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Hirschman's loyalty: Attitude or behavior?
Abstract
Over the past two decades there has been much controversy over what Hirschman intended by the term loyalty in his bookExit, Voice, and Loyalty. Some have interpreted Hirschman's loyalty as an attitude that deters exit and promotes voice. Others have interpreted Hirschman's loyalty as a distinct behavior, like exit and voice, that results from dissatisfaction. This article examines both views of loyalty simultaneously. First, comprehensive and reliable scales to measure the behavioral responses to dissatisfaction are developed. Second, the relationship between loyalty and the behavioral responses to dissatisfaction are examined. Results of this research indicate that both interpretations are important and together help us better understand how employees behave when they are dissatisfied.
... Negligence behavior refers to a reduction in an employee's motivation, dedication and attentiveness, accompanied by an increase in errors or inaccuracies in task execution (Leck and Saunders, 1992). It manifests when employees express dissatisfaction with the organization through harmful or unconstructive actions (Leck and Saunders, 1992;Vigoda, 2000). ...
... Negligence behavior refers to a reduction in an employee's motivation, dedication and attentiveness, accompanied by an increase in errors or inaccuracies in task execution (Leck and Saunders, 1992). It manifests when employees express dissatisfaction with the organization through harmful or unconstructive actions (Leck and Saunders, 1992;Vigoda, 2000). Unlike other responses to dissatisfaction, negligence behavior is a passive reaction that can subtly damage the organization over time, including reduced effort, intentional delays, suppressed creativity, gossip and daydreaming (Leck and Saunders, 1992;Vigoda, 2000). ...
... It manifests when employees express dissatisfaction with the organization through harmful or unconstructive actions (Leck and Saunders, 1992;Vigoda, 2000). Unlike other responses to dissatisfaction, negligence behavior is a passive reaction that can subtly damage the organization over time, including reduced effort, intentional delays, suppressed creativity, gossip and daydreaming (Leck and Saunders, 1992;Vigoda, 2000). Factors contributing to these behaviors include perceptions of unfair treatment, organizational politics and workplace ostracism (Aliza et al., 2022;Farrell and Rusbult, 1992;Vigoda, 2000). ...
How exploitative leadership influences employees’ negligence behavior?
Abstract
Purpose – This study examines the connection between exploitative leadership (EL) and employee negligence behavior, focusing on the mediating role of job frustration and the moderating role of conscientiousness.
Design/methodology/approach - A sample of 225 nurses from various public hospitals in Pakistan was selected, utilizing a quantitative research methodology. Data were then analysed with SPSS and AMOS.
Findings - The results show that EL is associated with increased negligence behavior among nurses, with job frustration acting as a mediator. Furthermore, conscientiousness moderates this relationship; higher levels of conscientiousness reduce the mediated effect, whereas lower levels intensify it.
Practical implications - This study offers valuable insights for hospital administrators to institute policies and interventions aimed at lessening EL in healthcare settings. It highlights the negative impact of such leadership on nurses' negligence behaviors and suggests that fostering conscientiousness can help mitigate these negative impacts.
Originality/value - Addressing a critical gap in the literature on EL and negligence behaviors in hospitals, this study applies Conservation of Resources (COR) theory to offer new perspectives in the healthcare sector. It investigates how job frustration mediates and conscientiousness moderates the influence of EL on nurses' negligence behaviors in Pakistan's public hospitals. These findings have important implications for improving workplace conditions and nursing practices.
Keywords: Exploitative Leadership; Negligence Behavior; Job Frustration; Conscientiousness
... Negligent behavior is defined as ''employee's decreased aspiration, intention and attention at the workplace, or increased inaccuracy in completing job assignments (Leck & Saunders, 1992). It is also well-defined as an employee's reaction towards dissatisfaction with the organization and its members by demonstrating detrimental behavior or nonconstructive activity (Leck & Saunders, 1992;Vigoda, 2000). ...
... Negligent behavior is defined as ''employee's decreased aspiration, intention and attention at the workplace, or increased inaccuracy in completing job assignments (Leck & Saunders, 1992). It is also well-defined as an employee's reaction towards dissatisfaction with the organization and its members by demonstrating detrimental behavior or nonconstructive activity (Leck & Saunders, 1992;Vigoda, 2000). Employee negligent behavior can be defined as a condition where employees choose to stay in the organization but express his/her dissatisfaction by engaging in unproductive and harmful activities (Leck & Saunders, 1992). ...
... It is also well-defined as an employee's reaction towards dissatisfaction with the organization and its members by demonstrating detrimental behavior or nonconstructive activity (Leck & Saunders, 1992;Vigoda, 2000). Employee negligent behavior can be defined as a condition where employees choose to stay in the organization but express his/her dissatisfaction by engaging in unproductive and harmful activities (Leck & Saunders, 1992). It can be differentiated from other forms of responses to dissatisfaction in that it is a negative passive response and could be detrimental for the organization in the long run due to its covert nature. ...
The work-related antecedents of negative behavior are well known, but less is known about cross-domain antecedents, specifically how workplace ostracism affects negligence behavior. Our study aims to address this limitation by considering the Stress-Non-Equilibrium-Compensation (SNEC) Approach and Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory; we propose a moderated mediation model wherein workplace ostracism instigates nurse’s negligence behavior through emotional exhaustion, and task interdependence act as the boundary condition. The current study proposed and empirically tested the moderated mediation model. A time-lagged three-wave survey design was utilized and data was collected from (N = 402) nurses. The findings indicate that emotional exhaustion could mediate the relationship between ostracism and nurses’ negligence behavior. Furthermore, the results from the moderated mediation analysis suggest that the mediation of emotional exhaustion is moderated by task interdependence such that with a higher level of task interdependence, the mediation effect of emotional exhaustion becomes weaker. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed.
... Source: Leck et al (1992) The three primary factors of tourist loyalty affect both behavioral loyalty and attitudinal loyalty (Leck et al., 1992). Customer loyalty in the tourism sector is important because it is generally less expensive to keep existing customers than to attract new ones (Herrmann et al., 2007). ...
... Source: Leck et al (1992) The three primary factors of tourist loyalty affect both behavioral loyalty and attitudinal loyalty (Leck et al., 1992). Customer loyalty in the tourism sector is important because it is generally less expensive to keep existing customers than to attract new ones (Herrmann et al., 2007). ...
... Trust denotes a consumer's future confidence in a brand (Bryant & Colledge, 2002), tourist loyalty refers to a customer's involvement or ongoing duty to repeatedly patronize the same firm and contribute to the relationship. Source: Leck et al (1992) The three primary factors of tourist loyalty affect both behavioral loyalty and attitudinal loyalty (Leck et al., 1992). Customer loyalty in the tourism sector is important because it is generally less expensive to keep existing customers than to attract new ones (Herrmann et al., 2007). ...
... Trust denotes a consumer's future confidence in a brand (Bryant & Colledge, 2002), tourist loyalty refers to a customer's involvement or ongoing duty to repeatedly patronize the same firm and contribute to the relationship. Source: Leck et al (1992) The three primary factors of tourist loyalty affect both behavioral loyalty and attitudinal loyalty (Leck et al., 1992). Customer loyalty in the tourism sector is important because it is generally less expensive to keep existing customers than to attract new ones (Herrmann et al., 2007). ...
AI-powered chatbots are becoming more widespread in the tourist industry for handling customer service difficulties; nevertheless, little is known about how they recover from these situations. Customer loyalty is anticipated to be positively impacted by the widespread use of chatbots. Using chatbots' performance and interaction customization as a lens, this research aims to examine how symbolic recovery affects tourists' loyalty. Additionally, it explores how chatbots' symbolic recovery affects tourists' ability to reconcile and remain loyal. The research used structural equation modeling to analyze data collected from 500 tourists through an online questionnaire distributed From November till January 2025. Based on the results, it appears that chatbots may help tourists to settle and continue to be loyal by increasing customer loyalty via symbolic recuperation. Another way in which chatbots' symbolic recovery affects tourists' loyalty is via tourist satisfaction. The results give promising information that tourist organizations may use to improve chatbots' symbolic recovery. Businesses catering to tourists will be motivated to use chatbots for service recovery if they are efficient in helping with symbolic rehabilitation and ensuring customer loyalty.
... Дотримуючись цієї лінії думок, дослідники Леком і Сондерсом виявили, що коли працівники лояльні до свого роботодавця, цілком ймовірно, що це заохочує позитивні реакції, водночас відлякує негативні. Прикладами позитивних реакцій лояльності, на думку науковців, є терпіння та позитивне висловлювання, а негативні відповіді, яких уникали лояльні співробітники, -це нехтування своїми завданнями або навіть рішення піти з організації [9]. Борофф і Левін у своєму дослідженні з'ясували, що коли з лояльним працівником поводяться несправедливо, він залишається і страждає "в мовчанні", замість того, щоб говорити чи відмовитися від своєї позиції [3]. ...
... Дослідники Лек і Сондерс вважають, що через шкоду, яку може завдати нелояльний працівник, організації важливо зрозуміти причини поведінки своїх співробітників, щоб запобігти подібним ситуаціям до того, як вони виникнуть [9]. Це можна зробити шляхом заохочення поведінки співробітників, які вважаються бажаними, і переконання, що небажані дії не заохочуються. ...
