No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview
Abstract
Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview.
Psilocybe, with 53 known hallucinogenic species in Mexico, is the most important and diverse group of sacred mushrooms used by Mexican indigenous cultures. Psilocybe caerulescens, known by the present-day Nahuatl Indians as teotlaquilnanácatl, is hypothesized to be the ceremonially-used teonanácatl mushroom cited by Sahagún in the 16th century, the true identity of which has remained obscure for centuries. Correcting a widely disseminated error derived from early published information on Mexican hallucinogenic mushrooms, emphasis is placed on the fact that Panaeolus species have never been used traditionally in Mexico. Reports of the use of species of Amanita, Clavaria, Conocybe, Cordyceps, Dictyophora, Elaphomyces, Gomphus, Lycoperdon, Psathyrella, and Stropharia as sacred or narcotic mushrooms are discussed. A brief history of the discovery of hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico is presented, as well as notes on their taxonomy, distribution, and traditional use in Mexico.
... While ancient use outside of Mesoamerica has been speculated (Akers et al., 2011;Samorini 1992), and objects such as the "mushroom stones" in Guatemala may also suggest a long history of use (Lowy 1971), these paintings constitute unequivocal evidence of the importance of entheogenic fungi including Psilocybe species in the Mesoamerican worldview prior to the arrival of the Spanish (Hernández Santiago et al., 2017). Despite the prohibition of hallucinogenic mushroom consumption by the Spanish inquisition, the use of Psilocybe species continues to this day in Mexican ethnic groups such as the Chatins, Chinantecs, Matlazincs, Mazatecs, Mixes, Nahuatls, Purepechs, Totonacs, and Zapotecs (Guzmán 2008;Ramírez-Cruz et al., 2006). Fifty-seven hallucinogenic Psilocybe species have been described in Mexico (Ramírez-Cruz et al., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funbio.2022 ...
... 2006); from these, 35 species and 9 varieties have been reported to be used by ethnic groups and mestizos mainly in central and southern Mexico. According to modern species concepts, these 44 taxa correspond to 14 currently valid species (Cortés-Pérez et al., 2021;Guzmán 2008) (Table 1). ...
... As a result, bodily ailment diagnoses, introspection, self-healing, and revelation of lost persons' locations can be facilitated by traditional doctors or shamans. While practices vary between indigenous groups (Guzmán 2008;Herrera 2007), in general ceremonies are always done with care at night in a quiet place guided by an elder or shaman, no meals, alcohol, medicine or drugs are taken in advance, and travel is discouraged for a week after (Guzmán 2003(Guzmán , 2008. In addition to these metaphysical applications, Psilocybe mushrooms are traditionally used by indigenous communities to treat anxiety, rheumatism, and as analgesics to relieve toothaches and stomach pain (Bautista-González and Moreno-Fuentes 2014;Guzmán et al., 2009) (Table 1). ...
Therapeutic use of psilocybin has become a focus of recent international research, with preliminary data showing promise to address a range of treatment-resistant mental health conditions. However, use of psilocybin as a healing entheogen has a long history through traditional consumption of mushrooms from the genus Psilocybe. The forthcoming adoption of new psilocybin-assisted therapeutic practices necessitates identification of preferred sources of psilocybin; consequently, comprehensive understanding of psilocybin-containing fungi is fundamental to consumer safety. Here we examine psilocybin producing fungi, discuss their biology, diversity, and ethnomycological uses. We also review recent work focused on elucidation of psilocybin biosynthetic production pathways, especially those from the genus Psilocybe, and their evolutionary history. Current research on psilocybin therapies is discussed, and recommendations for necessary future mycological research are outlined.
... Outside the formal clinical use of psychedelics, facilitated group ceremonies are unique naturalistic settings of psychedelic use with a long history that predates Western use of psychedelics [22,[100][101][102][103]. Psilocybin mushroom and ayahuasca ceremonies, which originate among indigenous and mestizo peoples in Central and South America, both typically involve various elements of ritual such as rhythmic music (potentially including drums, rattles, singing, or chanting), a group format, and a leader of the ceremony (the shaman, guide, or facilitator) [22,[100][101][102][103][104][105]. ...
... Outside the formal clinical use of psychedelics, facilitated group ceremonies are unique naturalistic settings of psychedelic use with a long history that predates Western use of psychedelics [22,[100][101][102][103]. Psilocybin mushroom and ayahuasca ceremonies, which originate among indigenous and mestizo peoples in Central and South America, both typically involve various elements of ritual such as rhythmic music (potentially including drums, rattles, singing, or chanting), a group format, and a leader of the ceremony (the shaman, guide, or facilitator) [22,[100][101][102][103][104][105]. Prospective and cross-sectional observational and survey-based studies from across the world have found a wide variety of immediate and long-term mental health and other psychosocial benefits associated with the ceremonial use of psychedelics, including decreased symptoms of depression and anxiety; decreased negative mood and increased positive mood; decreased posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms; changes in personality such as decreased neuroticism and increased extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness; increased social connectedness; and increased quality of life, satisfaction with life, and psychological well-being [19,22,103,[106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116]. ...
Studies of psychedelic use in naturalistic and clinical settings have suggested safety and mental health benefits for adults with histories of childhood maltreatment. Acute psychological mechanisms that predict therapeutic benefits in this population, however, have yet to be determined. Two common group settings of naturalistic psychedelic use – organized ceremonies and raves or other electronic dance music events – might facilitate therapeutic psychedelic effects because of the unique psychosocial environments they comprise. This prospective, longitudinal study sought to investigate 2 primary questions: first, whether adults with maltreatment histories planning to use psychedelic drugs with therapeutic intent at ceremonies or raves would see enduring psychological benefits after their experiences; and second, whether subjective dimensions of the acute psychedelic experience would be associated with post-acute psychological benefits. Eighty-five participants completed self-report measures in the month before, within 2 days after, and approximately 2 months after a planned psychedelic experience with therapeutic intent at a ceremony or rave assessing childhood maltreatment history; trauma symptoms, internalized (trait) shame, and connectedness at baseline and follow-up; and various dimensions of the acute subjective psychedelic experience. Mean scores in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, complex PTSD symptoms, trait shame, social connectedness, and general connectedness significantly improved from baseline to 2-month follow-up (d = 0.73-1.12). Longitudinal changes in outcomes significantly correlated with acute subjective effects of the psychedelic experience. These findings have implications regarding both the potential clinical benefit of psychedelic use among adults with childhood maltreatment histories as well as the psychological mechanisms of therapeutic action of psychedelics.
