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Über (die Illusion der) Betreuungsalternativen und den Preis der Freiheit
Abstract
Jeder Fußballfan meint, er verstehe etwas von Fußball. Und weil in Deutschland Fußball die beliebteste Sportart ist, scheint
es bei uns jede Menge diesbezüglicher Experten zu geben. „Ein Bundestrainer reicht, wir brauchen keine 80 Millionen davon “, so titelte dementsprechend 2006 ein meinungsbildendes Wochenmagazin angesichts des (un-) qualifizierten Durcheinanderredens
der Fußballnation am Vorabend der WM im eigenen Land.
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
(from the chapter) This chapter deals with the discrepancy between recommended and actual practices in cross-cultural psychology vis-à-vis equivalence testing. Have these tests become too difficult and impractical so that they are only used by methodological diehards and do not solve but create problems? Or do the tests not address a practical need? It is argued in the present chapter that the computational complexity is only a contributing factor. Another factor is the dichotomisation of valid (genuine) cross-cultural differences and bias. Current equivalence analyses start from the assumption that cross-cultural differences are either valid or due to bias. It is possibly more realistic to abandon this dichotomy and to start working from the assumption that even at the smallest level, such as items, cross-cultural differences often reflect both real differences and bias. The first part of the chapter provides a short overview of bias and equivalence techniques. The second part presents examples of the studies that address each of the types of bias described in the first part. Examples in the chapter are selected to represent a wide variety of psychology fields so as to illustrate the relevance and applicability of systematic sources of variance that derive from other sources than the construct intended to be measured. The third part describes the contours of an approach in which bias and valid differences are not treated as antithetical but as complementary sources of cross-cultural differences. Conclusions are described in the fourth part. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved) (chapter)
This study tests the cross-cultural applicability of a developmental pathway model explaining childbearing as behavioral outcome variable. This is done by using the childhood context variables birth order and implicit prosocial power motivation, and explicit love for children in adulthood as predictors. The model assumes that the interactional context of having younger siblings during childhood shapes the development of implicit prosocial motivation which in turn influences the verbalized, explicit articulation of parenting attitudes finally leading to becoming a parent. After examining the data for comparability across three selected cultures from Latin-America, Africa, and Europe, the model was tested via structural equation modelling. Results showed that the model is valid for males as well as females and can be applied in all three cultural samples. These findings point at a universal developmental pathway by specifying contextual and motivational factors leading to parenting behavior. Implications for evolutionary, cross-cultural, and developmental psychology are discussed.
Group size covaries with relative neocortical volume in nonhuman primates. This regression equation predicts a group size for modern humans very similar to that for hunter-gatherer and traditional horticulturalist societies. Similar group sizes are found in other contemporary and historical societies. Nonhuman primates maintain group cohesion through social grooming; among the Old World monkeys and apes, social grooming time is linearly related to group size. Maintaining stability of human-sized groups by grooming alone would make intolerable time demands. It is therefore suggested (1) that the evolution of large groups in the human lineage depended on developing a more efficient method for time-sharing the processes of social bonding and (2) that language uniquely fulfills this requirement. Data on the size of conversational and other small interacting groups of humans accord with the predicted relative efficiency of conversation compared to grooming as a bonding process. In human conversations about 60% of time is spent gossiping about relationships and personal experiences. Language may accordingly have evolved to allow individuals to learn about the behavioural characteristics of other group members more rapidly than was feasible by direct observation alone.
The mating mind' revives and extends Darwin's suggestion that sexual selection through mate choice was important in human mental evolution - especially the more 'self-expressive' aspects of human behavior, such as art, morality, language, and creativity. Their 'survival value' has proven elusive, but their adaptive design features suggest they evolved through mutual mate choice, in both sexes, to advertise intelligence, creativity, moral character, and heritable fitness. The supporting evidence includes human mate preferences, courtship behavior, behavior genetics, psychometrics, and life history patterns. The theory makes many testable predictions, and sheds new light on human cognition, motivation, communication, sexuality, and culture.
This chapter focuses on the Darwinian view of human maternal investment which links evolved female reproductive interests and the dynamics of social groups. Parental investment can occur in different modes, time, energy, life risks, and different styles of parenting. It can be directed at very different developmental phases. This chapter concentrates on the postnatal maternal investment. In particular, it concentrates primarily on the phase of infancy, i.e., the first two years of infant's life. This is due to the fact that this time span is crucial for investment decisions with respect to the survival of the offspring. Moreover, it constitutes a brain imprint period with consequences for psychological development and thus adaptation.