Стаття присвячена аналізу підходів вітчизняних та зарубіжних дослідників до вивчення проблеми лояльності персоналу. Розглянуто погляди науковців щодо визначення сутності та змісту поняття “лояльність”. Проаналізовано два основні наукові підходи до вивчення даного поняття, а саме: з позиції служби економічної безпеки та з позиції служби управління персоналом. Визначено види лояльності персоналу та її обов’язкові атрибути. Висвітлено моделі організаційної лояльності, розроблені сучасними дослідниками. Визначено рівні лояльності та розкрито чинники, що впливають на її розвиток.
... LePine and Van Dyne (1998); Premeaux and Bedeian (2003) Self-esteem/self-efficacy Employees with higher levels of self-esteem or self-efficacy speak up more at work. Leck and Saunders (1992); LePine and Van Dyne (1998) When employees perceive that their contracts have not been fulfilled (i.e., PCB), they are less likely to speak up at work. Burris et al. (2008) Psychological detachment ...
... initiating a social exchange relationship with their managers, who are likely to respond positively to their constructive voice. Specifically, their positive work attitudes make them trust managers (Guzman & Fu, 2022) and believe that their voice exchange with their managers will also be safe and beneficial and thus speak up more (Leck & Saunders, 1992;X. Lin, Lam, & Zhang, 2020;Memon & Ghani, 2020). ...
Constructive voice is a type of communicative act involving both voicers and managers. However, research on constructive voice has developed in two separate streams, with studies adopting either a voicer-or a manager-centric perspective, thereby failing to provide a holistic understanding of constructive voice. This unilateral approach results in missed opportunities for scholars to understand the dyadic and dynamic nature of constructive voice. To address this limitation , we draw on social exchange theory to introduce a four-phase (felt voice, expressed voice, managerial responses to voice, and relational voice outcomes) dyadic model of constructive voice. By conceptualizing constructive voice as a dyadic exchange between voicers and managers , we detail the ongoing processes in which employees initiate voice and managers subsequently endorse and/or implement voicers' input. We also introduce feedback loops to highlight the dynamic nature of constructive voice over time and explain the consequences of repeated constructive-voice exchange processes on relational outcomes. Finally, we review the literature, summarize gaps and opportunities, and provide directions for future research.
... Passive destructive entails murmurings, apathy, silence and withdrawal. This model has proven an established framework since a large body of research has used it to explain and predict employee responses (Leck and Saunders 1992;Maynes and Podsakoff 2014). ...
... Although these models have gained some research interest (e.g. Farrell 1983; Unler and Caliskan 2019), the two models discussed in this study are the ones most frequently used to study employees' voice (Leck and Saunders 1992;Maynes and Podsakoff 2014). We used these models because these are well established and can explain and predict distinct types of voices in the context of new EV channels such as social media. ...
Social media is a powerful tool that can encourage collaboration and communication in several domains of life, including the workplace. Through this literature review, we explored the impact of social media on employee voice at the workplace. We developed five research questions related to the following themes: use of social media as a voice channel, the personal, group and organizational level factors that affect the use of social media, and the implications of this for
organizations. Through a comprehensive literature search, 91 relevant studies were identified and reviewed to answer these questions. We highlight some important gaps in the existing literature and provide directions for future research. We also provide a five-step process for
organizations to extract maximum benefits from the use of social media as a channel for employee voice.
... Trust refers to the-future-trust of a consumer in a brand [18] Customer commitment is related to a customer's engagement or continuous obligation to return to the same company and invest in the relationship [19]. The three main drivers of customer loyalty influence behavioral loyalty and attitude loyalty [21]. Customer (behavior) loyalty is important because it is less expensive to retain customers than to seek new ones [19]. ...
... The dimension of information quality is about providing a customer with accurate, relevant, and valuable information at the right moment [29]. The three main drivers of customer loyalty influence behavioral loyalty and attitude loyalty [21]. Customer (behavior) loyalty is important because it is less expensive to retain customers than to seek new ones [19]. ...
More and more companies have implemented chatbots on their websites to provide support to their visitors on a 24/7 basis. The new customer wants to spend less and less time and therefore expects to reach a company anytime and anywhere, regardless of time, location, and channel. This study provides insight into the influence of chatbots on customer loyalty. System quality, service quality, and information quality are crucial dimensions that a chatbot must meet to give a good customer experience. To make a chatbot more personal, companies can alter the language style. Human-like chatbots lead to greater satisfaction and trust among customers, leading to greater adoption of the chatbot. The results of this study showed that a connection between chatbots and customer loyalty is very likely. Besides, some customers suffer from the privacy paradox because of personalization. Implications of this study are discussed.
... Adalet algısı düşen öğretmenler, işten ayrılma, sadakat ve muhalefet etme davranışlarına ek olarak bazen de örgütteki yaşanan sorunlara ve olaylara karşı kayıtsız kalarak (neglect) pasif davranış sergilemektedir (Farrell, 1983;Özsoy Özmen, 2017;Withey ve Cooper, 1989). Belirtildiği gibi öğretmenlerin çalışma ortamına yönelik örgütsel adalet algıları onların işten ayrılma, muhalefet etme, sadakat ve kayıtsız kalma davranışlarını sergilemelerinde etkili olmaktadır (Çelik, 1987;Eklund, 2009;Hirschman, 1994;Leck ve Saunders, 1992). ...
... In addition to exit, loyalty, and voice, teachers whose perceptions of justice decreasing sometimes display passive behavior by neglecting problems and events in the organization (Farrell, 1983;Özsoy Özmen, 2017;Withey and Cooper, 1989). As stated, the perceptions of teachers regarding organizational justice related to the working environment are effective in displaying their behavior of exit, voice, loyalty and neglect (Çelik, 1987;Eklund, 2009;Hirschman, 1994;Leck and Saunders, 1992). It is seen that the effects of organizational justice on some organizational outcomes are questioned in literature reviews that focused on educational organizations. ...
... Finally, in response to a call in the literature to expand the limits of Hirschman's theory (Leck & Saunders, 1992;Morrison, 2011;Naus, Van Iterson, & Roe, 2007), we propose to enlarge its field of application by adding disobedience as a fourth possible response to a problematic situation; in addition, we do this over a long period of time, in a dynamic rather than a static way. ...
... This latter constitutes the horizontal axis, going from weak to strong, because the level of loyalty may change over time, especially when actors develop an unstable or ambiguous representation of a situation (Lalit Parmar, 2017). This model will also help us respond to several researchers who have called for a more dynamic version of Hirschman's model to better understand causality (Leck & Saunders, 1992;Naus et al., 2007). Morrison (2011, p. 404) has urged researchers to collect data "at multiple time points" to "permit an examination of changes in Voice over time" and "to gain a more dynamic picture of this phenomenon." ...
Manuscript Type
Empirical
Research Question/Issue
Based on a dynamic interrelation between the assumptions of Agency theory and Stewardship theory, this study seeks to make sense of disobedience at the highest corporate level. Departing from a processual view in order to better understand how Loyalty plays a critical role in the relationships between a CEO and his/her principal, we propose a conceptualization of the options open to a top executive in disagreement with the principal. We view the relationship from “below” by primarily taking the CEO’s perspective, resulting in a more complex view on how “duty” is perceived and acted upon by the CEO.
Research Findings/Insights
We use the rich and abundant archives left behind by the CEO of a large French firm. We had access to over 50,000 pages of documents that allowed us to follow the CEO and his relationships with his principals, at times from day to day. We found two competing loyalties (Loyalty to the principal ‐ Agency theory ‐ and Loyalty to the organization ‐ Stewardship theory) that gradually become independent of each other, triggering different responses in terms of ‘Exits’ from the relationship with the principal. This particular dynamic in which the CEO acted as a guardian of the overall purpose of the organization enabled the emergence, development and consolidation of a disobedience process that over the years contributed to the well‐being of his firm as well as to the social changes occuring in France at that time.
Theoretical/Academic Implications
This longitudinal study extends the corporate governance literature by offering a process‐oriented approach, quite rare in this stream of research, and a more dynamic view of how Agency theory and Stewardship theory interact. Then, by providing empirical support for the idea that the disobedience process can protect and allow an organization to first evolve positively over time and eventually contribute to social improvements, our study proposes a form of responsible stewardship.
Practitioner/Policy Implications
This study offers important insights for executives, directors, and shareholders on how to make sense of, and in the long run potentially benefit from, disobedience at the highest corporate levels.
... Interpersonal deviance was assessed with a seven-item measure from Bennett and Robinson (2000). Employee negligence behavior was measured using eight items from Leck and Saunders (1992). Workplace mindfulness was assessed using five items adapted from Zivnuska et al. (2016). ...
Purpose
This study aims to examine the influence of workplace phubbing on employee deviant behavior and negligence, while also investigating the mediating role of coworker conflict. Additionally, the study explores the moderating effect of workplace mindfulness on the relationship between workplace phubbing, the mediators and employee deviant behavior and negligence.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were gathered from employees in the service sector in the UAE using an online survey questionnaire. A total of 374 participants submitted complete responses. The study’s hypotheses were tested through regression-based moderated path analysis, incorporating conditional process modeling and nonlinear bootstrapping.