... By 1930, Pennsylvania emerged as a leader in A. bisporus production in the US, due to the consistent supply of horse manure in the area and remains a major hub for A. bisporus production today [32]. While little evidence suggests that Indigenous peoples in the Americas cultivated SCMs, many used wild mushrooms for food, medicine, art, ritual practice, and ceremony [33,34]. Although production of SCMs was not common in the US until the 1980s, by the early 2000s several small-scale SCM facilities were operating throughout the US [35]. ...
... It is important to note that many Indigenous cultures throughout North America have a rich history of using mushrooms and continue these practices today [33]. On a global scale, much of what colonizing cultures know about mushrooms as food and medicine comes from Indigenous knowledge [88][89][90]. ...
Producing and consuming specialty cultivated mushrooms (SCMs), cultivated mushrooms outside of the Agaricus genus, has the potential to positively impact sustainable food systems. Few studies have examined consumer perceptions of SCMs and industry-wide trends of SCM production in the United States (US), despite the USD 66.1 million in SCM sales in the US during 2020. This study looked at the barriers to and opportunities for cultivating, marketing, and consuming SCMs in the US by conducting a producer survey with SCM facilities in the US (n = 63). Survey results found diversification across products and practices within the SCM industry and on an individual business level. The most common place SCM growers sold their products was farmers’ markets (n = 63). The majority (53%) of growers (n = 60) used diverse (four or more) approaches to advertise their products. The majority of SCM growers (57%) indicated they had participated in a community outreach event in the past five years to help promote their SCM products (n = 63). Findings indicate there are opportunities for greater SCM business owner diversity. Our results indicate that production of SCMs may support economic, environmentally, and socio-culturally sustainable food systems and that there is further room for increased sustainability across the industry.
... To date, most psychedelic compounds that have been studied in clinical trials in the West have been synthetically derived (Ali, Gifford, Lowe, Gordon, & Grant, 2023;Ching et al., 2024;Goodwin et al., 2022), while this is not the case in other parts of the world (Cavanna et al., 2022;Osório et al., 2015). Amongst some Indigenous societies around the world, psychedelic plants such as San Pedro (Echinopsis pachanoi), brews such as Ayahuasca (containing the plants Psychotria viridis and Banisteriopsis caapi), and fungi like Psilocybe mushrooms, are ingested in their natural form (Apud, 2015;Carod-Artal & Vázquez-Cabrera, 2006;Guzmán, 2008). ...
Interest in psychedelic research in the West is surging, however, clinical trials have almost exclusively studied synthetic compounds such as MDMA, ketamine, DMT, LSD, ibogaine, and psilocybin. To date, few clinical trials have utilized whole mushroom/plant material like Psilocybe mushrooms, Iboga, or Ayahuasca. Individuals participating in the Roots To Thrive Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy for End of Life Distress program were administered synthetic psilocybin, whole Psilocybe cubensis, and mycological extract on separate occasions and post-treatment interview transcripts were qualitatively analyzed to discern themes and patterns. There was broad consensus that all three forms were helpful and similar, all generating visual and perceptual distortions, emotional and cognitive insight, and mystical experiences. However, synthetic psilocybin was said to feel less natural compared to organic forms, and the overall quality of experience of synthetic psilocybin was inferior to the organic forms. Research should be conducted with whole psychedelic mushrooms and extract in addition to synthetic psilocybin given this preliminary data, especially when considering that medicine keepers around the world have utilized whole mushrooms and plant material for millennia.
... Although the earliest documented evidence of magic mushrooms in rituals is in 1500s CE, mushroom stones dated from 1000-500 BCE were identified in modern day Guatemala which was, at the time, the location of the Mayans. This collection of stones featured simplistic humanoid shapes; some mimicked mushrooms with prominent caps, while others wore mushroom-like hats 14 . These mushroom stones are surrounded by some controversy, as some interpretations have stated they were used for pottery molds. ...
... Unfortunately, we cannot share details of these communicative experiences without prior consent from the knowledge keepers however, we can share other published examples of symbolic signs associated with fungi. One of the traditional names for the so-called "magic mushrooms" (Psilocybe species) translates as "sacred mushroom that paints or describes" by the Nahua, an Indigenous People from central Mexico (Guzmán 2008, p. 409) [58], which suggests a symbolic communicative relationship between the fungi and the traditional healer. The Mazatec, from the mountains of Oaxaca state in Mexico have a rich and unbroken tradition of sacred mushroom use. ...
The Doctrine of Signatures (DoS) figures prominently in both contemporary and historic herbal traditions across a diversity of cultures. DoS—conceptualized beyond its conventional interpretation as “like cures like”, which relies solely on plant morphology—can be viewed as a type of ecosemiotic communication system. This nuanced form of interspecies communication relies on the presence of “signatures”, or signs, corresponding to the therapeutic quality of different plants based on their morphology but also their aroma, taste, texture, and even their context in the landscape. Despite its widespread contemporary dismissal by mainstream science as overly simplistic, childlike, primitive, and generally of limited value, we suggest that the recognition of “signatures” in plants may be considered as a form of communication between humans and plants. Drawing upon Indigenous thought, ecosemiotic theory, and lyric philosophy, we posit that understanding “signatures” metaphorically, as a reflection of the “shape of the world”, offers insights into the interconnectedness of all life forms—a profound affirmation of relational coherence between humans and the more-than-human. We advocate for another perspective on DoS: one which holds potential towards reorienting and restoring our relationships in the vibrant world of the Anthropocene.
... Artifacts such as mushroom stones have been found in ancient Mesoamerican sites. 3 The Aztecs had a reverence for these mushrooms and believed they were a gift from the gods. 4 The modern scientific study of psilocybin began when it was isolated and synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann in 1958. ...