This study investigates the relationship of theory of mind and inhibitory control in three samples from Europe, Africa and Latin America differing in relevant socioeconomic and psychological background. The relationship between false belief understanding and inhibitory control was tested using samples of 3 to 5 year-old preschoolers from Germany (N = 116), Costa Rica (N = 82) and Cameroon (N = 116). Inhibitory control and theory of mind were examined using test batteries. Age, gender, siblings, language understanding and mother's education were controlled. Results of regression analyses controlling for moderating effects of culture show a culture-independent relation between conflict inhibition and false belief understanding while delay inhibition is not a significant predictor for false belief understanding across cultures. Conflict inhibition is discussed as a universal developmental prerequisite for the development of theory of mind in the preschool years.
Arguments that symbolism started with sham menstruation rituals.
This book illuminates the realities of fathering by presenting the results of a unique empirical study conducted over four decades and covering four generations. Through case studies and data analysis, John Snarey demonstrates that men's care for their families reaps immense and long-lasting benefits—for themselves, for their offspring, and for future generations.
He examines fathers' involvement in three vital realms of their children's development: social-emotional, intellectual-academic, and physical-athletic. Looking specifically at fathers' relationships with their oldest children during the first two decades of their lives, Snarey addresses issues of fathering in both childhood and adolescence. He presents portraits of individual father–son and father–daughter relationships, and measures and defines the ways in which "good" fathers are constructively engaged in and supportive of children's growth.
Snarey also focuses on the fathers themselves. . . . [He] observes how various fathering experiences affect men at mid-life, in their marriages, and throughout their careers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Present conditions and selection pressures are irrelevant to the present design of organisms and do not explain how or why organisms behave adaptively, when they do. To whatever non-chance extent organisms are behaving adaptively, it is 1) because of the operation of underlying adaptations whose present design is the product of selection in the past, and 2) because present conditions resemble past conditions in those specific ways made developmentally and functionally important by the design of those adaptations. All adaptations evolved in response to the repeating elements of past environments, and their structure reflects in detail the recurrent structure of ancestral environments. Even planning mechanisms (such as “consciousness”), which supposedly deal with novel situations, depend on ancestrally shaped categorization processes and are therefore not free of the fast. In fact, the categorization of each new situation into evolutionarily repeating classes involves another kind of adaptation, the emotions, which match specialized modes of organismic operation to evolutionarily recurrent situations. The detailed statistical structure of these iterated systems of events is reflected in the detailed structure of the algorithms that govern emotional state. For this reason, the system of psychological adaptations that comprises each individual meets the present only as a version of the past.
We believe that a useful, complete theory of culture is simpler than the dichotomies promoted by the coevolutionary approach suggest. Culture can be regarded as an aspect of the environment into which each human is born and must succeed or fail, developed gradually by the succession of humans who have lived throughout history. We hypothesize that culture results from the inclusive-fitness-maximizing efforts of all humans who have lived. We think the evidence suggests that cultural traits are, in general, vehicles of genic survival, and that the heritability of cultural traits depends on the judgments (conscious and unconscious) of individuals with regard to their effects on the individual's inclusive fitness.
The challenge now before students of culture is to understand the proximate mechanisms, especially the ontogeny of learning biases, that result in the acquisition and transmission of cultural traits. How, for example, do we learn what constitutes an appropriate return on a social investment in different circumstances; i.e., what causes us to feel rewarded by, say, helping offspring who do not help us back, yet consistently to begrudge lesser expenditures to most others, or to feel cheated if we are not compensated for such expenditures immediately? We suggest that the answers to such questions lie in a few basic evolved learning tendencies.
Warum kehren manche Mythenmotive im Kulturvergleich auffallend ähnlich wieder? Warum hält sich unbeirrt das Gefühl, sie seien eben doch »wahr«? Norbert Bischof entwickelt und belegt die These, dass sie Erinnerungen an die eigene seelische Entwicklung wecken. So betrachtet werden indigene und biblische Schöpfungsberichte, Trickster- und Heldenmythen, aber auch, jenseits von Freud, das Ödipus-Drama zu einer Chronik der Entwicklungsdynamik vom Erwachen des kindlichen Weltgefühls bis zur adoleszenten Selbstfindung. Allerdings kann solche Analyse dem Mythos seine einstige Funktion, orientierende Lebenshilfe zu leisten, nicht zurückgeben. Sie erlaubt immerhin, seine modernen Surrogate, insbesondere radikale politische Ideologien, in gebührende Perspektive zu setzen.
Dies ist der zweite Teil einer Trilogie, in der Norbert Bischof seinen Beitrag zur psychologischen Grundlagenforschung in Sachbuchform dargestellt hat. Während im ersten Buch (Das Rätsel Ödipus) die vergleichend-ethologischen Fundamente einer Systemtheorie der Motivdynamik gelegt wurden, richtet sich der Blick hier auf die Persönlichkeitsentwicklung und deren Widerschein in den Bildern kultureller Weltdeutung. Das dritte Buch (Moral) dringt am tiefsten in philosophisches Territorium vor; sein Thema ist die Entstehung und der Stellenwert des normativen Überbaus menschlicher Verhaltensorganisation.
