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Relationships Between Locus of Control and Anxiety
Journal of Personality Assessment
Abstract
Reviews findings on the relationships between locus of control and anxiety and examines these relationships for three types of anxiety measures; general trait anxiety, situation specific trait anxiety, and state anxiety. In general, findings support the existence of meaningful relationships between greater externality and higher levels of both general trait anxiety and test anxiety. It was suggested that the relation between locus of control and state anxiety is a function of the situational context in which state anxiety is measured.
... Specifically, we theorize that employees develop distinct emotional responses to authoritarian leadership, depending on the degree of event disruption, and these emotions in turn induce leader-focused and general work behavioral responses (see Figure 1). In less disruptive-event contexts, employees seek to preserve their personal control (Burger & Cooper, 1979), which causes them to experience anxiety (i.e., state of distress in reaction to possible future undesirable outcomes; Archer, 1979;Brooks & Schweitzer, 2011) when authoritarian leaders deprive them of control. Anxious emotions subsequently lead employees to engage in dysfunctional behaviors toward their leader (leader-directed avoidance) and the job more generally (counterproductive work behavior [CWB]). ...
... In the secondary appraisal process, authoritarian leadership limits employees' capacity to influence their environment, which represents a source of anxiety (Lazarus, 1991a). Anxiety is a state of distress in reaction to possible future undesirable outcomes (Archer, 1979;Brooks & Schweitzer, 2011)-it is an aversive emotional experience that includes symptoms such as tension, apprehension, and worry (Kouchaki & Desai, 2015). Compared with other negative emotions, such as fright, that represent responses to overwhelming threats to physical well-being (Grandey, 2008), anxiety is more closely associated with uncertain and ambiguous threats (Lazarus, 1991a). ...
... According to the compensatory control model (Kay et al., 2008;Landau et al., 2015), in stable, less disruptive conditions, employees are motivated to maintain personal control, which is difficult with an authoritarian leader, who denies employees opportunities to participate in decision making or exercise autonomy over their own work efforts (B. S. Cheng et al., 2004;De Hoogh & Den Hartog, 2009). As a result, employees will sense low coping potential for themselves (De Hoogh & Den Hartog, 2009;Li et al., 2021), which causes them to feel uncertain about their capacity to deal with future events and experience anxiety (Archer, 1979;Lazarus, 1991a). We therefore propose the following: ...
Extant research demonstrates the destructive nature of authoritarian leadership in the workplace, yet its widespread use suggests that a more balanced view of this leadership style may be needed to identify whether this form of leadership engenders favorable reactions in specific circumstances. Integrating insights from appraisal theory and the compensatory control model, we posit that authoritarian leadership can evoke anxiety among employees in less disruptive settings, whereas it evokes feelings of awe in highly disruptive contexts. These anxiety and awe reactions then influence employees’ downstream leader-focused behaviors (i.e., leader-directed avoidance and affiliation) and general work behaviors (i.e., counterproductive behavior and job performance). Thus, whether reactions to authoritarian leadership are dysfunctional or functional is contingent on event disruption as a key boundary condition. Results from an experience sampling study (Study 1), a multiwave and multisource field study (Study 2), and laboratory experiments (Studies 3a and 3b) largely confirm these predictions. The findings underscore the importance of event disruption for predicting employee reactions to authoritarian styles of leadership.
... Both contemporary (Chiang et al., 2019;Mutlu et al., 2010) and older research demonstrates that the relationship between neuroticism and an internal locus of control is negative (Morelli et al., 1979;Archer, 1979), showing that increased anxiety may hinder the motivational processes underlying behaviours aimed at efficient problem-solving (Parks-Leduc et al., 2015). Recently, locus of control and neuroticism have been examined together for their impact on various clinical conditions, including suicidal attempts in adolescents (Horner, 1996;van den Heuvel et al., 1996;Beautrais et al., 1999). ...