Background
The primary psychoactive drug in magic mushrooms, psilocybin, induces profound alterations in consciousness through the 5-HT 2A receptor. This review consolidates current research findings to elucidate the pharmacology, safety profile, and clinical applications of psilocybin.
Areas of Uncertainty
Despite initial concerns that psilocybin could cause psychosis, contemporary research has demonstrated that psilocybin is generally safe. The most common adverse effects are nausea and headache, yet both tend to be transient. Serious adverse events can generally be avoided in controlled settings such as clinical trials. However, in the largest clinical trial to date, there were a total of 7 reported cases of suicidal ideation, up to 12 weeks after receiving a single 25 mg dose of psilocybin. That being said, all 7 cases did not respond to the treatment. Although selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors may blunt the hallucinogenic qualities of psilocybin, preliminary research suggests that they may enhance its antidepressant effects.
Therapeutic Advances
In clinical trials, psilocybin has shown promise for treating major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant depression. Initial studies indicated that 42%–57% of patients underwent remission after psilocybin-assisted therapy, which suggests that psilocybin is more effective than existing antidepressant medications. Clinical data have also demonstrated that psilocybin can manage substance use disorders and end-of-life anxiety with clinical outcomes that are sustained for months and sometimes years after 1 or 2 doses.
Limitations
However, larger Phase II trials with more than 100 depressed participants have shown a much smaller remission rate of 25%–29%, though these studies still observed that psilocybin causes a significant reduction in depressive symptoms.
Conclusions
Aside from ketamine, psilocybin is the most clinically well-researched psychedelic drug, with trials that have enrolled hundreds of participants and multiple therapeutic applications. Phase III trials will determine whether psilocybin lives up to the promise that it showed in previous clinical trials.
... Mexico has been given its own section because it has attracted the most academic interest, being the country by far the richest in psilocybin fungi, home to at least 20 confirmed recognized species of the genus Psilocybe alone (Cortés-Pérez et al., 2021). Several of these mushroom species are central components of the curative and ceremonial practices of Indigenous peoples from the region, including Nahuas in the states of Mexico, Morelos, and Puebla; the Matlazincs in the state of Mexico; the Totonacs in Veracruz; and the Mazatecs, Mixes, Zapotecs, and Chatins in Oaxaca (Guzmán, 2008(Guzmán, , 2019. No less than 200 common names in Indigenous languages for psychoactive mushrooms have been recorded throughout the country (Guzmán, 1997), reflecting this biocultural diversity. ...
... Mexico has been given its own section because it has attracted the most academic interest, being the country by far the richest in psilocybin fungi, home to at least 20 confirmed recognized species of the genus Psilocybe alone (Cortés-Pérez et al., 2021). Several of these mushroom species are central components of the curative and ceremonial practices of Indigenous peoples from the region, including Nahuas in the states of Mexico, Morelos, and Puebla; the Matlazincs in the state of Mexico; the Totonacs in Veracruz; and the Mazatecs, Mixes, Zapotecs, and Chatins in Oaxaca (Guzmán, 2008(Guzmán, , 2019. No less than 200 common names in Indigenous languages for psychoactive mushrooms have been recorded throughout the country (Guzmán, 1997), reflecting this biocultural diversity. ...
This annotated bibliography comprises 49 texts concerning psilocybin mushroom practices developed by Indigenous peoples. The books and articles have been selected for their academic rigor, relevance, and historical significance, and to foreground overlooked research and subject matter. This includes research on a plurality of contemporary practices and evidence of historical uses, from cultural traditions in Mexico and other regions of the world. The curated texts are sourced from various disciplines, including anthropology, history, archaeology, ethnolinguistics, and ethnomycology. Employing diverse methodological and analytical frameworks, the texts explore the diversity of ways Indigenous cultures have related with, utilized, and conceptualized psilocybin mushrooms and the effects occasioned by their consumption. The annotations include brief summaries of the texts, contextualization of the research, and more critical appraisals. The aim of this annotated bibliography is to offer the reader a diverse overview of the research to date and provide an accessible resource for further exploration of historical and contemporary Indigenous psilocybin practices. The team of psychedelic researchers behind this annotated bibliography hope it will contribute to more nuanced dialogue around Indigenous people and practices in the context of the so-called psychedelic renaissance.
... Psilocybin and psilocin are the primary hallucinogenic alkaloids found in psychedelic mushrooms (Wieczorek et al., 2015) from the basidiomycete genera Psilocybe, Inocybe, Panaeolus, Gymnopilus, Copelandia, Hyboloma, Pluteus, Conocybe, and Panaeolina [also referred to as hallucinogenic, entheogenic, "magic", medicinal, neurotropic, psychoactive, sacred, and saint mushrooms (Guzmań, 2008)]. Psilocin exerts a neurologic effect by binding to serotonin subtype 2A receptors (5-HT 2A ) and producing neuropsychological effects, including oceanic boundlessness, anxious ego dissolution, visionary restructuring, auditory alterations, and reduction of vigilance; collectively, these comprise the "psychedelic experience" (Hasler et al., 2004). ...
Psilocybe mushrooms, otherwise known as "magic" mushrooms, owe their psychedelic effect to psilocin, a serotonin subtype 2A (5-HT2A) receptor agonist and metabolite of psilocybin, the primary indole alkaloid found in Psilocybe species. Metabolomics is an advanced fingerprinting tool that can be utilized to identify the differences among fungal life stages that may otherwise be unaccounted for. In this study, by using targeted and untargeted (metabolomic) multivariate analysis, we demonstrate that the chemical composition of Psilocybe differs among mycelia, grain mycelia, and fruiting bodies. The preferential accumulation of psilocybin, baeocystin, tryptophan, ergothioneine, and phenylethylamine in fruiting bodies differentiated them from mycelia; however, the levels of alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine (α-GPC), N-acetylglucosamine, and trimethylglycine were found to be proportionally higher in mycelia than in fruiting bodies based on Pareto-scaled data. Considering the wealth of compounds with therapeutic potential that have been isolated from various fungal genera, it would be pertinent to study the compounds found in Psilocybe mycelia as potential naturally derived therapeutic targets.
