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Seismogenic Origin of the Ancient Avdat Ruins, Negev Desert, Israel
Abstract and Figures
The present communication addresses the potential use of damage features, observed in the ancient ruins of the Avdat archeological
site (Negev Desert, Israel) as a tool to identify the seismic origin of the destruction there and roughly to determine the
direction of seismic wave propagation.
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... Oriented fallen columns or their imbricated fallen drums are common damage related to earthquakes (e.g., Nur and Ron, 1996;Stiros, 1996;Guidoboni et al., 2002;Korjenkov and Mazor, 1999;Al-Tarazi and Korjenkov, 2007;Kumsar et al., 2016;Fandi, 2018), especially if they fell aligned all with the same orientation (Fig. 1c). Fallen columns related to earthquakes are described, for example, at Byzantine Bishop's Cathedral at Sussita (Stiros, 1996), at Hierapolis and Laodikeia in Turkey (Kumsar et al., 2016), at the Lagina sacred area in Anatolia (Turkey) (Karabacak, 2016) or at Umm Qais in Gadara (Fandi, 2018). ...
... generate ED having equal distance and densities from the fault trace, the greater amount occurs closer to the fault. (b) In the case of reverse faults generates EDs at great distances from the fault trace and mainly in the hanging wall. In both cases, the ground motion pulse and the earthquake damage orientation (EDO) is normal to the fault trace.Mazor, 1999Mazor, , 2013Yerli et al., 2010;Korjenkov et al., 2019; Figs. 3a, 3e) ...
The information and seismic parameters gained from pre-instrumental earthquakes are essential to improve the seismic catalogs and hazard studies. The earthquake damage (ED) that affected architectonic elements during earthquakes (e.g. fallen walls, conjugated fractures in walls, dropped keystones in arches), and when this earthquake damage is orientated (EDO), can be used to infer seismic parameters of pre-instrumental earthquakes such as epicenter location, seismogenic source or ground motion. However, there is not a common methodology to measure this orientation damage. For example, tilting and fallen walls are some of the most used elements to infer the horizontal ground motion in non-instrumental earthquakes. Nevertheless, according to the shape of the architectonic element (a wall in this case), it has only two degrees of freedom to fall, and therefore, its azimuth does not necessarily fit with the ground motion pulse orientation. In this work, a review of the earthquake damage (ED) and effects described in pre-instrumental earthquakes is carried out. A method is also proposed, considering not only the frequency of damage orientations but also considering the uncertainty angle of each element to be damage. The ED has been classified into five groups according to the angle of uncertainty to record the pulse orientation. This method has been checked taking advantage of recent earthquakes with a good instrumental record of the ground motion pulse, and also tested modeling different scenarios with different pulse orientations. This method, that takes into account the uncertainty angles, is a reliable method to calculate the EDO and back-calculate the ground motion pulse orientation in pre-instrumental earthquakes in absence of more accurate modern instrumental records. This method can also be useful for seismic risk assessment and restoration and protection of historical heritage.
... This provides sufficient safety in most parts of the world. However, earthquakes cause horizontal loading of vertical structures, among others, which can be recognized by displaced masonry blocks, walls, and columns (Karcz and Kafri, 1978;Korjenkov and Mazor, 1998;Marco, 2008;Rodríguez-Pascua et al., 2011;Kázmér, 2015). Displacement is recognized either directly (e.g. a column is standing significantly off its foundation: Kázmér, 2021; a wall is bent or tilted: Fig. 11, or collapsed: Fig. 12) or indirectly (a wall was repaired by adding an unusual, often oversized buttress: Tassios, 2010). ...