Findings
The study indicates that experiencing “phubbing” at work contributes to feelings of coworker conflict, which subsequently leads to increased interpersonal deviance and employee negligence. Moreover, workplace mindfulness weakens the positive influence of being phubbed on coworker conflict, interpersonal deviance and employee negligence.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no previous studies have examined the negative impact of being “phubbed” at the individual employee level within the service industry. This study aims to contribute to both theory and practice by elucidating the mediating mechanism of coworker conflict and exploring the moderating effects of workplace mindfulness.
... The first form is similar to what Peretti [6] calls real loyalty, which he distinguishes from conditional loyalty and external loyalty. For Hirschman [7] loyalty is a form of possible response to discontent, just like humility (withdrawal) or expression of discontent (voice). ...
In human resource management (HR), loyalty is an important issue and, therefore, "a serious problem for many organizations. Uncontrolled staff turnover can have serious consequences for companies. This problem is especially acute during the crisis. The introduction of loyalty measures is especially relevant when there are many job offers and employees can easily find an alternative position. The object of the study is to study the use of the loyalty tool as a mechanism for preventing and regulating crisis situations. For this purpose, methods were used: comparative and statistical analysis, formal-logical, functional and process approach to research, as well as methods of studying documentation and information materials, SWOT analysis, etc. Research results: in the long term and to prepare for economic recovery, organizations realize the importance of retaining their personnel, mainly high-potential and key people, for their survival in a competitive market. This way they can maintain their skills, as well as increase the satisfaction and loyalty of their employees. Then the relationship between the loyalty of human resources and the effectiveness of the organization becomes clearer: loyalty ensures better company performance, maintaining competitive advantages, better quality of personnel management by optimizing personnel management costs and reducing social dysfunction.
... Finally, negligence was measured using the Vigoda and Cohen (2001) neglect measure which they have developed using Leck and Saunders (1992) scale and composed of five items. One example is: "Sometimes I don't fulfill all of my duties at work". ...
The primary objective of this study was to investigate the influence of leaders' deployment of Political Influence Tactics (PIT) on the manifestation of articulated/upward dissent and negligent behavior among employees, with a specific focus on the mediating role of employee cynicism (EC). The study was theoretically grounded in both Psychological Contract Theory and Independent-Mindedness Theory. Data for this investigation were collected through sur-veys from a sample of 308 medical representatives in Turkey. The collected data underwent rigorous analysis employing the Partial Least Squares Based Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) method with the assistance of the SMART PLS 3.3.3 software. The findings of this study revealed that EC serves as a partial mediator in the relationship between pressure and ingratiation tactics and employee negligence. Notably, existing research within the realm of organizational politics often centers on Perceptions of Organizational Politics (POP), which encapsulates the subjective aspect of perceiving politics within an organization. In contrast, there has been relatively limited exploration into PIT, which adopts an objective standpoint. Furthermore, this study represents a pioneering effort as it identified a gap in the existing literature where no prior research has directly assessed the linkages be-tween PIT and other key variables within the proposed model, namely cynicism, negligence, and articulated/upward dissent. Consequently, this study is poised to contribute significantly to the organizational politics and organizational behavior literature by addressing this notable gap.
... Furthermore, O'Donnell (1996) distinguishes between vertical voicetowards a superiorand horizontal voicetalking to a peer. Loyalty has also been explored (Leck and Saunders 1992) as a proper independent behaviour or more simply an attitude moderating the trade-off between exit and voice (loyalty would favour voice more than exit). There is more than just one way to perceive being loyal such as an unconscious, passive, or reformist response (Graham and Keeley 1992), or active and passive (Whitey and Cooper 1992), or noisy and silent (Dowding et al). ...
In the article, we will explore the impact of platform labour on urban spaces and the new frontiers of unionism by leveraging a ground analysis and theoretical elaborations from the PLUS project. PLUS was designed to analyse the impact of four platforms (Uber, Airbnb, Helpling, and Deliveroo) in seven European cities (Barcelona, Berlin, Bologna, Lisbon, Paris, London, and Tallinn). In doing so, PLUS supported its sociological investigations with theoretical and historical elaborations concerning the operation of contemporary platforms and the characteristics of the new form of unionism. We will present some results from PLUS, with a focus on the Bologna case, where platform workers express their dissatisfaction with their organizations, attempting to relate their strategies to certain structural aspects of business territorialization within urban spaces. We will draw upon the well-known distinction proposed by Albert Hirschman between exit, voice, and loyalty and adapt it to frame the various strategies that platform workers may adopt.
... Loyalty is similar to extant conceptualizations of affective organizational commitment (i.e., emotional attachment to or identification with the organization; Meyer & Allen, 1991;Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982). Indeed, some researchers have relied on measures of affective commitment to operationalize loyalty (e.g., Leck & Saunders, 1992). We use the term loyalty to be consistent with Hirschman's model and prior research in this area (e.g., Boroff & Lewin, 1997), although the general argument is that affective attachment to an organization is likely to foster constructive effort toward addressing discontent (Hirschman, 1970). ...
This study extends prior research on voice, loyalty, and postvoice outcomes by examining a variety of methods by which an employee may choose to voice a dispute. The authors argue that more loyal employees may prefer and use less formal methods to voice discontent and that the use of less formal voice methods relates to less job search activity and lower intent to quit. This study also investigated the interrelation between loyalty, voice method, and satisfaction with the attempt to resolve the dispute. Findings from a sample of university staff employees (N = 452) provide support for the hypotheses.
... In addition, the construction companies should attend to improve the level of pride on the job, broaden decision-making space and clarify the role of the company in aspect of resources provision, and are committed to bring job satisfaction to the workers. Judging from the nature of the predictors, namely colleague relationship and job satisfaction in influencing employee loyalty, which is feeling in the former and evaluative in the latter, worker loyalty has a psychological inclination that contains "feeling" (Boroff and Lewin, 1997), as well as evaluative consequences including attachment (Leck and Saunders, 1992) and commitment to the organization (Sverke and Goslinga, 2003). In other words, to influence jobrelated performance, for instance, in on-time delivery of construction project, the zero-accidents on the job site and the quality of the construction work in matching the specified standards, the construction companies would need to ensure the creation of a favourable psychological state of feeling and commitment to the employees, represented by their loyalty and job satisfaction. ...
A literature review takes the roots of the study of people behaviours dated back to the Buddhist Canons of knowledge that are 2500-plus years old. Contemporary works of organizational and consumer behaviours that are seen to reflect parts of the structure of the Buddhist Noble Eightfold Path-driven process-orientation framework can be referred, for instance, to the works of Schwartz and Howard's (1981) Norm Activation Theory (NAT) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). To study the validity of the suggested broad-based model of both consumer and organizational behaviours, three broad-based hypotheses are posited. The model also reflects an action research process and captures the themes highlighted in the U Theory Model advocated by Professor C. Otto Scharmer (2009) from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Five empirical cases, with the data generated by the use of questionnaire-based survey approaches, are used to provide the necessary support of statistical significance and the validity of the model that depicts the dynamic interactions among the different facets of perceptions and affections of consumers or employees, their views (i.e. personal norm, brand image, brand trust, attitude), intentions or thoughts (loyalty, commitment), behaviours (continuing repurchase by the consumers, and corporate citizenship behaviours of employees), and performances.
... From an equity theory, job loafers may be frequently absent from work and hand over their work to others; these irresponsible attitudes/behaviors cause many employees to feel unequal pay and rewards, thereby reinforcing their negative attitudes, such as lowering employee well-being and work engagement (Kidwell and Bennett, 1993;Kidwelland Robie, 2003;Albanese and Van Fleet, 1985). Several scholars also support that lazy colleagues reduce employee well-being and motivation (Stigler, 1974;Leibowitz and Tollison, 1980;Jones, 1984;Albanese and Van Fleet, 1985;Leck and Saunders, 1992;Rusbult et al., 1988). ...
Objective.In the workplace, colleague relationship deeply affects employees’ work attitude and behavior, but it is rarely taken seriously. Based on the cognitive‐affective personality system theory and social network theory, this study examined the influence of three common workplace haters (negative gossiper, two‐faced person, and loafer) on employee well‐being and knowledge sharing and explores the moderating effect of organizational social capital. Method.The study used longitudinal design, three‐wave, and 409 valid supervisor–employee pairs (233 direct supervisors and 409 employees) from 10 companies in Taiwan to test these hypothetical relationships. Results. The findings of this study showed that: (1) workplace haters negatively affects employee well‐being; (2) employee well‐being positively affects knowledge sharing; (3) employee well‐being mediates the relationship between workplace haters and knowledge sharing; and (4) organizational social capital moderates the relationship between workplace haters and employee well‐being. Conclusion. The study has important contributions to the literature on workplace haters, coworker interaction, and social capital. Implications for behavioral researchers and human resource managers are discussed.
... Kolarska and Aldrich (1980) define loyalty as "keeping silent" when things are not going well. Based on its multiple meanings, Leck and Saunders (1992) emphasize the difference between attitude and behavior for loyalty and suggest changing the "loyalty" category to "patience" to emphasize the attitude-behavior distinction. Loyalty functions as an attitude when it is considered to be a moderator between exit and voice, but patience, on the other hand, implies a behavioral option (being supportive) (Withey & Cooper, 1989). ...