... Artifacts such as mushroom stones have been found in ancient Mesoamerican sites. 3 The Aztecs had a reverence for these mushrooms and believed they were a gift from the gods. 4 The modern scientific study of psilocybin began when it was isolated and synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann in 1958. ...
Background: The primary psychoactive drug in magic mushrooms, psilocybin induces profound alterations in consciousness through its action at the 5-HT2A receptor. This comprehensive review consolidates current research findings to elucidate the pharmacology, safety profile, and clinical applications of psilocybin.Areas of Uncertainty: Despite initial concerns that psilocybin could cause long-lasting mental health problems such as psychosis, contemporary research has demonstrated that psilocybin is psychologically and physiologically safe. Adverse psychiatric outcomes can generally be avoided in controlled settings such as clinical trials. However, considerations regarding optimal dosing, therapeutic protocols, and integration strategies for psychedelic experiences remain imperative for the responsible clinical implementation of psilocybin-assisted therapy. Therapeutic Advances: In clinical trials, psilocybin has shown promise for treating major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant depression. Initial studies indicated that 42-57% of patients underwent remission after psilocybin-assisted therapy, which suggests that psilocybin is more effective than existing antidepressant medications. However, larger Phase II trials with more than 100 participants have shown a much smaller remission rate of 25-29%, though these studies still observed that psilocybin causes a significant reduction in depressive symptoms. Clinical data has also demonstrated that psilocybin can manage substance use disorders and end-of-life anxiety.Conclusion: Psilocybin is the most clinically well-researched psychedelic drug, with trials that have enrolled hundreds of participants and therapeutic applications that span multiple psychiatric conditions. Phase III trials, which have already commenced, will determine whether psilocybin lives up to the promise that it showed in previous clinical trials.
... Indigenous Mesoamerican cultures shared immersive connections with Psilocybe species before the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century. It is well documented that Indigenous communities of this historical region considered Psilocybe mushrooms to have both medicinal and sacred significance for use in both religious rituals and in daily life (Guzmán, 2008;Lowy, 1980). Although traditions of societies such as the Mazatec, Aztec, and Zapotec were oppressed with colonization, representations of their beliefs and rituals persist within different pieces of art, ceramics, stone, and various codices (Guzmán, 2003;Lowy, 1980). ...
Psychedelic mushrooms containing psilocybin and related tryptamines have long been used for ethnomycological purposes, but emerging evidence points to the potential therapeutic value of these mushrooms to address modern neurological, psychiatric health, and related disorders. As a result, psilocybin containing mushrooms represent a re-emerging frontier for mycological, biochemical, neuroscience, and pharmacology research. This work presents crucial information related to traditional use of psychedelic mushrooms, as well as research trends and knowledge gaps related to their diversity and distribution, technologies for quantification of tryptamines and other tryptophan-derived metabolites, as well as biosynthetic mechanisms for their production within mushrooms. In addition, we explore the current state of knowledge for how psilocybin and related tryptamines are metabolized in humans and their pharmacological effects, including beneficial and hazardous human health implications. Finally, we describe opportunities and challenges for investigating the cultural production of psychedelic mushrooms and metabolic engineering approaches to alter secondary metabolite production through biotechnology approaches integrated with machine learning. Ultimately, this critical review of all aspects related to psychedelic mushrooms represents a roadmap for future research efforts that will pave the way to new applications and refined protocols.
... Mushrooms are endowed with ample amount of proteins, polysaccharides and dietary fiber, moreover mushrooms possess low amounts of overall fat and non-essential saturated and mono-unsaturated fatty acids but contain ample amount of essential poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (Carrera et al., 2005). Mushrooms are known to play a significant role for mankind as provisions, poison, medicine, in folklore, and in spiritual practices (Militoris, 2001;Guzman, 2008). Ethnomycology is the scientific study of identification and documentation of indigenous knowledge regarding the uses of wild mushrooms as food, medicine or in some cultural traditions. ...
... First isolated and identified in 1958 by Albert Hoffman from the fungal species Psilocybe mexicana, psilocybin is the main psychoactive molecule found in close to 300 species of psychoactive mushrooms (Guzmán, 2005). Sacramental use of the Psilocybe genus of gilled fungi in Mesoamerica has been dated to 500 BC (Guerra-Doce, 2015), with shamanic ceremonial healing traditions documented among many Indigenous populations throughout central and southern Mexico, as well as among the Yurimagua of Peru (Schultes & Raffauf 1993, Guzmán, 2008, McKenna & Riba, 2016. Psilocybin-containing mushrooms are globally distributed (Guzmán et al., 1998) and evidence suggests their ancient ritual use in Africa and Europe (Froese et al., 2016). ...
A rapid review synthesizing published research on the possible therapeutic applications of psychedelics.
... Ülkemizde her yıl sadece kırsal kesimlerde değil, şehirlerde orman gezilerinde de mantar yeme nedeniyle ölümle sonuçlanan ciddi zehirlenmeler görülmektedir. 1 Mantarın türü, yenen mantarın miktarı, mevsim, mantarın yaşı, coğrafik bölgesi ve hazırlanış şekline; ayrıca zehirlenen bireylere göre de toksik bulgular değişebilir. 14 ...
... Recently, there has been a growing trend to consider wild mushrooms as a valuable non-wood forest resource (Pérez et al., 2021a). In Mexico, knowledge related to the sustainable exploitation, management and use of wild mushrooms is a cultural heritage that dates back to pre-Hispanic times (Wasson, 1983;Guzmán, 2008;Moreno 2014, Pérez et al., 2021b. Traditional mycological knowledge in the country is extensive; however, its understanding in the 68 Mexican ethnic groups is far to be complete. ...
Antecedentes: Los estudios etnomicológicos realizados en la región mazateca, al norte del estado de Oaxaca, México,
se han enfocado principalmente a especies del género Psilocybe por su importancia ceremonial y de sanación entre los
mazatecos de la parte alta. En contraste, el conocimiento y las percepciones locales del uso de otras especies con importancia biocultural y vocablos relacionados a las especies fúngicas han recibido escasa atención.
Objetivo: Registrar los vocablos y nomenclatura local relacionada con las especies fúngicas con importancia biocultural
para los habitantes de la comunidad mazateca de Eloxochitlán de Flores Magón, estado de Oaxaca.