This study aimed at analysing the psychological profile of early adolescents, which included the locus of control in situations of success and failure and traits underlying the Five Factor Model (FFM): extroversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience and agreeableness, depending on their level of neuroticism. This research is based on the Rotter's theory of rein for ce ment and the FFM of Costa and McCrae. The sample consisted of 286 Polish students (M = 12.97), including 137 girls (48%) and 149 boys (52%). The Five Factor Model personality traits were measured using the Picture-Based Personality Survey for Children. The locus of control was surveyed with the Locus of Control Questionnaire. Students with the lowest level of neuroticism had the most internal locus of control scores. In girls, regardless of the level of neuroticism, extroversion was associated with an internal locus of control of failure. The group of adolescents with the lowest level of neuroticism was characterised by significantly higher levels of extroversion and openness to experience than their peers with medium and high levels of neuroticism and had significantly higher conscientiousness and agreeableness scores compared to adolescents with medium and high levels of neuroticism, respectively. The results are analysed in the context of the impact that the locus of control and personality traits have on the mental health of adolescents.
... Similarly, Aβ1-42 levels might be associated with mental hindrance [53]. Aβ aggregation and anxiety in AD have a complicated relationship, and this relationship can cause anxiety [54]. According to recent research, exercise may have positive effects on AD and mental disorders. ...
Vitamin B (Vit B) plays a regulatory role in cognitive memory and learning. We examined the biochemical and behavioral effects of biotin supplementation (BS) and swimming training (ST) on Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common type of dementia, in male rats. Sixty rats were randomly assigned to six groups: control, sham (receiving phosphate-buffered saline), AD (receiving a single injection of Aβ into the lateral ventricle), ST (for 28 days and before Aβ injection), and BS (receiving BS through oral gavage for 28 days before Aβ injection). The treatments were continued until the end of the behavioral tests. Learning and memory functions were investigated through the Morris water maze (MWM) and depression and anxiety-like behaviors were tested by elevated plus-maze (EPM) and forced swimming tests. In addition, oxidative stress biomarkers, such as total thiol groups (TTG) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in serum were assessed and histological studies were performed using brain tissues. In the AD group, Aβ increased the distance traveled and escape latency in the MWM, but co-administration of BS and ST attenuated the results of the MWM, EPM, and FST tests. Furthermore, BS decreased the litigious biochemical effects of Aβ by enhancing the levels of TTG, in addition to reducing serum MDA levels. The use of BS as a potent antioxidant improved Aβ-induced memory impairment. It attenuated oxidative stress biomarkers in the brain (number of Aβ plaques) and serum of AD rats. We provide evidence for the use of BS in neurodegenerative disorders, such as AD, to elucidate the possible mechanisms.
... Research on personality assessment indicates that uncertain situations can threaten our sense of control (Amoura et al., 2014), leading to psychological discomfort and anxiety (Archer, 1979). Our results on the implications of superstitions corroborate this view, as individuals who held these beliefs about giant anteaters reported feeling worried, distressed and anxious when trigger situations occurred. ...
Superstitious beliefs threaten wildlife species, yet they have received limited attention in the scientific literature.
Through a mixed‐method approach, including 259 face‐to‐face interviews, we explored the factors influencing superstitions about giant anteaters in the Brazilian Pantanal and their implications for both people and the species.
Our results indicated that bad omen superstitions about giant anteaters could be explained by the psychological discomfort felt from the species' peculiarities, social influence, misconceptions about their biology and behaviour, and the frequency of the species' sightings. Age, gender and schooling did not influence superstitious adherence.
Interviewees holding superstitious beliefs of bad luck reported worry, distress and anxiety in trigger situations. Most engage in superstitious behaviours to ward off bad luck. While some acts were harmless, others threatened people and giant anteaters.
By explaining misconceptions and demystifying unique species characteristics that evoke psychological discomfort, conservationists might foster better coexistence between people and species historically associated with misfortune.
Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
... These unique characteristics and misunderstandings contribute to giant anteaters' mysterious and uncertain reputation. People might embrace superstitious beliefs towards wildlife when faced with unfamiliar and uncommon creatures, aligning with Malinowski's (Malinowski, 1948) and others' (Shermer & Marshall, 1997) observations on uncertain situations and model predictions (Abbott & Sherratt, 2011 Research on personality assessment indicates that uncertain situations can threaten our sense of control (Amoura et al., 2014), leading to psychological discomfort and anxiety (Archer, 1979). Our results on the implications of superstitions corroborate this view, as individuals who held these beliefs about giant anteaters reported feeling worried, distressed and anxious when trigger situations occurred. ...
1. Superstitious beliefs threaten wildlife species, yet they have received limited attention in the scientific literature.