Based on the person-centered approach and the EVLN (exit, voice, loyalty, neglect) model, this study explores how the components of commitment create “profiles” and the implications of this for voice behaviors in response to malpractice at work. The study includes not just affective and continuance commitment forms but also a commitment to the team as a multi-target commitment. A survey was conducted of 518 employees from a broad range of organizations in Turkey. An attempt was made to differentiate the EVLN responses across diverse commitment profiles by expanding the context. Four clusters (low commitment, weakly-committed, affective–team dominant, and continuance dominant) were identified using k-means cluster analysis. Analysis of the variance results indicated that the affective–team dominant profile demonstrated the constructive voice. The low commitment profile showed the least desirable outcomes (exit and neglect), followed by the weakly-committed profile. The continuance dominant profile also demonstrated passive behaviors (neglect and patience). Affective and team commitments, which have similar foci, were found to be the primary drivers of voice behavior, especially when combined with low continuance commitment. Also, continuance commitment did not contribute to the voice behavior once a certain level of affective and team commitment was seen. This study contributes to expanding commitment profiles for data from Turkey by explaining diverse EVLN responses to dissatisfaction at work.
... One of the accepted theories regarding the behavior of neglect was developed by Rusbult et al. (1982). According to the theory in question, exhibiting neglect seems like a passive behavior that occurs as a result of decreased satisfaction of an employee but has devastating consequences for the organization (Leck & Saunders, 1992). Based on the literature focusing on organizational justice and neglect behavior, the following hypothesis was tested in the study. ...
Bu araştırmada okullarda ayrılma, kayıtsız kalma, muhalefet ve sadakat ile örgütsel adalet ilişkisinde iş doyumunun aracı etkisi incelenmiştir. İlişkisel tarama deseninde yürütülen araştırmanın hedef evrenini, Ankara iline bağlı dokuz ilçedeki resmi Anadolu Liselerinde görev yapan 6605 öğretmen oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmaya küme örnekleme yoluyla belirlenen 612 öğretmen gönüllü olarak katılmıştır. Veri analizi öncesinde ölçeklerin geçerlikleri DFA, güvenirlikleri ise Cronbach alfa katsayısı incelenmiş olup, tümünün geçerli ve güvenilir olduğu görülmüştür. Veri setinin analizinde aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma, Pearson korelasyon ve bootstrapping aracılık testi kullanılmıştır. Korelasyon analizi sonuçları; örgütsel adalet ve iş doyumunun, işten ayrılma, muhalefet ve kayıtsız kalma davranışları ile negatif, sadakat ile pozitif yönlü ve anlamlı ilişki içerisinde olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Bu kapsamda örgütsel adalet ve iş doyumu öğretmenlerin ayrılma, muhalefet etme, kayıtsız kalma ve sadakat davranışlarının anlamlı bir yordayıcısıdır. Aracılık testi sonuçları ise ayrılma, kayıtsız kalma, muhalefet ve sadakat ile örgütsel adalet arasındaki ilişkide iş doyumunun aracı etkiye sahip olduğunu göstermiştir. Araştırma bulgularına dayalı olarak öğretmenlerin işten ayrılma, kayıtsız kalma ve muhalefet davranışlarının en aza indirilebilmesi için okullarda uygulamaların adil bir şekilde yapılmasının önemli bir etmen olduğu çıkarımında bulunulmuştur.
... In the present study, when the exploitative leadership behaviours displayed by primary school principals are examined, it can be asserted that the principals expect teachers to be loyal to themselves. In research conducted byLeck and Saunders (1992), it is identified that employees with a high loyalty level do not contemplate leaving their work despite the low job satisfaction that they can experience. Instead, they prefer to articulate their contradictory views in the organizational environment while they continue working, and they do so to their managers openly. ...
The research aims to determine the relationship between public primary school principals' paternalistic leadership behaviours and teachers' organizational creativity and organizational dissent perception levels according to primary school teachers' perceptions. A quantitative correlational design was utilized in the research. The research sample consists of 1059 public primary schoolteachers selected by stratified sampling method in Mardin city center and eight districts of Mardin during the 2016-2017 academic year. The data of the research were obtained by using the "Headmasters' Paternalistic Leadership Behaviours Scale," "Organizational Creativity Scale," and "Organizational Dissent Scale. "The data analysis revealed the following findings: There was a positive and significant correlation between the paternalistic leadership behaviours of primary school administrators and teachers' perceptions toward organizational creativity and organizational dissent. Also, paternalistic leadership behaviours of primary school administrators were found to be a significant predictor of teachers' perceptions toward
organizational creativity and organizational dissent. The principals should exhibit benevolent leadership behaviours that enhance the teachers' organizational creativity perceptions, such as endeavouring to create a family milieu in school, being tolerant of teachers, and supporting teachers to take the initiative.
... Sadakat kavramı üzerine geliştirilen bu taslak, Tutum yaklaşımı ve Davranışsal yaklaşım ekseninde yorumlanarak geliştirilmiştir. Tutum yaklaşımında sadakat; psikolojik tavır, örgütü içselleştirme (Boroff ve Lewin, 1997); örgütü umursama, örgütle alâkadar olma (Leck ve Saunders, 1992); örgüte bağlılık (Allen ve Meyer, 1990) gibi duygu ve algılar olarak açılanmaktadır. Davranışsal yaklaşım ise Rusbult vd. ...
The effects of organizational loyalty and leader-member exchange (LMX) concepts on individual job performance were examined in this study carried out within the scope of quantitative research model. The main purpose of the study is to seek an answer to the question of whether the level of organizational loyalty or the level of the relationship resulting from leader-member exchange is more effective on individual job performance. The relationships between organizational loyalty, leader-member exchange and job performance within the scope of the research model were tested by correlation and regression analysis of the data of 288 participants working in the food and retail industries. The data were obtained from chain market employees, sales and administrative staff of national food companies operating in the province of Hatay using the simple sampling and survey technique. Correlation analysis results showed that all components of leader-member exchange and organizational loyalty have statistically positive and significant relationships with individual job performance. Simple and multiple regression analyzes revealed that organizational loyalty and all components of LMX (affect, loyalty, contributions, professional respect) have significant and positive effects on job performance. In addition, it has been observed that the affect has a more positive effect job performance than the other components. Within the scope of regression analysis, the most important finding regarding the main research query of the study is that organizational loyalty has more positive effects on individual job performance than leader-member exchange. The findings reveal that the level of organizational loyalty contributes more to the individual job performance of retail sector and chain market employees than the level of their relationship with their leaders. Although positive interactions with the manager make the employee happy and increase the job performance, the fact that the employee loyalty to the organization will provide a higher job performance should be taken into account regardless of the conditions.
... Sadakat kavramı üzerine geliştirilen bu taslak, Tutum yaklaşımı ve Davranışsal yaklaşım ekseninde yorumlanarak geliştirilmiştir. Tutum yaklaşımında sadakat; psikolojik tavır, örgütü içselleştirme (Boroff ve Lewin, 1997); örgütü umursama, örgütle alâkadar olma (Leck ve Saunders, 1992); örgüte bağlılık (Allen ve Meyer, 1990) gibi duygu ve algılar olarak açılanmaktadır. Davranışsal yaklaşım ise Rusbult vd. ...
The effects of organizational loyalty and leader-member exchange (LMX) concepts on individual job performance were examined in this study carried out within the scope of quantitative research model. The main purpose of the study is to seek an answer to the question of whether the level of organizational loyalty or the level of the relationship resulting from leader-member exchange is more effective on individual job performance. The relationships between organizational loyalty, leader-member exchange and job performance within the scope of the research model were tested by correlation and regression analysis of the data of 288 participants working in the food and retail industries. The data were obtained from chain market employees, sales and administrative staff of national food companies operating in the province of Hatay using the simple sampling and survey technique. Correlation analysis results showed that all components of leader-member exchange and organizational loyalty have statistically positive and significant relationships with individual job performance. Simple and multiple regression analyzes revealed that organizational loyalty and all components of LMX (affect, loyalty, contributions, professional respect) have significant and positive effects on job performance. In addition, it has been observed that the affect has a more positive effect job performance than the other components. Within the scope of regression analysis, the most important finding regarding the main research query of the study is that organizational loyalty has more positive effects on individual job performance than leader-member exchange. The findings reveal that the level of organizational loyalty contributes more to the individual job performance of retail sector and chain market employees than the level of their relationship with their leaders. Although positive interactions with the manager make the employee happy and increase the job performance, the fact that the employee loyalty to the organization will provide a higher job performance should be taken into account regardless of the conditions.
... This draft, developed on the concept of loyalty, has been interpreted and developed on the axis of attitude approach and behavioral approach. Loyalty is explained as feelings and perceptions in attitude approach such as sychological attitude, internalizing the organization (Boroff and Lewin, 1997); caring for the organization, being involved with the organization (Leck and Saunders, 1992) and commitment to organization (Allen and Meyer, 1990). Behavioral approach is interpreted with the EVLN (exit, voice, loyalty, neglect) modeling developed by Rusbult, Farrel, Rogers and Mainous (1988), which shows one of the four possible responses of loyalty to satisfaction or dissatisfaction. ...