Métodos: Se realizaron entrevistas estructuradas, semiestructuradas y no estructuradas, recorridos y recolectas de material fúngico en campo durante la época de lluvia de 2017 al 2021.
Resultados y conclusiones: Se registraron 116 vocablos relacionados con el recurso micológico en la comunidad desde
la cosmovisión mazateca. Dicha nomenclatura se asocia a 27 especies de hongos silvestres con importancia biocultural
en la comunidad de estudio. Este estudio documenta que un rico conocimiento micológico pervive a pesar de los fuertes
procesos de transculturación a los cuales actualmente es sometida la comunidad mazateca.
Background: Ethnomycological studies carried out in the Mazatec region in the north of the state of Oaxaca, Mexico,
have focused mainly on Psilocybe species due to their great ceremonial importance among this ethnic group. In contrast,
the knowledge and local perceptions related to the use of other species with biocultural importance and their vocabulary
so far have been scarcely studied.
Objective: To register the vocabulary and local nomenclature related to the fungal species with biocultural importance
for the inhabitants of the Mazatec community of Eloxochitlán de Flores Magón, Oaxaca, Mexico.
Methods: Structured, semi-structured and unstructured interviews, visits and sampling of fungal material in the field were
carried out during the rainy seasons from 2017 to 2021.
Results and conclusions: One hundred and sixteen Mazatec words related to the mycological resource were recorded.
This nomenclature was associated with 27 species of wild fungi with biocultural importance in the study community. This
study documents for the first time that a rich traditional mycological knowledge survives despite the strong transculturation processes to which the Mazatec culture is currently subjected
... Other natural sources for psychedelic drugs are psilocybin mushrooms, including the biological genera of Copelandia, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Panaeolus, Pholiotina, Pluteus, and Psilocybe. These were used since prehistorical times for religious, divinatory, or spiritual purposes in Europe, Africa, and the Americas [178,179]. ...
According to recent studies, migraine affects more than 1 billion people worldwide, making it one of the world’s most prevalent diseases. Although this highly debilitating illness has been known since ancient times, the first therapeutic drugs to treat migraine, ergotamine (Gynergen) and dihydroergotamine (Dihydergot), did not appear on the market until 1921 and 1946, respectively. Both drugs originated from Sandoz, the world’s leading pharmaceutical company in ergot alkaloid research at the time. Historically, ergot alkaloids had been primarily used in obstetrics, but with methysergide (1-methyl-lysergic acid 1′-hydroxy-butyl-(2S)-amide), it became apparent that they also held some potential in migraine treatment. Methysergide was the first effective prophylactic drug developed specifically to prevent migraine attacks in 1959. On the basis of significantly improved knowledge of migraine pathophysiology and the discovery of serotonin and its receptors, Glaxo was able to launch sumatriptan in 1992. It was the first member from the class of triptans, which are selective 5-HT1B/1D receptor agonists. Recent innovations in acute and preventive migraine therapy include lasmiditan, a selective 5-HT1F receptor agonist from Eli Lilly, the gepants, which are calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) receptor antagonists discovered at Merck & Co and BMS, and anti-CGRP/receptor monoclonal antibodies from Amgen, Pfizer, Eli Lilly, and others.
Graphical abstract
... Recently, there has been a growing trend to consider wild mushrooms as a valuable non-wood forest resource (Pérez et al., 2021a). In Mexico, knowledge related to the sustainable exploitation, management and use of wild mushrooms is a cultural heritage that dates back to pre-Hispanic times (Wasson, 1983;Guzmán, 2008;Moreno 2014, Pérez et al., 2021b. Traditional mycological knowledge in the country is extensive; however, its understanding in the 68 Mexican ethnic groups is far to be complete. ...
Aim of study: To document for the first-time the biocultural knowledge related to the use, nomenclature, and classification of wild mushrooms by the Mazatec culture, cradle of the ethnomycology.
Area of study: Municipality of Eloxochitlán de Flores Magón and communities of San José Buena Vista and Agua Ancha, belonging to the state of Oaxaca, in southern Mexico.
Materials and methods: A total of 291 interviews were performed by using numerical ethnomycological methods, during the rainy seasons, between 2017 and 2021. Based on the knowledge of local experts, fungal specimens with biocultural relevance were collected. Socio-demographic information, knowledge of wild mushrooms and their usages, local nomenclature, culinary uses, and transmission of traditional knowledge were documented.
Main results: Paradoxically, this is the first ethnomycological study that addresses a complete study of fungi with biocultural importance in the ethnic group where ethnomycology emerged as a discipline. Previous studies related to mushrooms with Mazatec people focused exclusively on entheogenic mushrooms leaving aside paramount issues related to traditional mycological knowledge of the fungal local resources, including their edibility and cultural relevance. All interviewees consumed mushrooms, indicating high levels of mycophilia. Twenty-seven species, all of them having a native Mazatec name, were identified. Species of Pleurotus, Auricularia, Cantharellus, and Schizophyllum spp. showed the highest cultural value indexes.
Research highlights: Ethnomycological knowledge of Mazatec culture is prolific and related to local natural resources cosmovision, beliefs and traditions. Mycological knowledge is currently preserved among Mazatec people and it is still transmitted to new generations despite strong transculturation processes.
... Psilocybe caerulescens and P. mexicana Tenanácatl Nahuatls (Mexico) Sacred mushroom used in religious and sacred ceremonies. [26] Tricholoma muscarium No reported No specified (Japan) This is an important edible agaric mushroom with significant economic value in Japan. The Tricholoma species have an important ecological role because of the ectomycorrhizal formation with different plan families, being considered markers of conservation value measurements. ...
Neuropsychiatric diseases such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress represent a substantial long-term challenge for the global health systems because of their rising prevalence, uncertain neuropathology, and lack of effective pharmacological treatments. The approved existing studies constitute a piece of strong evidence whereby psychiatric drugs have shown to have unpleasant side effects and reduction of sustained tolerability, impacting patients’ quality of life. Thus, the implementation of innovative strategies and alternative sources of bioactive molecules for the search for neuropsychiatric agents are required to guarantee the success of more effective drug candidates. Psychotherapeutic use of indole alkaloids derived from magic mushrooms has shown great interest and potential as an alternative to the synthetic drugs currently used on the market. The focus on indole alkaloids is linked to their rich history, their use as pharmaceuticals, and their broad range of biological properties, collectively underscoring the indole heterocycle as significant in drug discovery. In this review, we aim to report the physicochemical and pharmacological characteristics of indole alkaloids, particularly those derived from magic mushrooms, highlighting the promising application of such active ingredients as safe and effective therapeutic agents for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders.