Ein Bankguthaben von DM 1 000 werde jährlich mit sechs Prozent verzinst. Wie groß ist es nach 20 Jahren? Natürlich kann man das ausrechnen. Man versuche jedoch zunächst einmal, das Guthaben zu schätzen, also eine spontane Antwort zu geben. Wie groß ist das Guthaben nach 40, oder nach 100 Jahren, nach 200 Jahren, nach 1000 Jahren?
A wide range of factors affecting the future of the family in Africa are surveyed. The author draws attention to the following points: the diversity of preexisting social forms and the differential impact of external pressures; the common features related to the nature of an agricultural system with relatively open access to resources and its relationship to migration and the growth of population; the effects of increasing population upon land and limited material resources; the lack of a joint family organization in the Asian sense which renders fission at the domestic level an increasing possibility; the strength of wider kinship ties of lineage which weaken under changing modes of livelihood; the effects of mass schooling and mass bureaucratic employment upon the economy with the development of salaried farming as a new mode of adjustment; the concomitant existence of neotraditional farming; and the reaction of all types of farm families to the high degree of uncertainty in all spheres of social life and the effect of such uncertainty upon decision making and activity within the household.
Stepparents commit child abuse and homicide at much higher rates than genetic parents. Proposed exceptions, including a recent claim that there is no such "Cinderella effect" in Swedish homicides, are shown to be mistaken. The hypothesis that only "mothers' boyfriends" abuse children excessively, whereas married stepfathers do not, is tested and rejected in an analysis of Canadian homicides. De facto marriage and steprelationship are confounded, but each is a major risk factor when the other is controlled. Abuse is a rare and presumably non-adaptive manifestation of discrimination, but recent research confirms that stepchildren are more generally disadvantaged with respect to positive investments. There are no known exceptions to the ubiquitous phenomenon of parents discriminating, on average, against stepchildren, but there is cross-national variation in the magnitude of these effects, and the determinants of this variability warrant investigation.
This chapter begins by describing how attachment relationships between rhesus monkey infants and their mothers are normally established and maintained throughout development. Next, those features that are unique to rhesus monkey infant–mother attachment relationships are examined, as is conflict within these relationships. Attachment relationships in rhesus monkeys and other primates are subject to influence from a variety of sources, and some of these influences are reviewed next. Some long-term biobehavioral consequences of different early attachment experiences are then examined in detail. Finally, the implications for attachment theory of recent findings regarding cross-generational transmission of specific attachment patterns in rhesus monkey families are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This book offers readers the first book-length attempt to define the emerging field of evolutionary developmental psychology, which applies the basic principles of Darwinian evolution, particularly natural selection, to explain contemporary human development. The authors point out that an evolutionary developmental perspective allows one to interpret aspects of psychological functioning, like gene-environment interactions and the significance of individual differences, differently than an environmental perspective that treats development only superficially. Of particular interest are chapters that explore factors influencing parenting and other aspects of family life (such as dealing with siblings); the role of play from an evolutionary perspective; and the interacting roles of an extended juvenile period, a big brain, and a complex social structure in human cognitive evolution. The authors present a hybrid approach to evolution and development, pointing out that, although underlying assumptions held by evolutionary and developmental psychologists have been at odds, each field has much to offer the other. This volume will be a useful resource for scholars and others interested in the relation between evolution and psychological development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study addresses the relationship between the amount of infant crying and maternal responsiveness to the infant's facial communicative cues during distress and non-distress situations. From an evolutionary perspective, the interpretation of infant crying as a communicative signal is preferred over its distance-regulating function. This view implies a relation between the amount of infant crying and parameters describing interactional regulation. Maternal responsiveness is operationalized by (a) the contingent reactions in a latency time span which define the intuitive character of parental behaviours (200–800 ms) and by (b) an event-based coding system of maternal inappropriate behaviour. Infant states (crying, fussing, sleeping and waking hours) were assessed by means of diaries kept by the mothers. In two samples (N=10, N=13, respectively), married, middle-class mothers were videotaped in free play situations with their healthy, firstborn children in their family homes. Results show that there is a strong intersituational consistency of maternal behaviour, but context-sensitive components of maternal behaviour could also be found. The contingency of maternal reactions during the free play situation can be regarded as a predictor of the duration of the infant's crying measured by a maternal diary. The whole pattern of the results confirms the regulatory function of infant crying in the context of early caregiver–child interactions.