... Only an experienced archaeoseis-mologist can distinguish the effects of the mentioned phenomena on buildings and constructions from the seismogenic deformations. The authors of the present work have been carrying out archaeoseismological works in different regions of the world for several decades (Korjenkov and Mazor, 1998;Mazor, 1999, 2001;Ovsyuchenko et al., 2015Ovsyuchenko et al., , 2016Ovsyuchenko et al., , 2017aOvsyuchenko et al., , 2017bOvsyuchenko et al., , 2017cOvsyuchenko et al., , 2019aOvsyuchenko et al., , 2019bOvsyuchenko et al., , 2019cKorzhenkov et al., 2016aKorzhenkov et al., , 2016bKorzhenkov et al., , 2016cKorzhenkov et al., , 2016dKorzhenkov et al., , 2016e, 2019aKorzhenkov et al., , 2019bKorzhenkov et al., , 2019cKorzhenkov et al., , 2019dKorzhenkov et al., , 2019e, 2019f, 2020aKorzhenkov et al., , 2020bKorzhenkov et al., , 2020cKorzhenkov et al., , 2020dMoiseev et al., 2018Moiseev et al., , 2019Moiseev et al., , 2020Gmyrya et al., 2019;Minchev et al., 2020;Novichikhin et al., 2020;Strelnikov and Korzhenkov, 2020), enhancing the methods of archaeoseismological studies and acquiring the valuable experience, some aspects of which have been generalized in (Korzhenkov et al., 2020b). ...
A good degree of archaeological study of monuments of in the Mt. Opuk area (southeast Crimea) allows us, in the very first approximation, to outline the chronology of seismic events. The revealed deformations of building structures, taken separately, and moreover, taken together, indicate their seismogenic character. In ancient building structures and cultural layers of archaeological sites in the Mt. Opuk area, numerous ruptures were identified. Fissures found in the ash pan, fading in the layer of the end of the 2nd-3rd century CE are typical seismogenic ruptures. It is possible that this earthquake occurred at the end of the 3rd century. The traces of two earthquakes are found at the Hill A settlement. The first earthquake is reflected in systematic clockwise rotations of the submeridional walls around the vertical axis. The seismic impact from this earthquake was directed at an angle to the mentioned walls, along the NNE-SSW axis. The building was preserved and repaired (buttress wall at the northern face of the southern wall of room A). The second earthquake , which was stronger, caused surface rupturing of the source and displacements in the SE part of the building, almost completely destroying it. The time when this room was destroyed dates back to the beginning of the 4th century BCE. Traces of catastrophic destruction are documented in the ruins of a citadel on the upper plateau of Mt. Opuk; the NW tower of the citadel experienced significant deformations; traces of two earthquakes are found in the barracks; the western curtain wall and the citadel wall were severely damaged. Significant seismic deformations were also studied on the so-called eastern defensive wall, which is most likely synchronous with the citadel. The citadel completely ceased to exist in the first half of the 6th century CE, possibly after a strong seismic event, which was the final one in a series of destruction of the ancient Kim-merikon infrastructure. Before the Saltovo-Mayatsk people arrived at the Kerch Peninsula, no traces of human settlements on Mt. Opuk or its vicinity were reported. The traces of two earthquakes are revealed in the manor belonging to the Saltovo-Mayaki (Khazarian) period of the early medieval Above spring settlement. The first seismic event led to counterclockwise rotation of all submeridional walls of the manor around the vertical axis. This shows that the seismic impact was directed at an angle to these building elements, namely, along the NNW-SSE axis. The building was preserved; only a retaining wall was erected at the southern (outer) face of the eastern wall of the room. The second earthquake was stronger: its intense seismic shaking collapsed both repaired and retaining wall in the southern direction, from where elastic waves arrived. The manor finally perished in the 930s-940s CE. Remarkable traces of strong earthquakes are observed in the topography of Mt. Opuk. According to the collected data, the main rupture on the mountain is seismo-tectonic in nature; however, the offset value was intensified multifold owing to seaward slip of the rock volume. The fault is a segment of the South Kerch fault zone, which is traced along the Black Sea coast. The last seismotectonic slip dated here in the area of the ancient city of Kitaia is thought to have occurred in the 3rd century CE, or immediately thereafter. Over approximately the past 4000 years, at least three seismotectonic slips have occurred here with a total offset of 3 m or more. The minimum traced length of the activated segment is 20 km. Using the known global relationships for the parameters of seismic ruptures, the minimum magnitude of this event can be estimated at M W = 6.6-6.9.