... The ingestion of Psilocybe mushrooms induces hallucinations and synaesthesia resulting in a trance-like experience that is thought to allow dissociation of the soul from the body [173]. Traditionally, shamans have used these natural products as sacraments to enhance the healer's divinatory capacities for different purposes, such as bodily ailment diagnosis and healing [175,176]. Apart from the ritualistic ones, other uses of Psilocybe mushrooms in the traditional medicine of Mesoamerica comprise the treatment of rheumatism, toothache and stomach pain, for example [173]. ...
The need to identify effective therapies for the treatment of psychiatric disorders is a particularly important issue in modern societies. In addition, difficulties in finding new drugs have led pharmacologists to review and re-evaluate some past molecules, including psychedelics. For several years there has been growing interest among psychotherapists in psilocybin or lysergic acid diethylamide for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder, of depression, or of post-traumatic stress disorder, although results are not always clear and definitive. In fact, the mechanisms of action of psychedelics are not yet fully understood and some molecular aspects have yet to be well defined. Thus, this review aims to summarize the ethnobotanical uses of the best-known psychedelic plants and the pharmacological mechanisms of the main active ingredients they contain. Furthermore, an up-to-date overview of structural and computational studies performed to evaluate the affinity and binding modes to biologically relevant receptors of ibogaine, mescaline, N,N-dimethyltryptamine, psilocin, and lysergic acid diethylamide is presented. Finally, the most recent clinical studies evaluating the efficacy of psychedelic molecules in some psychiatric disorders are discussed and compared with drugs already used in therapy.
... Among the non-extractive use of wild mushrooms, "Fungus based Tourism" or "Mycological Tourism" or "Mycotourism" is also a prominent component of local/rural economy and conservation awareness as observed in Spain [59], Mexico [60,61], China [62], and Australia [63]. Tourism in general and ecotourism in particular are usually regarded as cultural ecosystem services [64]. ...
Fungi are morphologically and ecologically diverse kingdom but less explored in the global perspective. This systematic review of mainly higher fungi (mushrooms) and lichenized fungi (lichens) was aimed to convey comprehensive knowledge on these understudied taxa, especially considering diversity, research trends, taxonomic/geographic knowledge gaps, and their contribution to ecosystem services. We investigated literature from the Far Eastern Himalayas and adjacent areas. We followed the PRISM (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) framework for the evidence synthesis and reporting. Search strings were used to explore literature both in English and Chinese databases. Publications were validated examining the title, locality, abstract and full text. We included 75 eligible studies after screening 12,872 publications. The result on species diversity extrapolated from literature was consolidated as a species checklist and published on the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) portal. This review demonstrates a significant shortage of research work on fungi, and a lack of quantitative data on diversity, ecology, and ecosystem services. Mycological inventories with multidisciplinary perspectives are urgent in the Landscape to better understand the importance of fungi in conservation and sustainable development science. This review is especially useful when global environmental and climate concerns are focused on the use of nature-based solutions, and fungi as integral part of all ecological processes, could play important role in enhancing ecosystem services and therefore benefits coming to people as natural solutions.
... Mushroom species known to have hallucinogenic properties due to psilocybin include species of Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus, Inocybe, and Gymnopilus (Christiansen et al. 1984;Allen et al. 1991;Stijve 1995;Guzmán et al. 1998;Musshoff et al. 2000;Guzmán 2008;Awan et al. 2018a, b;Strauss et al. 2022). These species of mushroom synthesizes the hallucinogenic compounds psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, C 12 H 17 N 2 O 4 P) and psilocin (4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, C 12 H 16 N 2 O; de-phosphorylated metabolite of psilocybin). ...
Humans have collected and used hallucinogenic mushrooms for ethnic medicinal, recreational, and religious purposes since before recorded history. Currently, the use of these mushrooms is illegal in most countries, but where their use is legal they are applied as self medication. Psilocybin and psilocin, two psychoactive alkaloids, are naturally synthesized by hallucinogenic mushrooms. The chemical structure of these compounds are similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin. Activation of this system by psilocybin and psilocin may produce temporary changes in the brain that induce hallucinations and feelings of euphoria. Adjustment of the serotonin system in this way can moderate symptoms of related mental disorders. This review summarizes relevant and current information regarding the discovery of hallucinogenic mushrooms and their contained psychoactive compounds, the events that lead to their criminalization and decriminilization, and the state of knowledge of psilocybin, psilocin, and derivatives. Last, research on the psychoactive properties of these mushrooms is placed in perspective to possible applications for human dysfunctions.
... Many populations have traditionally used and continue to use mushrooms that have attained a sacred status. 3 Amongst traditional and current "recreational" users of Psilocybe mushrooms, the objective has been to ingest sufficient psilocybin to obtain an altered state of consciousness, described as hallucinogenic or to obtain marked alterations in perception, mood, and thought. 1 Psilocybin is being investigated as a novel therapeutic agent for potential use in some neuropsychiatric disorders, including mood, anxiety, addictive disorders, and cluster headaches, 1,4 and as an adjunctive pharmacotherapy to assist psychotherapeutic interventions. 5,6 Psychedelics are currently receiving increasing interest from researchers and investors, although several barriers to translating research into clinical practice have been recognized and include the need for clinical supervision of hallucinogenic experiences. ...