Past research has demonstrated clear gender differences in reported mate selection criteria. Compared to women, men place more importance on physical attractiveness and women place more importance than men do on the earning capacity of a potential mate. These gender differences have been explained using both sociobiological propositions and differences in the relative economic power of men and women. The present study tested the structural powerlessness hypothesis as an explanation for women's greater emphasis on the earning capacity of a potential spouse. Samples of college students (N = 997) and community members (N = 282) were asked to report expected personal income and to rate the importance of listed characteristics in a potential mate. Consistent with past research, men placed more emphasis on the item Good Looks, whereas women placed more importance on the item Good Financial Prospect. Contrary to the structural powerless model, women's expected income was positively related to ratings of the importance of a potential mate's earning capacity in the college sample and was unrelated to women's ratings of the item Good Financial Prospect in the community sample. Findings are discussed in terms of both evolutionary psychology and gender differences in access to financial resources.
Killings of children less than five years of age by stepfathers versus (putative) genetic fathers are compared on the basis of Canadian and British national archives of homicides. In addition to previously reported differences in gross rates, the two categories of killings differed in their attributes. Beatings constituted a relatively large proportion of steppaternal homicides, whereas genetic fathers were relatively likely to shoot or asphyxiate their victims. A substantial proportion of killings by genetic fathers, but almost none of those by stepfathers, were accompanied by suicide and/or uxoricide. These contrasts lend support to the hypothesis that the differential risks incurred by children in different household types reflect the differential parental solicitude that is predictable from an evolutionary model of parental motivation.
Human biological and cultural evolution are closely linked to technological innovations. Direct evidence for tool manufacture
and use is absent before 2.5 million years ago (Ma), so reconstructions of australopithecine technology are based mainly on
the behavior and anatomy of chimpanzees. Stone tool technology, robust australopithecines, and the genus Homo appeared almost simultaneously 2.5 Ma. Once this adaptive threshold was crossed, technological evolution was accompanied
by increased brain size, population size, and geographical range. Aspects of behavior, economy, mental capacities, neurological
functions, the origin of grammatical language, and social and symbolic systems have been inferred from the archaeological
record of Paleolithic technology.
Incluye índice Incluye bibliografía Trabajo sobre el conocimiento disponible en torno a las raíces biológicas de la conducta emocional humana.
Homo sapiens is increasingly being studied within the evolutionary (adaptationist, selectionist) framework favoured by animal behaviour researchers. There are various labels for such work, including evolutionary psychology, human behavioural ecology and human sociobiology. Collectively, we call these areas 'human evolutionary psychology' (HEP) because their shared objective is an evolutionary understanding of human information processing and decision making. Sexual selection and sex differences have been especially prominent in recent HEP research, but many other topics have been addressed, including parent-offspring relations, reciprocity and exploitation, foraging strategies and spatial cognition. Many HEP researchers began their scientific careers in animal behaviour, and in many ways, HEP research is scarcely distinguishable from other animal behaviour research. Currently controversial issues in HEP, such as the explanation(s) for observed levels of heritable diversity, the kinds of data needed to test adaptationist hypotheses, and the characterization of a species-typical 'environment of evolutionary adaptedness', are issues in animal behaviour as well. What gives HEP a distinct methodological flavour is that the research animal can talk, an ability that has both advantages and pitfalls for researchers. The proper use of self-reports and other verbal data in HEP might usefully become a subject of future research in its own right. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.
In more than 95% of mammalian species, males provide little direct investment in the well-being of their offspring. Humans are one notable exception to this pattern and, to date, the factors that contributed to the evolution and the proximate expression of human paternal care are unexplained (T. H. Clutton-Brock, 1989). The nature, extent, and influence of human paternal investment on the physical and social well-being of children are reviewed in light of the social and ecological factors that are associated with paternal investment in other species. On the basis of this review, discussion of the evolution and proximate expression of human paternal investment is provided.
Primates in the classroom: An evolutionary perspective on children’s education
- J G Bernhard
- J. G. Bernhard
Zusammenhänge zwischen kognitiver, motivationaler und emotionaler Entwicklung in der frühen Kindheit und im Vorschulalter
- D Bischof-Köhler
- D. Bischof-Köhler
Cooperative breeders with an ace in the hole Grandmotherhood-The evolutionary significance of the second half of female life
- S Hrdy
Eltern-Kind Beziehungen im evolutionären Kontext aus soziobiologischer Sicht
- A Paul
- E Voland
Beauty magic: The origins of Art The evolution of culture
- C Power
Zur natürlichen und geschlechtlichen Selektion der menschlichen Individualentwicklung
- H Keller
- A Chasiotis
Evolutionary Foundations of Cultural Psychology Handbook of Cultural Psychology
- M Konner
Culture and Psychology: A SWOT Analysis of Cross-Cultural Psychology. Unpublished manuscript of Keynote, 7th International Association of Cross Cultural Psychology (IACCP) Regional Congress
- F Van De Vijver
- F. Vijver Van de
Grandmotherhood-The evolutionary significance of the second half of female life
- E Voland
- Chasiotis