2. Through a mixed-method approach, including 259 face-to-face interviews, we explored the factors influencing superstitions about giant anteaters in the Brazilian Pantanal and their implications for both people and the species.
3. Our results indicated that bad omen superstitions about giant anteaters could be explained by the psychological discomfort felt from the species' peculiarities, social influence, misconceptions about their biology and behaviour, and the frequency of the species' sightings. Age, gender and schooling did not influence superstitious adherence.
4. Interviewees holding superstitious beliefs of bad luck reported worry, distress and anxiety in trigger situations. Most engage in superstitious behaviours to ward off bad luck. While some acts were harmless, others threatened people and giant anteaters.
5. By explaining misconceptions and demystifying unique species characteristics that evoke psychological discomfort, conservationists might foster better coexistence between people and species historically associated with misfortune.
... Individuals with an external LOC consider that events depend on external factors that they cannot control (fate, chance or powerful others), while individuals with an internal LOC assume that events depend on their own actions and believe they can obtain reinforcements through work and effort (Sullivan, 2009). Research over the past three decades has shown external LOC to be associated with anxiety, indecisiveness (Archer, 1979;Hoehn-Saric and McLeod, 1985), hopelessness (Prociuk et al., 1976) but also aggression (Österman et al., 1999). ...
Background
Locus of control (LOC), individuals’ perception that events occurring in life depend upon their own behavior and resources or not, has been shown to be associated with mental health disorders. However, few studies have considered the role of mental health prior to 2020 in this association. This study investigated the relationship between LOC and clinically significant symptoms of anxiety and/or depression during COVID-19 while controlling for preexisting clinically significant symptoms of anxiety and/or depression and psychoactive substance use.
Methods
Online, self-report data were collected from the 2009 French TEMPO cohort. From March 2020 to May 2021, 904 individuals answered at least one of nine questionnaires aiming to better understand the consequences of the pandemic on mental health. The outcome was self-reported clinically significant symptoms of anxiety and/or depression, and LOC was operationalized as a score. Generalized Estimating Equations models were used to account for repeated data.
Results
We found a 30% odds decrease of experiencing clinically significant symptoms of anxiety and/or depression during COVID-19 for a 10-points increase of the LOC score (odds-ratio (OR)= 0.70; 95% CI=0.61–0.81), when adjusting for preexisting symptoms of anxiety and/or depression, loneliness, COVID-19 related stress and risky alcohol consumption. In other words, the higher the LOC score increases, the LOC becoming internal, the lower the anxiety and/or depression symptoms risk becomes. No interactions were found between LOC and other confounding factors.
Limitations
LOC was assessed via the Internal Control Index, developed a few years ago.
Conclusion
In a context of pandemic-related strains, this study provided an insight into the association between personality traits and internalized symptoms. The present results confirm the need for more Cognitive Behavior Therapies to help coping with mental health and feeling of lack of control.
Hypotheses were tested regarding the effects of subjective current, retrospected, and anticipated person-environment fit on affective and somatic strain and well-being. Two-hundred seven university students preparing for annual academic examinations at an Indian university completed self-administered questionnaires measuring parameters of the hypotheses. A distinction was made between cognitive (e.g., meeting demands for intelligence, good memory) and motivational (e.g., being able to muster the effort) fit. Cognitive poor fit had a greater effect on predicting high levels of strain across all time frames but did best in the past and current frames. Motivational poor fit had its greatest effect on strain when poor fit dealt with anticipated or current fit. These findings are discussed in terms of hypotheses, which suggest that the more subjectively uncontrollable a dimension of fit, the more salient it is in the past time frame, whereas the more subjectively controllable the dimension, the more salient it is in the future time frame.
We examine determinants of the objective and subjective financial fragility of 2100 individuals across Australia, France, Germany, and South Africa during the COVID-19 pandemic. Objective financial fragility reflects individuals' (in)ability to deal with unexpected expenses, while subjective financial fragility reflects their emotional response to financial demands. Controlling for an extensive set of socio-demographics, we find that negative personal experiences during the pandemic (i.e., reduced or lost employment; COVID-19 infection) are associated with higher objective and subjective financial fragility. However, individuals' cognitive (i.e., financial literacy) as well as non-cognitive abilities (i.e., internal locus of control; psychological resilience) help to counteract this higher financial fragility. Finally, we examine the role of government financial support (i.e., income support; debt relief) and find that it is negatively related to financial fragility only for the economically weakest households. Our results have implications for public policymakers, providing levers for reducing individuals' objective and subjective financial fragility.