... Только опытный археосейсмолог может отделить воздействие описанных агентов деструкции на строительные конструкции от деформаций, вызванных сейсмическим воздействием. Авторы настоящей работы в течение нескольких десятилетий проводили археосейсмологические работы в разных регионах мира [Korjenkov, Mazor, 1998;Korzhenkov, Mazor, 1999;Корженков, Мазор, 2001;Овсюченко и др., 2015Корженков и др., 2016а-д, 2019а-е, 2020а-д;Моисеев и др., 2018, 2020Гмыря и др., 2019;Рогожин и др., 2019;Минчев и др., 2020;Новичихин и др., 2020;Стрельников, Корженков, 2020]. В ходе этих работ совершенствовались методы археосейсмологических исследований и приобретался неоценимый опыт, некоторые аспекты которого обобщены в статье [Корженков и др., 2020б]. ...
In the ancient building structures and cultural layers of archaeological sites we studied
in the area of Mount Opuk in the southeast of Crimea, numerous ruptures were revealed. The
revealed deformations of building structures individually, and even more so in their totality, indicate
a seismic reason for their origin. A good archaeological study of the monuments of Mount Opuk
allows us, in the very first approximation, to outline the chronology of seismic events. The cracks
found in the ash pan, damping in the layer of the end of the II-III century, are typical seismogenic
ruptures. It is possible that this earthquake occurred at the end of the 3rd century. Traces of two
earthquakes were found at the settlement “Kholm A”. The consequences of the first of them are
reflected in the systematic clockwise rotation of the submeridional walls around the vertical axis.
Seismic vibrations during this earthquake acted at an angle to the above-mentioned walls along
the NNE – SSW axis. The building survived and was repaired (buttress wall at the northern face of
the southern wall of room “A”). In the second, stronger, earthquake, the seismogenic rupture came
to the surface and displaced the SE part of the structure, almost completely destroying it. The time
of the death of this room is the beginning of the 4th century. Traces of catastrophic destructionwere also found in the ruins of the citadel on the upper plateau of Mount Opuk. The citadel’s NW
tower underwent significant deformations; traces of two earthquakes were found in the barracks;
the western curtain and the citadel wall were badly destroyed. Significant seismic deformations
were also studied on the so-called “Eastern defensive wall”, most likely a synchronous citadel.
The citadel completely ceases to exist in the first half of the 6th century, possibly during a strong
seismic event, which ends the process of destruction of the infrastructure of ancient Cimmerian.
Before the arrival of the carriers of the Saltovo-Mayatsk culture on the territory of the Kerch
Peninsula, life on Mount Opuk and in its environs temporarily stops. Traces of two earthquakes
were found in the estate of the Saltovo-Mayatsk (“Khazar”) period of the early Middle Ages in
the settlement “Above the source”. The first seismic event led to the turn of all submeridional
walls of the estate around the vertical axis counterclockwise, which indicates the action of seismic
vibrations at an angle to these building elements - along the NW-SE axis. The building resisted,
only a buttress wall was added to it from the southern - outer facade of the eastern room wall.