The relationship between organizational loyalty and individual job performance concepts was examined in this study applied in the banking sector. In this context, determining the level of affecting the organizational loyalty levels of expert bankers working in the sector on their individual job performance constitutes the main purpose of the study. The data of 152
employees working in the branch banking organizations of the sector were tested with correlation and regression analysis and the relationships between variables were tried to be
explained. The data were obtained from the branch employees of the banks in Iskenderun and Payas districts of Hatay using the simple sampling method with survey techniques. Due to the presence of many international ports and the intensity of industrial activities, foreign trade and financial transactions, these areas have been determined as the research universe. Because, this study was carried out with the intention of questioning the organizational loyalty levels of expert bank personnel trying to perform in the working climate created by intensive and stressful business processes and pandemic conditions, and questioning the impact capacity of this level on their job performance. In this context, correlation analysis was performed to determine the direction of the relationship between organizational loyalty and job performance variables. The results showed that there were statistically positive and significant relationships between the organizational loyalty levels of the employees and their individual job performance. In addition, a simple regression analysis was also performed to measure the effect of organizational loyalty, which is the independent variable of the research model, on job performance. It was determined by the results of the analysis that the organizational loyalty levels of bank employees have significant and positive effects on their individual job performance. Findings reveal that branch banking employees, who are in direct contact with the customer or their representatives, have a high level of organizational loyalty despite severe and unfavorable conditions. On the other hand, research regression findings of the research showed that organizational loyalty has a positive correlation and significant contribution in determining the job performance of bank employees.
... They should support loyalty using various strategies, including motivation, promotion, workers should be able to grow and contribute their ideas to business improvement. Their contributions, and bonuses for additional work, should also be rewarded appropriately [9]. Management could achieve better corporate efficiency with all listed efforts to improve employee satisfaction. ...
Employee loyalty is a complex, multifaceted construct that has been defined through numerous perspectives, including philosophical and psychological. This article, we studied the impact of wage recession on employee loyalty, the same was studied by Linz et al, 2013. We decided to study employee loyalty during this pandemic period. Based on this the study objectives are framed to determine the various dimensions of employee loyalty, the impact of wage recession on loyalty and problems faced by employees those who work from home. The study population is college teachers and ITians. In these two sectors adopted a change in their working mode (i.e work from home) and faced wage recession. ITians don't face many issues since it is not new for them but for the teaching community, work from home is an entirely new concept. Teachers try to learn to work in a new platform like google meet, zoom app, cisco Webex meet and give assignments online and conduct exams in virtual mode, leading them to prepare themselves for a changing environment. The work from home created more stress for teachers but for ITians the family intervention and network issues created more stress. Apart from these issues, the employer also reduces the payment from 10% to 50%. Both are the major contributors of employee loyalty. A questionnaire was designed based on the suggestions of HR managers. The data was collected through the virtual mode from 96 professors and 74 ITians in and around Chennai. We measured the key factors which affect employee loyalty like salary, treatment by organization, career focus, job involvement, job satisfaction, wellbeing and work recognition. The study findings revealed that pay reduction does not affect loyalty much. Lack of communication creates more work stress among the employees. This virtual mode of working increased more working hours and responsibility but poor recognition by employers. Our study results reveal that most of the respondents have moderate loyalty and if the work of employees continues to be unrecognized which may decrease the loyalty in future.
... The literature from several fields within organizational psychology provides information on the different ways in which employees may respond to problematic events. A very relevant line of research concerns studies on reactions to dissatisfaction and the exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect (EVLN) typology (Farrell, 1983;Fischer and Locke, 1992;Hirschman, 1970;Hulin, 1991;Leck and Saunders, 1992;Rusbult, Farrell, Rogers and Mainous, 1988;Withey and Cooper, 1989). Farrell, (1983); and Rusbult et al., (1988) described EVLN categories by focusing on its two dimensions: The first is the destructive-constructive dimension, and the second is the active-passive dimension. ...
... İşten ayrılmaların örgütler üzerindeki bu olumsuz etkilerinden ötürü, araştırmacılar işten ayrılma davranışlarını önceden tahmin etmekte ve açıklamakta, yöneticiler de potansiyel ayrılmaları önlemek için bazı tedbirler geliştirmektedirler (Hwang ve diğerleri, 2006). İşten ayrılmanın yarattığı bu olumsuzetkilerin önlenmesi noktasında yapılan araştırmalar neticesinde,iş tatminsizliği, örgüte bağlıllığın az olması (Firth vd., 2004), iş stresi (Ahmad vd, 2012;Fang,1993) ve tükenmişlik duygusunun (Leck ve Saunders, 1992) işten ayrılma niyetini arttırdığına dair çeşitli bulgular edilmiştir. ...
Z Çalışmanın amacı, işgörenlerin yıldırmaya maruz kalmasının örgütsel sessizliğe ve işten ayrılma niyetine etkilerini incelemektir. Ayrıca demografik özellikler ile bahsi geçen değişkenler arasında anlamlı bir ilişkinin varlığını test etmektir. Bu amaçla, İstanbul'da faaliyet gösteren hizmet sektöründe yer alan 23 farklı işletmenin çalışanlarına uygulanan anket sonucunda elde edilen bulgular, çalışma ortamında yıldırmaya maruz kalmanın işten ayrılma niyetini arttırdığı ve sessiz kalma davranışının tercih edildiğini göstermiştir. Yıldırma algısının uysal sessizlik ve savunmacı sessizlik üzerinde pozitif; toplum yanlısı sessizlik üzerinde ise negatif bir etkide bulunduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Öte yandan, yaşın artması işten ayrılma niyetini azaltmıştır. Yaş ile örgütsel sessizlik arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir ilişki bulunmazken; yaş, toplum yanlısı sessizliğe pozitif yönde etki etmektedir. Araştırmadan elde edilen bir başka sonuç ise; yönetici konumunda olmayan çalışanların, üst düzey yönetici pozisyonundaki çalışanlara göre daha fazla yıldırma algısına sahip olduğu, dolayısıyla daha fazla sessiz kalma davranışı göstermesi ve daha fazla işten ayrılma niyeti taşımasıdır. ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to analyze the effects of employees' exposure of workplace bullying to their organizational silence behavior and turnover intention. Furthermore, the relationship between some demographic characteristics and the forementioned variables is tested. Findings of GebzeTeknikÜniversitesi, İşletmeFakültesiYönetimveOrganizasyonAnabilimDalı, emeral@gtu.edu.tr Marmara Üniversitesi, Bankacılık ve Sigortacılık Yüksekokulu, Sigortacılık Bölümü, merdilek@marmara.edu.tr
... Based on the constructive-destructive dimension, the loyalty and the negligence reinforce the voice and the exit, respectively, and the loyalty is negatively associated with the negligence as they are mutually alternative attitudes (Leck & Saunders, 1992). Lyons and Lowery (1986) suggest that the loyalty and negligence are outcomes of behavioral participation (i.e., voice → loyalty; exit → negligence). ...
Various components constitute the concept of citizen participation, but the extant classification of the participation tends to be limited in a few independent dimensions. In order for theoretical expansion of participation typology, this study incorporates three dimensions of participation that formulate eight types of participation, stressing passive dimension. Based on this typology, it is investigated that existing literature in Korean context tends to focus on a few types. Finally, this study proposes some research agendas for the passive and other unaccustomed dimensions of citizen participation.
... Employee loyalty also conceptualized by both attitudinal and behavioral elements. According to attitudinal approach, employee loyalty described as a psychological inclination, such as employee's feeling of identification (Boroff & Lewin, 1997), attachment (Leck & Saunders, 1992) and commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1990;Johnson et al., 2009) with the organization brand. Attitudinal loyalty is difficult to observe due to psychological inclination nature such as emotional (Hajdin, 2005) or moral nature (Coughlan, 2005). ...
Brands are the most valuable assets for the organizations, due to that billions of dollars were invested by the organizations in managing brands. In the modern marketing environment developing and sustaining the brand loyalty plays vital role in attaining competitive advantage. In services sector high employee turnover rate poses major challenge for management. This paper conceptualised the employee brand loyalty as employee's willingness to stay and positive word of mouth about organization's brand and provide inclusive view. The concept of employer branding is still in evolving and developing stage. Existing literature on employer branding were limited and extensively focused in the perspective of potential employees rather than existing employees. This paper aims to review the employer branding within the existing employees context, and also provide the comprehensive view on developing of employee brand loyalty through employer branding
... Für Hirschman stellt Silence ein weitgehend passives, wenn auch konstruktives Verhalten dar, welches eng an Loyalität gekoppelt ist. Autor*innen, die sich aufbauend auf Hirschmans Konzept mit Silence im Kontext von Arbeitsorganisationen beschäftigt haben, verweisen jedoch darauf, dass Schweigen nicht mit Untätigkeit und Zustimmung gleichgesetzt werden darf, da ihm ganz unterschiedliche 2. 22 Zum Beispiel Boroff 1989;Leck, Saunders 1992. 23 Zum Beispiel Birch 1975Farrell 1983. ...