Psilocybin is a tryptamine alkaloid found in some mushrooms, especially those of the genus Psilocybe. Psilocybin has four metabolites including the pharmacologically active primary metabolite psilocin which readily enters the systemic circulation. The psychoactive effects of psilocin are believed to arise due to the partial agonist effects at the 5HT2A receptor. Psilocin also binds to various other receptor subtypes although the actions of psilocin at other receptors is not fully explored. Psilocybin administered at doses sufficient to cause hallucinogenic experiences has been trialled for addictive disorders, anxiety and depression. This review investigates studies of psilocybin and psilocin and assesses the potential for use of psilocybin and a treatment agent in neuropsychiatry. The potential for harm is also assessed, which may limit the use of psilocybin as a pharmacotherapy. Careful evaluation of the number needed to harm versus the number needed to treat will ultimately justify the potential clinical use of psilocybin. This field needs a responsible pathway forward.
... These mushrooms are thus often referred to as psilocybin mushrooms, hallucinogenic mushrooms or "magic mushrooms" (Tylš et al., 2014;Dasgupta, 2019). There are more than 150 species known to produce psilocybin (Dasgupta, 2019), with the great majority of them belonging to the genus Psilocybe (Guzmán, 2008). Other genera with species that contain psilocybin are Panaeolus, Stropharia, Conocybe, Gymnopilus, Pluteus, and even Inocybe (Tylš et al., 2014), known primarily as muscarinecontaining mushrooms. ...
... Most professional and citizen mycologists rely on morphology for identification of mushrooms based on characteristics of the cap, stem, gills, spores, spore-bearing structures and habitats of mushrooms (Goldman and Gryzenhout, 2019). Psychedelic mushrooms are often small, indistinct, brown to white mushrooms that, usually but not always, bruise bluish to black when the tissue is cut or damaged (Guzmán, 2008). The blue stains result from an oxidative reaction when psilocybin is exposed to oxygen (Lenz et al., 2020). ...
Psilocybin and psilocin, two psychoactive components found in "magic mushrooms," have therapeutic potential in a number of mental health disorders without the addictiveness and overdose risks found in other mind-altering drugs, such as cocaine, methamphetamines and alcohol. Psychedelic mushrooms occur naturally, are wide distributed and easily accessible. The need for reviews and comprehensive field guides is urgent due to the recent surge of research into psychedelic mushrooms along with public interest. Psilocybin and psilocin are recorded in mushroom species of Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus, and Gymnopilus. This review discusses species identification, taxonomy and classification, available DNA sequence data and psychedelic species in Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus, and Gymnopilus, as well as similar looking genera that could be harmful.
... Psilocybin mushrooms, known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are classified as a polyphyletic group of fungi containing psychedelic compounds, such as psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin. The popularization of psilocin as a new substance for abuse was evinced worldwide by Valentina Pavlovna Wasson in early 1970 (1,2). ...
... Psilocybin and mescaline have been used as sacraments since ancient times dating back to 8600BC [1,2]. Shamanic ceremonial use of psilocybin, mescaline, 5-MeO-DMT and ayahuasca remain documented today among many indigenous groups through South-Central America [1,3,4]. ...
Anorexia Nervosa (AN) is a major health problem with one of the highest mortalities and treatment costs of any psychiatric condition. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is currently the most widely used treatment for AN in adults but provides remission rates ≤ 50%. Treatment drop-out is exceedingly high and those that persevere with treatment often relapse, causing increased risk of morbidity and mortality. There is an urgent need to find new interventions, especially as there are no approved pharmacological treatments for AN. Ideally, new treatments would target treatment-resistance and to decrease the chronicity associated with the disorder. Over the past two decades, emerging research into classic psychedelic substances (lysergic diethylamide acid (LSD), 5-Methoxy-N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and psilocybin), indicates that marked reductions in anxiety and depression-like symptoms, and lasting improvement in mental health, can follow from one or two exposures to these psychedelic substances. Anxiety and depression are the most prevalent co-morbid psychiatric symptoms in AN. Here we suggest that classic psychedelics, particularly psilocybin, have the potential to normalise dysfunctional neurobiological systems in AN and provide a novel treatment intervention that is worthy of consideration, particularly for treatment-resistant patients.
... Among the Aztecs, for instance, psilocybin mushrooms appear to have often been consumed alongside chocolate in ritualized feasts that involved a highly codified performance of religious authority. 70 Inquisition trials of peyote users contain glimpses of this larger assemblage of practices, beliefs, and drugsfor instance by linking entheogen use to a larger assertion of spiritual power and communal identity via identification with Aztec gods such as Tezcatlipoca. 71 As Serge Gruzinski puts it, New Spain was a 'hallucinated society' in which entheogen usage helped both to construct a shared precolonial past and to structure the emerging social formations of a mestizo present. ...
This article reassesses what has been called ‘the puzzle of distribution’: why did some drugs rapidly emerge as global consumer goods in the era of the Columbian Exchange, whereas others remained restricted to regional centres of usage? I argue here that the early modern concept of transplantation allows us to approach the puzzle of distribution from a novel perspective. Early modern intoxicants were not disaggregated, free-floating commodities. Their consumption and trade took place within a larger constellation of social codes, cultural practices, ecologies, and built environments. Psychedelic compounds such as peyote and ayahuasca serve here as case studies for examining how the globalization of drugs involved far more than the transport of the substances themselves. Despite their centrality to numerous societies throughout the pre-Columbian Americas, the larger ‘assemblage’ of material cultures, cultural assumptions, and religious meanings that accrued around these substances made it difficult for them to follow the same paths as commodified drugs like cacao or tobacco.
The "magic mushroom" Psilocybe cubensis is cultivated worldwide for recreational and medicinal uses. Described initially from Cuba in 1904, there has been substantial debate about its origin and diversification. The prevailing view, first proposed by the Psilocybe expert Gaston Guzman in 1983, is that P. cubensis was inadvertently introduced to the Americas when cattle were introduced to the continents from Africa and Europe (~1500 CE), but that its progenitor was endemic to Africa. This hypothesis has never been tested. Here, we report the discovery of the closest wild relative of P. cubensis from sub-Saharan Africa, P. ochraceocentrata nom. prov. Using DNA sequences from type specimens of all known African species of Psilocybe, multi-locus phylogenetic and molecular clock analysis strongly support recognizing the African samples as a new species that last shared a common ancestor with P. cubensis ~1.5 million years ago (~710k - 2.55M years ago 95% HPD). Even at the latest estimated time of divergence, this long predates cattle domestication and the origin of modern humans. Both species are associated with herbivore dung, suggesting this habit likely predisposed P. cubensis to its present specialization on domesticated cattle dung. Ecological niche modeling using bioclimatic variables for global records of these species indicates historical presence across Africa, Asia, and the Americas over the last 3 million years. This discovery sheds light on the wild origins of domesticated P. cubensis and provides new genetic resources for research on psychedelic mushrooms.