The second earthquake was more severe: intense seismic vibrations brought down the repaired
wall and the wall-crepida holding it in the southern direction, from the side of the source of
elastic vibrations. The estate finally perished in the 30s – 40s of X century. Expressive traces of
strong earthquakes are also observed in the relief of Mount Opuk. According to the collected data,
the main rupture on the mountain is seismotectonic, but the magnitude of the displacement was
multiplied by the sliding of the rock mass towards the sea. The fault is a segment of the South
Kerch fault zone, which is traced along the Black Sea coast. The last seismotectonic displacement
is dated in the area of the ancient city of Kiti in the 3rd century or immediately after it. Over
the past 4000 years, at least three seismotectonic movements have occurred here with a total
displacement of at least 3 m. The traced minimum length of the activated segment is 20 km. The
minimum magnitude of an event can be estimated using the known global relationships for the
parameters of seismic ruptures, within MW = 6.6–6.9.
A brief review of the main results of a study into the statistics of damage from natural disasters, in particular from strong earthquakes, is given. Attention is drawn to a certain discrepancy between the statistics of catastrophes indicating the possibility of rare earthquakes with especially heavy damage values and the practice of underestimating this factor in historical research. Examples of the decisive impact of strong seismic catastrophes of the past on the history of a number of human societies are given. In combination with other factors, these catastrophes even changed the nature of land use from irrigated agriculture to nomadic animal husbandry. It is also noted that the level of damage from natural disasters can characterize not only the strength of the natural impacts, but also the increase in vulnerability of human societies to strong external impacts characteristic of crisis periods.
A brief review of the main results of the study of the statistics of damage from natural disasters, in
particular, from strong earthquakes, is given. Attention is drawn to a certain discrepancy between the statistics
of catastrophes, indicating the possibility of the occurrence of rare earthquakes with especially heavy damage
values, and the practice of underestimating this factor in historical research. Examples of the decisive impact
of strong seismic catastrophes of the past on the history of a number of human societies are given. In combination
with other factors these catastrophes had caused even a change in the nature of land use from irrigated
agriculture to nomadic animal husbandry. It is also noted that the level of damage from natural disasters can
characterize not only the strength of natural impacts, but also the increase in vulnerability of human societies
to strong external impacts, that is characteristic of crisis periods.
We studied historical and paleoseismic deformations in the southern Issyk-Kul depression-on the territory of adyrs (piedmonts) of the Terskey Ala-Too ridge: 1) along the southern foot of the Kokonadyr-Tegerek mountains in the Ala-Bash-Konur-Olen intermountain depression; 2) in the Tossor river basin; 3) in the Chon-Kyzyl-Suu river valley; and 4) on the northern slope of the intradepression adyr uplift of Bir-Bash. We used 21 results of radiocarbon dating of samples taken in the walls of paleoseismological trenches or cleared natural outcrops. These studies in the south of the Issyk-Kul depression revealed 10 strong seismic events during the Holocene. We found that they had migrated from the west-from the Ala-Bash-Konur-Olen depression in the early Holocene eastward-to Mount Bir-Bash (by the beginning of Anno Domini) and then again back-westward to the Kokonadyr-Tegerek foothills (by the end of the Late Middle Ages). Some of the discovered seismic catastrophes may have been the beginning or the end of the evolution of some civilizations in the region (the Andronovo culture and the Karakhanids). The obtained data can be used to make the New Map of Seismic Zoning for the Issyk-Kul Region of the Kyrgyz Republic.
This article provides a critical review of the archaeological, geological and historical evidence concerning the southern Levantine earthquake of 418/419 AD, specifically its effects on Petra. Historical accounts indicate that the earthquake caused destruction in Jerusalem and elsewhere, but archaeological evidence is sparse. Numerous destruction layers at sites in the Galilee were attributed to the 418/419 earthquake, but these attributions have all been questioned due to the presence of material in these layers post-dating the early 5th century AD. To the south, the attribution of the destruction of the Spätrömisch II phase at al-Zantur, in Petra, to this earthquake has largely been accepted. This paper reviews the published evidence and determines that this, too, has been dated too early. Based on this evidence, I suggest that the destruction of al-Zantur Spätrömisch II occurred in the 6th century and argue that the 418/419 earthquake was a relatively minor event, primarily affecting the Jerusalem region. This has bearing on the dating of diagnostic artifact types found in this phase, notably the Negev wheel-made lamp, which I argue should be considered a reliable indicator of dates in the 6th–7th century AD. This, in turn, has implications for the dating of other sites, notably the Petra Church.