Obwohl angesichts der zunehmend prekären Beschäftigungsbedingungen im deutschen akademischen Mittelbau bei vielen Betroffenen Unzufriedenheit herrscht, ist der kollektiv artikulierte Widerspruch eher schwach. Ausgehend von Hirschmans Konzepten Exit und Voice als zentralen Handlungsoptionen in Situationen der Unzufriedenheit, gehen wir in diesem Beitrag der Frage nach, wie sich erklären lässt, dass es im Mittelbau vergleichsweise ruhig bleibt und wie es um die (Un-)Möglichkeiten der Artikulation kollektiven Widerspruchs bestellt ist. Um mögliche Ursachen für das weitverbreitete Stillschweigen zu identifizieren, greifen wir zunächst vor dem Hintergrund einer Bourdieuތschen feld- und habitustheoretischen Perspektive auf differenzierte Konzepte von Silence im Arbeitskontext zurück. Unter Rückgriff auf Ansätze der Protest- und Bewegungsforschung fragen wir anschließend nach den Bedingungen für die Entstehung von organisiertem Protest, also Collective Voice, und diskutieren diese vor dem Hintergrund der Situation des akademischen Mittelbaus in Deutschland. Es zeigt sich, dass die Strukturen des wissenschaftlichen Feldes sowie die habituellen Dispositionen der Mittelbauangehörigen eher dazu geeignet sind, Silence statt Collective Voice zu erzeugen. Die spezifische Funktionsweise des Feldes, die darin eingebetteten Machtstrukturen sowie insbesondere die spezifischen Karrierestrukturen in Deutschland machen eine Mobilisierung schwierig.
Since the 1980s, but particularly after the 9/11 attacks, Islamic organizations in Europe, often in response to anti Islam activities of radical right-wing groups, have begun to reinforce the communities’ Muslim identity, and also government institutions started to cater more and more to religious demands of these communities. However, many secular Muslims in countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany or France do not identify with religious labels. Most of them can be located around left-wing political parties, where they defend equal rights for women, LGBT people, and non-believers. As a result, they frequently face criticism from within their own cultural communities. But their secular principles have also brought them into conflict with sectors of the political left who accuse them of ‘giving arguments to right-wing extremists’. By silencing these secular voices, part of the left is effectively furthering religious conservatism within Islamic communities in Europe. This chapter analyses the contested position of secular Muslims who attempt to combat tendencies of growing religiosity within their communities. The research is based on a dozen of in-depth interviews with secular Muslims in the Netherlands. The theoretical framework for the analysis of their strategies is an updated version of Hirschman’s model of Exit, Voice and Loyalty (Hirschman 1970). I argue that integration policies should focus more on secular members of Muslim communities instead of on religious interlocutors.
І в психологічному, і в економічному аспектах вивчення лояльності має вагоме значення. Феномен лояльності є багатогранним і складним конструктом. До спектру проблем для вивчення тут належать як емоційні (емоційна прив’язаність та ін.), так і раціональні (економічні рішення засновані на числових розрахунках) аспекти. Лояльність – це один з ключових чинників, що здійснюють вагомий вплив на збереження стабільності в соціальних групах (в тому числі у різного роду організаціях і бізнес структурах). У загальнопсихологічному розумінні лояльність – це конструкт основою, якого є відчуття прив’язаності і моральних зобов’язань, які людина відчуває стосовно іншого суб’єкта взаємовідносин (іншої людини, групи людей, організації та ін.). Дослідники Дж. Хайт і С. Джозеф у 2007 році стверджували, що лояльність забезпечує соціальну згуртованість у групі і є ключовою моральною засадою. Саме відчуття лояльності спонукає людей діяти відповідно до інтересів групи до якої вони самі себе відносять, навіть якщо це суперечить їх особистим інтересам. Винесення потреб групи вище в ієрархії над особистими інтересами є результатом емоційної прив’язаності. Саме цим можна пояснити лояльність групі навіть у складних ситуаціях. Для економіки, а зокрема для бізнесу, лояльність має особливе значення, оскільки лояльні клієнти утворюють корядро аудиторії споживачів, які забезпечують більшу частину прибутку. Витрати на їх утримання є вагомо меншими, ніж на залучення нових. Врахування аспектів розбудови лояльних відносин в умовах жорсткої конкуренції є одним з центральних питань при розробці стратегій розвитку бізнес систем. Лояльність – це важливий чинник, що впливає на споживчу поведінку, забезпечує довгострокові відносини між компанією та її клієнтами. Розуміння психологічних основ цього феномену та імплементація таких знань у стратегії розвитку бізнесу дозволяє створювати стабільні бізнес проекти і успішні сильні бренди.
Nghiên cứu này sẽ phân tích các yếu tố quan trọng tác động đến sự hài lòng và trung thành của cư dân địa phương với Bình Phước, đồng thời chỉ ra một số vấn đề mà địa phương đang cần cải thiện để có thể giữ chân và thu hút thêm cư dân tiềm năng đến với Bình Phước. Nghiên cứu khảo sát 424 cư dân địa phương và phân tích trên phần mềm SmartPLS. Kết quả cho thấy sự gắn kết và sự hài lòng có tác động đến lòng trung thành, trong đó sự hài lòng có tác động đáng kể đến lòng trung thành. Đối với sự hài lòng thì chỉ có phát triển bền vững và sự gắn kết có tác động trong đó sự gắn kết có tác động đáng kể. Dựa trên kết quả phân tích, nghiên cứu cũng đề xuất các hàm ý quản trị giúp nâng cao sự hài lòng và gắn kết của cư dân địa phương với Bình Phước, giảm hiện tượng xuất cư ròng như trong thời gian qua nhằm cung ứng lao động cho sự phát triển của địa phương.
This paper focuses on organizational silence and corporate decision making efficiency in the banking industry (Zenith Bank plc, United Bank of Africa and Polaris Bank Ltd, Edo State, Nigeria). The specific directions of this study were to determine the impact of defensive silence, level of trust and communication protocol on corporate decision making. The study adopted a descriptive survey design. The population of the study was 512 and the sample size was 225 full-time employees of the various banks. Questionnaires were used to collect data from respondents. Correlation analysis was used to analyze the data. The data was presented using tables, and the results were discussed according. Findings show that defensive silence, trust level and communication protocol have a negative impact on corporate decision making of Zenith Bank plc, United Bank of Africa and Polaris Bank Ltd, Edo State. The recommendations of this study were that the management of the various banks should ensure; they encourage employees to participate in decision-making, senior employees should not out rightly dismiss suggestions from junior staff and communication channels should be made easy and flexible for communication flows.
This study examined a restricted nonlinearity perspective of the relationship between perceptions of organizational politics (POPs) and work outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction and job performance), dependent upon the level of employee loyalty. Consistent with prior work, we conceptualized POPs as a demand that can have positive effects on job satisfaction and performance, up to certain levels, before negative effects are observed as levels of POPs continue to increase to more extreme levels. Drawing upon the transactional theory of stress, we then argued that this relationship would hold for more loyal employees. However, we hypothesized that these relationships would take a more linear and negative form for less loyal employees. Data analyses of a sample of 177 financial services employees offered mixed support for our hypotheses, replicating prior work that showed a nonlinear, inverse‐U‐shaped relationship between POPs and job satisfaction, and demonstrating an inverted U‐shaped relationship between POPs and both satisfaction and performance for more loyal employees, but not for less loyal employees. We discuss contributions to theory and research, limitations, directions for future research, and practical implications.
Günümüzün dinamik iş dünyasında birçok işletme çalışanların işe yönelik tutum ve davranışları ile ilgilenmekte, örgüte yönelik duygularını ise görmezden gelmektedir. Ancak birçok çalışan yaptığı işi sevmesine karşın örgüte yönelik olumsuz duygular besleyebilmekte ve bu durum örgütün hedeflerine ulaşmasındaki en büyük engellerden biri haline gelmektedir. Çalışanların örgüte yönelik olumsuz duygular beslemesinin altındaki önemli nedenlerden biri de örgütsel konularla ilgili karşıt fikirlerinin dikkate alınmaması hatta bunun olumsuz bir durum olarak değerlendirilerek bastırılmasıdır. Örgütler paylaşılan değerler ve ortak bir vizyon doğrultusunda hareket ederler. Bu ortak amaca ulaşmak ancak örgütteki problem alanlarının keşfedilmesi, bu problem alanlarının çözülebilmesi için doğru stratejilerin geliştirilmesi ve örgütün geleceğine yön verecek stratejik kararların etkin biçimde alınması ile gerçekleşebilir. Örgütsel vizyona ulaşabilmek ancak örgütlerin farklı görüşlere açık olması ile diğer bir değişle örgütsel muhalefet ile mümkündür. Eğer bir örgütte karşıt fikirlerin dile getirilmesine izin verilmiyor ya da karşıt fikirler desteklenmiyorsa o örgütte örgütsel öğrenme büyük ölçüde kısıtlanmakta ve örgütsel gelişim tehlikeye girmektedir. Örgütlerin başarıya ulaşmaları, çalışanların daha etkin ve verimli çalışabilmek için örgütsel problem alanlarına dikkat çekmeleri, etik olmayan uygulamaları sorgulamaları ve bunlara yönelik çözüm önerileri geliştirmeleri ile mümkündür. Bir organizasyon içerisinde etkileşime giren, farklı amaçlara ve beklentilere sahip çalışanlar açısından örgütsel konular ile ilgili anlaşmazlıkların ortaya çıkması kaçınılmazdır. Muhalefet her ne kadar yapısal süreçleri inceleyerek mevcut düzenden yeni bir düzene geçiş için, belki de organizasyonel statükonun kırılması için bulunmaz bir fırsat olsa da günümüz iş dünyasında anlaşmazlıklar ve bu anlaşmazlıklardan doğan muhalefet hala istenmeyen bir davranış olarak nitelendirilmektedir. Çalışanların anlaşmazlık ve karşıt görüş içeren bildirimleri yönetimin otoritesine bir karşı gelme olarak algılanabilmektedir.