The article presents the results of a theoretical and empirical study on relations between various manifestations of anxiety and indicators of the locus of control in applicants for filling vacant IT positions. Researchers' views on anxiety and its types depending on life and professional situations are described. The performed theoretical analysis has shown that interview anxiety is a common problem in today's stressful and fast-paced work environment. This is especially true for applicants for IT vacancies, as the evaluative and competitive nature of the selection process often creates feelings of anxiety, frustration and distress. Accordingly, applicants' anxiety during job interviews has serious consequences, as it may undermine the predictive validity of the interviews and lead to the selection of less promising candidates. In particular, high anxiety may lead to low interview performance, despite the fact that the applicant may demonstrate high performance on professional tasks in the future. We empirically found that applicants for filling vacant IT positions during interviews were more anxious in situations where they had to show examples of their work and cared the least about others' opinions about their appearance. As for general internality, the IT representatives in the studied sample were externals, they believed that most of the circumstances occurring in their own lives were a coincidence. This was the most evident in the areas of: health, interpersonal relationships and readiness for activities related to overcoming difficulties. At the same time, the respondents classified themselves as internal in the field of personal achievements. We found that the respondents showing externality in the field of achievements, their own health and with increased focus on their own failures had high anxiety when interviewing for IT positions. On the contrary, anxiety about the appearance during interviewing increases among those applicants who were internal in professional achievements and about their own life in general.
102 randomly selected university women were administered measures of opinion leadership in fashion, field dependence, locus of control, and anxiety. Product-moment correlation was used to test the association between variables. Opinion leadership in fashion was positively related to debilitating anxiety and negatively related to facilitating anxiety. External locus of control was positively related to debilitating anxiety and negatively related to facilitating anxiety. No significant correlation was found between opinion leadership in fashion and field dependence or locus of control or between field dependence and locus of control or anxiety.
Research involving perceived internal vs external control of reinforcement as a personality variable has been expanding at a rapid rate. It seems clear that for some investigators there are problems associated with understanding the conceptualization of this construct as well as understanding the nature and limitations of methods of measurement. This article discusses in detail (a) the place of this construct within the framework of social learning theory, (b) misconceptions and problems of a theoretical nature, and (c) misuses and limitations associated with measurement. Problems of generality-specificity and unidimensionality-multidimensionality are discussed as well as the logic of predictions from test scores. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
IT WAS FOUND THAT SUICIDAL STUDENTS FEARED DEATH LESS THAN LESS SUICIDAL STUDENTS AND WERE MORE AWARE OF AND CONCERNED WITH THE MANIPULATIVE ASPECTS OF DEATH. THE IMPORTANCE OF THIS TYPE OF INFORMATION AS AN AID IN THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE PSYCHODYNAMICS OF THE SUICIDAL PERSON IS NOTED. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated job proficiency, personal quality, employability, need for achievement, fear of failure, and 16 other personality attributes of 140 vocational rehabilitation clients in relation to their locus of control. Correlates of the locus of control were the S's compliance with rules, observance of safety practices, care of equipment, ability to work with others, work tolerance, manners in the shop, training satisfaction, and 16 PF factors B and G. Internals and externals showed significant mean differences on their ability to work with others, cooperation, self-reliance, courtesy, reliability, work tolerance, work knowledge, care of equipment, safety practices, compliance with shop rules, training satisfaction, need for achievement, and 16 PF factors B, G, Q1, and Q4. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Measures of external control, n Ach, debilitating anxiety, facilitating anxiety, social desirability, intolerance of ambiguity, extraversion-introversion, neuroticism, nonverbal ability, verbal ability, and field-independence were intercorrelated for a group of 84 male and female undergraduates (Group A). Measures of external control, n Ach, and test anxiety were intercorrelated for an older group of 199 male and female undergraduates (Group B). Results indicated a tendency for external control subjects to be relatively high in anxiety and neuroticism. Females in Group A were relatively high in external control. Sex differences were obtained in relationships between variables, particularly those involving social desirability.
A review of clinical, experimental, and field research on stress, together with the author's own research, provides the background for a theory that emphasizes the importance of cognitive processes. Harvard Book List (edited) 1971 #370 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)