appearance), while the most important categories are rigid (around 11m long), articulated and double deckers. In addition to the urban buses, which support the mass transit inside the cities, the usage of coaches may also have an effect on total emissions. Despite the fact that these vehicles are mostly used for intercity transport, in some cases they are also used for tourist transport inside the urban areas.
Urban forests impact energy use for cooling and heating as a result of their moderating influence on climate. To evaluate the regional magnitude of these impacts, a large-scale analysis framework was developed and applied to Sacramento County, California, as a case study. Heating, cooling, and peak electrical energy use changes resulting from modification of solar radiation, air temperature, and wind speed by the existing urban forest were estimated for representative residential and commercial buildings. This is combined with building age and size, canopy and tree cover, and tree density (trees/ha) for 71 county subdivisions. Annual cooling savings are approximately 157 GWh (US$18.5 million) per year - 12% of total air conditioning in the county. Net effects on heating are small, with 145 TJ (US$1.3 million) saved annually. Peak energy-use reductions result in avoided costs of US$6 million. The resulting large-scale analysis incorporates a manageable level of detail not previously available. Sensitivity of results to selected input data is demonstrated.
IntroductionWhat is a Hedonic Price Index?Repeat Sales ModelsThe Roots of Hedonic Price ModelsConceptual Issues in Hedonic ModellingSpecification IssuesHedonic Modelling: the Current PositionExamples of ApplicationsConcluding ThoughtsNotes
The cultural value of trees is viewed through a historical development stressing the influence, of the Baroque garden, and then of the Romantic landscape movement, using both European and American examples. This is followed by a discussion of perceived values of trees in today's city and urban designers use of trees. The environmental values of trees in the city; improvement of soil conditions and of the hydrological cycle; the increase of diversity and quantity of wildlife; the moderation of urban microclimate; and the reduction of pollution levels are given. -M.Brug-Chmielenska
Municipal urban forestry programs are guided by the values that urbanites place on urban trees and forests. The willingness of users to pay for the use of urban forest areas is suggested as one useful measure of value to guide urban forestry programs. Travel cost models were developed for three urban forest sites in the Chicago area. The models estimated an average willingness to pay of $4.54, $8.68, and $12.71 per visit. Suggestions are made for further use of the travel cost method to estimate changes in the willingness of users to pay for urban forest sites under various management options. This information can provide guidance for urban forest resource management programs that are short of funds.
Estimation of the benefits of instream flow is a relatively new area of investigation in natural resource and agricultural economics. Techniques for estimating the economic efficiency benefits of non-marketed resources have established relationships between instream flow levels and benefits. The marginal values of instream flow vary significantly with level of flow. Comparison of typical benefits to average irrigation benefits indicates that reservation of instream flows can often be justified economically.-from Author
Computer models have shown that proper placement of trees around climate- controlled buildings can significantly contribute to energy conservation by lowering cooling requirements in summer months and heating requirements in the winter. A study conducted in a residential neighborhood of Ann Arbor, Michigan, uses electric and natural gas utility company records to examine energy demand for homes in 3 areas with distinctly different levels of tree stocking. Field measurements quantify the density of vegetation that casts shade directly on homes, and aerial photo interpretation is used to evaluate potential wind shielding offered to individual homes by vegetation and adjacent buildings. Statistical analysis of data indicates that variability of structures, including different levels of insulation, infiltration, and efficiencies of space-conditioning appliances mask the effects of vegetation on energy use. Analysis is further complicated by a wide range of energy use habits of individual homeowners. However, trends are observed that suggest proper placement of trees with regard to seasonal solar gain and wind patterns may yield substantial savings of energy. Improper placement of trees may yield a significant increase in net levels of energy used for space conditioning.
1. Introduction 2. The world economy: north and south 3. Sustainability 4. history and perspective 5. Thinking about futures 6. Economics 7. Resource and environmental economics 8. Some new economics 9. National Policy 10. The international dimension 11. Postscript.