Özellikle muhalefet hususunda yöneticiler çalışan davranışlarını kontrol etmek için çeşitli taktikler geliştirmektedirler. Hatta bazı işyerlerinde çalışanların muhalefet etmeleri
sebebiyle cezalandırıldıkları bilinen bir gerçektir. Bunun bir sonucu olarak çalışanlar,
kariyerlerini etkileyebilecek organizasyonel yaptırım ve cezalardan korktukları için ya da sorun çıkaran kişi olarak damgalanmak istemedikleri için sessiz kalmayı tercih etmektedirler (Milliken vd., 2003; 1453-1476). Muhalefet ettiklerinden ötürü dışlanmış ya da azar işitmiş çalışanlar gelecekte kendilerini ifade etme konusunda çekimser kalmaktadırlar (Garner, 2013; 373-395). Buna bağlı olarak çalışanlar muhalefetin yararsız olduğunu ve organizasyonel uygulamalarda bir gelişme ya da bir değişim yaratamayacağını düşünebilirler. Dikkate alınmamak veya seslerinin tamamen bastırılması birçok örgütsel değişkeni de olumsuz yönde etkilemektedir. Örgütsel muhalefeti ve diğer örgütsel değişkenler ile ilişkisini anlamak örgütsel amaçları gerçekleştirmek için kritik öneme sahiptir.
The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship of employees' perceptions of organizational politics and employee outcomes (turnover intentions, employee engagement, job satisfaction and counterproductive work behaviours) in an important yet neglected service sector-the higher education institutes. For the purpose of this study, data were collected from 678 faculty members working in the higher education institutes (HEIs) through self-administered questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, reliability analysis, correlation and regression analysis were applied for data analysis. Results revealed that POP was negatively related with job satisfaction, employee engagement whereas it was positively related with employee turnover intentions and counterproductive work behaviours. Further, policy makers are advised to design and implement clear policies and procedures to reduce the influence of politics in order to enhance the performance of faculty members. Results and implications of the study are discussed in the end.
In order to contribute to a more holistic understanding of employee loyalty, the concept and components of employee loyalty are derived and explained in this chapter. The loyalty of employees has different antecedents and breaks down into loyalty toward the supervisor, working group, and organization. These loyalties and further multiple loyalties of a person might compete with each other and are contingent on the situation. As a result, positive and negative human outcomes become visible. Many different theories make a valuable contribution to the theoretical foundation of employee loyalty and distinguish it from related concepts such as organizational commitment. Most intensively applied theories are social and organizational identity theory, social exchange theory, and theory of psychological contract. Besides these three theories and the concept, the evolvement of employee loyalty as a research subject is presented.
The employee loyalty research model predicts that employee loyalty is likely to provoke positive human outputs as well as negative ones. Positive effects of employee loyalty are well known and in many cases empirically proven. The main positive outcomes can be divided into how loyal employees solute conflicts, how they affect employee retention, in what way they influence the service mentality, how much work effort they put in, and what kind of work mindset they portray. However, empirical results for negative outcomes of employee loyalty are rare. According to the continuum of employee loyalty, individuals representing the levels “disloyal,” “non-loyal,” or “hyper-loyal” might show negative and undesired effects such as resistance to change, willingness to leave, counter-productive work behavior, work overload, or groupthink.
As empirical research is not capable of interpreting concepts, the structure of an empirical investigation is particularly relevant. This chapter starts with qualitative preliminary investigations that lead to hypotheses regarding the employee loyalty concept, negative outcomes, and intercultural comparison. The following measurement review of employee loyalty studies points out the dissemination of self-assessment questionnaires. Finally, the design of the German and the Chinese questionnaire is presented together with the sample structure, the applied employee loyalty items, and the analysis methods.
Psikolojik sözleşme ihlali, örgütsel adalet algıları ve işyerindeki problemlere verilen tepkiler çalışanların tutum, karar ve davranışlarının yanı sıra örgütsel sonuçlarla da yakından ilgili olduğu için son yıllarda araştırmacılar tarafından oldukça ilgi görmektedir. Bu araştırmanın bir amacı işyerindeki problemlere verilen tepkilerin hakçalık duyarlılığı ve cinsiyet açısından farklarının belirlenmesidir. Bu araştırmanın bir diğer amacı da psikolojik sözleşme ihlali ve algılanan örgütsel adaletin işyerindeki problemlere verilen tepkileri yordama gücü ve bu tepkileri hakçalık duyarlılığı açısından incelemektir. Bu amaçla özel sektörde çalışan 276 katılımcıya Kişisel Bilgi Formu, Psikolojik Sözleşme İhlali Ölçeği, Örgütsel Adalet Algısı Ölçeği, Hakçalık Duyarlılığı Ölçeği ve İşyerindeki Problemlere Verilen Tepkiler Ölçeği uygulanmıştır. Katılımcıların yaş aralığı 18-55 arasındadır. Araştırma sonucunda, tüm değişkenler üzerinde cinsiyet ve hakçalık duyarlılığı açısından bazı farklar olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. Bunun yanı sıra iş yerindeki problemlere verilen tepkileri psikolojik sözleşme ihlallerinin ve örgütsel adalet algısının yordadığı görülmüştür.
This research focuses on the relational dynamics between organizations. The goal is to link Hirschman's (1970) model Exit, Voice, Loyalty (EVL), to Galbraith's (1983) power model Personality, Property, and Organization (PPO). The study will show a preferential link between one power of PPO model and a mode of conflict of the EVL model. The existence of control over the dominant organization leads to a choice of a suitable mode of conflict for a strategic change.
Bu çalışmanın amacı; çalışanların örgütsel politika algılarının örgütten ayrılma, ses çıkarma, sadakat ve ihmal etme davranışları üzerindeki doğrudan etkisi ile iş tatmini aracılığıyla dolaylı etkisinin ortaya konulmasıdır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda gerçekleştirilen çalışmada kullanılan veri kolayda örnekleme yöntemiyle seçilen perakende sektörü çalışanlarından anket yoluyla toplanmıştır. Yapılan analiz sonucu, politika algısının çalışanlarda tatminsizlik duygusuna yol açtığını ortaya konulmuştur. Politika algısının örgütten ayrılma ve ihmal etme davranışıyla pozitif, ses verme ve sadakat ile ise negatif ilişkili olduğu ve politika algısı ile söz konusu değişkenler arasındaki ilişkide iş tatminin aracılık rolünün bulunduğu belirlenmiştir.
Workplace injuries happen every day and can profoundly affect workers, their families, and the communities in which they live. This textbook is for workers and students looking for an introduction to injury prevention on the job. It offers an extensive overview of central occupational health and safety (OHS) concepts and practices and provides practical suggestions for health and safety advocacy. Foster and Barnetson bring the field into the twenty-first century by including discussions of how precarious employment, gender, and ill-health can be better handled in Canadian OHS.
Although they address the gendered and racialized dimensions of new work processes and structures in contemporary workplaces, Foster and Barnetson contend that the practice of occupational health and safety can only be understood if we acknowledge that workers and employers have conflicting interests. Who identifies what workplace hazards should be controlled is therefore a product of the broader political economy of employment and one that should be well understood by those working in the field.
This study examines the effects of (in)consistent leadership behaviors in promoting (or suppressing) relevant work outcomes for temporary employees such as interns. Specifically, to better understand the drivers of internship effectiveness, we hypothesized that supervisor humor interacts with leadership style, sending implicit messages about the organizational and supervisory relationship, thus shaping interns’ attitudes and behaviors. Using a sample of 164 interns, we empirically examined the moderating effect of humor (affiliative and aggressive) on the relationship between leadership styles (transformational and laissez-faire), attitudes (satisfaction and stress), and behaviors (negligence and job acceptance intentions) using a two-wave research design. Our findings were consistent with the hypotheses, suggesting that humor needs to be tailored to leadership styles to predict interns’ attitudinal and behavioral responses, with different types of humor interacting differently across leadership styles. Implications for further research are discussed.
Conflict tactics in the face of the powers of sports organizations in inter-organizational relations
This research focuses on the inter-organizational relationships that exist between sports organizations to determine the existence of conflict tactics influencing the power that is exercised here. The three relational powers of Weber (1947) and the tactics of Hirschman’s Exit, Voice, Loyalty (1970) will be measured to determine whether an influence exists. The field of study consists of eight sports organizations that hold the main international sports events. The methodology is qualitative through interviews and data from the press. The results demonstrate the existence of a preferential link between relational power and a tactic of conflict that influence on the inter-organizational relationship.