On March 30, 1986, an earthquake of surface-wave magnitude (Ms) 5.8 generated about 13 km of surface ruptures in the remote northern part of South Australia. This earthquake is significant because it occurred in the interior of the tectonically stable Precambrian shield (craton) of the Australian plate, about 2000 km from the nearest plate margin. The source parameters of the earthquake are described and their implications discussed. Investigations of the historical faulting at Marryat Creek, Tennant Creek, and Meckering in Australia and palaeoseismologic data from the Meers fault in the United States all suggest that intraplate faults may have long repeat times for surface rupturing. Based on these observations, it is suggested that the concept of recurrence intervals may not be appropriate for faults in stable continental interiors. -from Authors
The Ms = 7.3 Suusamyr earthquake of 19 August 1992 was a large, thrust-type earthquake in the northern Tien Shan of Kyrgyzstan, an intracontinental mountain belt in central Asia. Focal mechanisms of both the mainshock and 13 moderate-sized aftershocks are consistent with a seismotectonic setting that is dom-inated by NNW-SSE horizontal compression, which manifests itself in reverse fault-ing along roughly east-west trending, steeply dipping fault planes. The earthquake produced surface faulting at two widely separated locations, along two different fault segments, the total length of which was less than 4 km. Detailed measurements at one of the locations indicate a net slip of at least 4.2 ___ 0.4 m. A wide variety of secondary surface effects was observed in the macroseismic zone that extended over an area of 2500 km 2. The lack of extensive surface rupture from such a large event can be explained by a combination of (1) redistribution of the net slip at depth among the secondary splays that branches out from the main fault near the surface and (2) variable surface slip over the fault length. The active deformation associated with this event documents a structural style that involves steeply dipping, reverse faults extending from mid-crustal depths to the surface at nearly uniform dip, accommo-dating crustal shortening in the interior of the Tien Shan.
Over 700 joint spacings were measured along a 190-m scanline within a single limestone bed of the Turonian Gerofit Formation, southern Israel. By investigating joints belonging to a single systematic set confined to a bed of uniform thickness, one can factor out the major influences of bed thickness, lithology and mechanical properties on joint set development. Joint spacing distributions and fracture spacing ratios (FSR) vary dramatically along the length of the scanline, and correlate directly with throughgoing fracture zones belonging to the same tectonic stress regime. Regions cross-cut by fracture zones display narrower median joint spacings, FSR of ∼ 1.3, and unimodal joint spacing distributions. Where fracture zones are absent, joint spacings have wider medians, FSR of ∼ 0.8, and multimodal distributions. Because fracture zones most likely represent areas of high strain, and laboratory experiments demonstrate a systematic decrease in fracture spacing with increasing strain, regions of the bed cross-cut by fracture zones are likely at a more advanced stage of joint set development, and hence closer to saturation, than other regions. Joint saturation in the Gerofit Formation may be achieved by a shift in scale from single-layer to multi-layer jointing, as the development of throughgoing joints prevents the formation of additional bedding-confined joints.
Studies of ancient seismicity in the Levant are based on the interpretation of biblical, ecclesiastic and historic chronicles, all of which are plagued by exaggeration and misinterpretation. To verify the occurrence of such ancient earth-tremors, archaeological archives in Israel were searched for reports and evidence of ancient catastrophic damage, attributable to earthquakes. Literature and response to questionnaires revealed about 20 sites at which features of ancient destruction were assigned a seismic origin. The actual field evidence included horizons of total destruction, and mainly features of fracturing (joints, fissures, cracks and faults), tilting and subsidence, directed collapse and parallel alignments of fallen columns and masonry. About 75% of these sites lie within or near to the Dead Sea-Jordan Rift, confirming the seismogenic nature of this zone. In spite of their significance and usefulness, the archaeoseismic data cannot be employed as an entirely independent technique for the verification of ancient chronicles and the study of past seismicity. In addition to problems of operator's bias, and bias due to historic information, the critical examination of field evidence cited in support of ancient seismicity has shown that the individual features are difficult to distinguish from features of damage due to poor construction and adverse geotechnical effects. It is essential therefore, in the description of ancient damage and of consideration of its origin, to maintain a proper balance between geological, geomorphological and geotechnical factors on one hand, and historic, anthropogeographic and archaeological factors on the other.
The northern piedmont of the Tianshan Mountains consists of three rows of Cenozoic EW-striking fold and reverse fault zones, with en échelon right-lateral steps. The southernmost row involves sediments as young as lower Pleistocene, but there is no evidence of activity along this row during the last 30,000 years. The central row is composed of three linear anticlines (Houerguos, Manas, and Tugulu) and associated reverse faults. The northernmost row includes the Dushanzi, Halaande, and Anjihai anticlines and their associated reverse faults. Abundant fault scarps and folds of late Pleistocene to Holocene river terraces across the anticlines within the central and the northernmost rows indicate recent folding and reverse faulting. We divide the northern piedmont into the Dushanzi and Manas fold and reverse fault zone. In the Dushanzi zone, we excavated 15 trenches across scarps controlled by reverse faults and back thrusts. By comparing 11 trench logs among the 15 trenches, we identify three paleoearthquakes since 13,000 years B.P. The first event occurred between 11,300 and 13,300 years B.P., and the second and the third events occurred 6300-8400 and 3000-5000 years B.P., respectively. Considering the uncertainties of the data, the average recurrence interval for large earthquakes in the Dushanzi zone is about 4000 years. A large earthquake along this zone is expected in the near future because the elapsed time since the last surface-rupturing event is already 3000-4000 years. Three large trenches and several small trenches excavated across the fault scarps along the Manas fold and reverse fault zone reveal four events. The first, second, and third events occurred at 18,000-13,000 years B.P., 11,300-10,500 years B.P., and 6900-3600 years B.P., respectively. The fourth, the latest one, is the 1906 M=7.7 Manas earthquake. Field investigation suggests that the 1906 Manas earthquake occurred along a blind thrust fault. This earthquake formed three discontinuous zones of fresh surface ruptures, the longest of which is only 8 km long along the eastern segment of the Tugulu reverse fault, and was associated with a zone of uplift 130 km long related to the Manas earthquake. The average recurrence interval along this zone is probably 5000-6000 years. Therefore it is unlikely that a large earthquake will occur along this zone in the near future because the Manas earthquake occurred only 89 years ago.
Antithetically rotated lozenge-shaped shale pull-aparts are quite common in the shallow domains of the evaporite shear zones of the Jura in northern Switzerland. The pull-aparts are formed by synthetic shear fractures related to a transpressive strain field that also induces the antithetic rotation of the pull-aparts immediately after their formation. A simple analytical model shows that the acute angle of fracture, α, and the antithetic rotation, δ, are determined by structural and rheological parameters and the direction of maximum compressive stress. The pull-aparts are commonly separated by sulphate veins, as the elongation resulting from antithetic rotation does not compensate for the bulk elongation. Despite this, some pull-aparts are bordered by synthetic drag zones.Antithetically rotated pull-aparts are indicative either of compression normal to shear zone boundaries in décollement-type shear zones or, in shear zones deformed by simple shear, of an initial obliquity of the dismembered layers relative to the shear zone boundary. Resemblance of the shale pull-aparts to type 1 asymmetric pull-aparts and book-shelf structures, both of which rotate synthetically, demonstrates that rotated and asymmetric pull-aparts may be ambiguous kinematic indicators.