Used a longitudinal study of heterosexual dating relationships to test investment model predictions regarding the process by which satisfaction and commitment develop (or deteriorate) over time. Initially, 17 male and 17 female undergraduates, each of whom was involved in a heterosexual relationship of 0-8 wks duration, participated. Four Ss dropped out, and 10 Ss' relationships ended. Questionnaires were completed by Ss every 17 days. Increases over time in rewards led to corresponding increases in satisfaction, whereas variations in costs did not significantly affect satisfaction. Commitment increased because of increases in satisfaction, declines in the quality of available alternatives, and increases in investment size. Greater rewards also promoted increases in commitment to maintain relationships, whereas changes in costs generally had no impact on commitment. For stayers, rewards increased, costs rose slightly, satisfaction grew, alternative quality declined, investment size increased, and commitment grew; for leavers the reverse occurred. Ss whose partners ended their relationships evidenced entrapment: They showed relatively low increases in satisfaction, but their alternatives declined in quality and they continued to invest heavily in their relationships. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Albert Hirschman’s contributions in Exit, Voice, and Loyalty provided a framework within which investigators could simultaneously examine people’s responses to deteriorating organizational performance and administrators’ responses to members’ or customers’ responses. Traditional analyses focused on exits – – people choosing to buy a firm’s products or leaving the organization – – and on competition between organizations as remedies for declining performance. Hirschman added the concept of voice – – people expressing dissatisfaction through some form of overt protest. Underlying his model was an implicit assumption of administrators’ responsiveness to exit and voice, whereas we posit that there are many conditions under which managers and leaders are highly unresponsive. These conditions were explored in Howard Aldrich’s 1979 book, Organizations and Environments. We apply these ideas to the non-market economies characterizing Eastern Europe in the 1970s, and we draw illustrative material from Poland to support our arguments, based on Lena Kolarska’s research.
Proposed that the 4 primary reactions to relationship decline are exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. Three investment model variables were expected to predict the conditions under which each response was most likely to be enacted: (a) the degree of satisfaction with the relationship prior to the emergence of problems, (b) the magnitude of the individual's investment of resources in the relationship, and (c) the quality of the best available alternative to the relationship. Four studies with 402 undergraduates provided support for the hypotheses. To the extent that prior satisfaction was high, voice and loyalty were more probable, whereas exit and neglect were less probable. Similarly, increases in investment size encouraged voice and loyalty, whereas lower levels of investment appeared to inspire exit or neglect responses. More attractive alternatives promoted exit and hampered loyalist behavior. Results are in agreement with investment model predictions. However, there seemed to be little or no relation between alternative quality and voice or neglect reactions to dissatisfaction. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies were designed to explore the ability of the investment model to predict job satisfaction, job commitment, and job turnover. The first study was a controlled laboratory analog of a work setting, and the second study was a cross-sectional survey of industrial workers. The results of the two studies were consistent. Job satisfaction was best predicted by the reward and cost values of the job, and job commitment was best predicted by a combination of reward and cost values, alternative value, and investment size. Both satisfaction and commitment were correlated with job turnover, but job commitment was more strongly related to turnover than was satisfaction. These results are in complete agreement with the investment model.
This research offers a new theory predicting the effects of three exchange variables, job satisfaction, investment size, and quality of alternatives, on four general responses to dissatisfaction-exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. Three studies designed to test model predictions received good support. High satisfaction and investment encouraged voice and loyalty and discouraged exit and neglect. Satisfaction and investment interacted, with variations in investment most strongly promoting voice given high satisfaction. Better alternatives encouraged exit and voice and discouraged loyalty. However, there was no link between alternatives and neglect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Academy of Management Journal is the property of Academy of Management and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
A 12-mo longitudinal study of 88 newly hired nurses and junior accountants (mean age of all Ss 24 yrs) tested a series of assumptions from the authors' investment model concerning the determinants of job satisfaction, job commitment, and turnover. In general, greater job satisfaction resulted from high job rewards and low job costs; whereas strong job commitment was produced by high rewards, low costs, poor alternative quality, and large investment size. Whereas the impact of job rewards on satisfaction and commitment remained relatively constant, job costs seemed to exert an increasingly powerful influence over time. Investment size also exerted greater impact on job commitment with the passage of time. Just prior to their leaving, the job commitment of Ss who left was best predicted by a combination of rewards, costs, and alternatives. Ss who stayed and those who left differed from one another with regard to changes over time in each investment model factor-those who left experienced greater decline in rewards, increase in costs, increase in alternative quality, and decrease in investment size than those who stayed. Turnover appeared to be mediated by a decline over time in degree of job commitment. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record
This study reports the results of a panel study of a theory predicting the effects of job satisfaction. Investment size and quality of alternatives on four responses to dissatisfaction - exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. Synchronous and cross-lagged correlations support the predictions for job satisfaction and quality of alternatives.
This paper reports the results of two longitudinal studies we conducted to find out when dissatisfied employees will respond to their dissatisfaction with exit, voice, loyalty, or neglect. We found consistent evidence that exiters were affected by the costs and the efficacy of their responses as well as the attractiveness of their employing organization. Loyalists were primarily affected by the efficacy of their responses, although, unexpectedly, loyalty resembled entrapment in the organization more than it did supportive allegiance to the organization. Neglecters were primarily affected by the costs and the efficacy of their responses, and voicers were very difficult to predict. We conclude by arguing that we need a much better understanding of voice and loyalty in order to predict better how employees will respond to dissatisfaction.
Party switching may be an important clue to the potential direction of parties. The impact of those who had once considered themselves members of the other party can be especially important if the switchers become active in their new party. Using data from state party convention delegates, the potential impact of party switchers was examined by investigating the congruence of the issue positions of party switchers to those of their current and former parties. The closeness of those positions to the current party and the disparity from their former party suggests that the effect of the switchers would be reinforcement of the status quo in both parties.
Marketing researchers have traditionally treated consumers' problems as an element of the marketing mix, a problem to be overcome by the marketing manager. The paper asserts that many consumer problems are general and may only be solved in the political process through actions by organized pressure groups. Theories and empirical studies of the social exchange process, organizations, and political pressure groups provide fruitful frameworks to structure and analyze research on consumer pressure groups. A menu of research topics outlines areas that may be of interest to consumer policy researchers.
For more than three decades, the “spatial dimensions of urbanism” have provided an important theoretical tool for studying urban government and politics. Unfortunately, the now rather voluminous literature on the subject remains “painfully eclectic” (Goodman, 1977, p. 245). This is especially true in the refining of various propositions concerning the linkages between jurisdictional boundaries and individual attitudes and behaviors associated with political participation. Specifically, two problems confront the literature. First, there is a lack of an integrated model that encompasses the full range of behavioral and attitudinal responses to dissatisfaction with urban politics and accounts for the individual's choice from among those alternative response patterns. Second, the literature only incompletely and inappropriately addresses the impact of correspondence or lack thereof between spatial contours of social worlds and political jurisdictions on modes of political participation. This essay addresses these problems by developing a model of citizen response to dissatisfaction based on recent theoretical elaboration of Hirschman's (1970) work and applying that model to the analysis of the impact of correspondence-noncorrespondence on participation.
Hypotheses were developed based on a coping model that views political behaviour (voice) as a fight response and turnover (exit) as a flight response to job stress. Data were collected from a group of professional, public employees and turnover dates were obtained for the group 13 months after completion of questionnaires. Multiple regression analysis was employed to test hypotheses. Stressors of interest were person-environment fit (P-E fit), role conflict (RC), and role ambiguity (RA). Psychological strains (job dissatisfaction and lowered commitment) were hypothesized to mediate the stressor-coping behaviour relationship. Turnover (TO) behaviour was the ultimate organizationally relevant outcome of coping behaviours. Job satisfaction and commitment were significantly related to intentions to leave. Political action was directly related to P-E fit and this relationship was not mediated by satisfaction or commitment. The relationship between RA and politics was moderated by commitment. Less committed employees tended to exhibit political behaviour in response to RA. Both coping responses (intentions to leave and political action) predicted significant portions of retention/turnover variance.
Voice, recently defined as employees' response to job dissatisfaction, is redefined to encompass a wide range of symbolic communicative behaviors. Variations of employee voice are described in light of the concern for corporate conformity. Voice in the workplace is explained as rooted in moral, political-economic, and psychological grounds. The model presented positions voice on active/passive and constructive/destructive axes. Voice in its various types is described as necessarily instrumental to the ongoing constructing and restructuring process of organizing. This essay concludes with a discussion of the several ways voice is legitimized.
Two multidimensional scaling studies were conducted to develop a comprehensive, inductively derived typology of responses to dissatisfaction in romantic involvements. Study 1 examined the responses of an undergraduate population, and Study 2 explored the reactions of a more heterogeneous, adult sample. The studies revealed similar patterns of results. In both Study 1 and Study 2, four general categories of response to dissatisfaction were observed: (a) exit—ending or actively abusing the relationship; (b) voice—actively attempting to improve conditions; (c) loyalty—passively waiting for conditions to improve; and (d) neglect—passively allowing the relationship to deteriorate. Two dimensions were distinguished among the response categories—constructiveness/destructiveness and activity/passivity. Voice and loyalty were judged to be constructive behaviors, while exit and neglect were viewed as relatively more destructive. And exit and voice were seen as fairly active, while loyalty and neglect were judged to be more passive (this effect was stronger in Study 1 than in Study 2). These findings provide good support for the Rusbult, Zembrodt, and Gunn (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1982, 43, 1230–1242) model of responses to dissatifaction in romantic involvements.
Critical issues of exit, voice, and loyalty. Unpublished manuscript
- J W Graham
- M Keeley
A. O. Hirschman'sExit, Voice, and Loyalty: A review of the model and prospectus for research
- J D Leck
- D M Saunders
Justice, satisfaction, and loyalty; Employee withdrawal and voice in the din of inequity
- J W Minton
Impact of job satisfaction, investment size, and quality of alternatives on exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect responses to job dissatisfaction: A cross-lagged panel study
- D Farrell
- C E Rusbult
- Y-H Lin
- P Bernthall
The measurement of organizational commitment
- R T Mowday
- R M Steers
- R. T. Mowday