Background:
Psychedelic substance use in ritualistic and ceremonial settings dates back as early as 8,500 BCE. Only in recent years, from the mid-20th century, we have seen the re-emergence of psychedelics in a therapeutic setting and more specifically for the treatment of addiction. This article aims to review research over the past 40 years using classic (psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD], dimethyltryptamine [DMT], mescaline) and atypical (ketamine, ibogaine, 5-MeO-DMT, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) psychedelics for the treatment of addiction.
Summary:
We will start with an overview of the pharmacology and physiological and psychological properties of psychedelic substances from pre-clinical and clinical research. We will then provide an overview of evidence gathered by studies conducted in controlled research environments and naturalistic and ceremonial settings, while we identify the proposed therapeutic mechanisms of each psychedelic substance.
Key messages:
Classic and atypical psychedelics show promise as therapeutic alternatives for the treatment of addiction, through the improvement of psychological and physiological symptoms of dependence. A more comprehensive understanding of the ancient and present-day knowledge of the therapeutic potential of psychedelics can facilitate hope for psychedelic therapeutics in the treatment of addiction, especially for individuals who have failed other conventional treatment methods.
Alcohol is a harmful drug, and reducing its consumption is a significant challenge for users. Furthermore, alcohol dependence is often treatment-resistant, and no completely effective treatment model is available for chemical dependence. Classic psychedelics, such as LSD, psilocybin, and ayahuasca have been used in different clinical and pre-clinical trials, demonstrating promising pharmacotherapeutic effects in the treatment of treatment-resistant psychopathological conditions, such as addiction, especially related to alcohol dependence. In this work, we conducted a narrative review of the emerging research regarding the potential of psychedelics for alcohol use disorder treatment. Psychedelic substances have demonstrated potential for treating drug addiction, especially AUD, mostly by modulating neuroplasticity in the brain. Given that serotonergic psychedelics do not produce physical dependence or withdrawal symptoms with repeated use, they may be considered promising treatment options for managing drug use disorders. However, certain limitations could be found. Although many participants achieve positive results with only one treatment dose in clinical studies, great inter-individual variability exists in the duration of these effects. Therefore, further studies using different doses and experimental protocols should be conducted to enhance evidence about psychedelic substances.
Esta revisión bibliográfica explora el papel de los hongos alucinógenos, específicamente el género Psilocybe de la familia Hymenogastraceae, en el desarrollo evolutivo de la conciencia humana. A través de un enfoque multidisciplinario que abarca biología, etnobotánica y neurociencia, se examina la influencia de compuestos como la psilocibina y la psilocina en los consumidores, revelando su potencial para desencadenar efectos neurológicos y psicológicos significativos. Se explora el impacto en la conciencia humana, señalando cambios perceptuales, cognitivos y emocionales. Se analiza el desarrollo evolutivo y antropológico de los seres humanos, explorando cómo la disponibilidad de alimentos, el uso de la psilocibina y las adaptaciones fisiológicas han podido influir en el éxito reproductivo y la supervivencia a lo largo del tiempo.
Background
Drug tourism reflects the expanding illicit drug market, posing health risks in unfamiliar travel settings. Existing knowledge specifically addressing substance use among international travellers is sparse and has not been reviewed to date. This review aimed to describe the recreational substance abuse in international travellers.
Methods
A literature search was conducted on PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus using keywords related to recreational substances and international travellers. A total of 11 021 articles were reviewed, charted and summarized for the evidence on prevalence, patterns and characteristics of substance abuse and their health- and non-health-related problems on international travellers.
Results
Fifty-eight articles were included. Most were cross-sectional studies and review articles. Twenty articles addressed the prevalence of substance abuse in travellers, 33 looked at characteristics and patterns of substance abuse in travellers and 39 investigated the health- and non-health-related problems from substance abuse. Estimated prevalence of recreational substances abuse varied from 0.7% to 55.0%. Rates of substances abuse were 9.45% to 34.5% for cannabis, 20.4% to 35.9% for alcohol intoxication, 2.82% to 40.5% for MDMA, 2% to 22.2% for cocaine, 2% to 15% for psychedelic agents and 2% for methamphetamine. The prevalence varied according to travellers’ characteristics and travel destinations. Direct health problems included neuropsychiatric problems. Indirect problems included accident and unintentional injuries, crime and violence, risky sexual behaviours and sexual violence and blood-borne infections. Non-health-related problems included air rage, deportation and violation of local laws.
Conclusion
Substance abuse among international travellers is an underestimated problem that requires intervention. These findings emphasize the importance of addressing this issue to mitigate both health and well-being problems among travellers while promoting safer and more responsible travel experiences. In the context of travel health practices, practitioners should counsel travellers whose itineraries may include substance abuse, informing them about associated risks and consequences.
Psychoactive mushrooms in the genus Psilocybe have immense cultural value and have been used for centuries in Mesoamerica. Despite the recent surge of interest in these mushrooms due to the psychotherapeutic potential of their natural alkaloid psilocybin, their phylogeny and taxonomy remain substantially incomplete. Moreover, the recent elucidation of the psilocybin biosynthetic gene cluster is known for only five of ~165 species of Psilocybe , four of which belong to only one of two major clades. We set out to improve the phylogeny of Psilocybe using shotgun sequencing of fungarium specimens, from which we obtained 71 metagenomes including from 23 types, and conducting phylogenomic analysis of 2,983 single-copy gene families to generate a fully supported phylogeny. Molecular clock analysis suggests the stem lineage of Psilocybe arose ~67 mya and diversified ~56 mya. We also show that psilocybin biosynthesis first arose in Psilocybe , with 4 to 5 possible horizontal transfers to other mushrooms between 40 and 9 mya. Moreover, predicted orthologs of the psilocybin biosynthetic genes revealed two distinct gene orders within the biosynthetic gene cluster that corresponds to a deep split within the genus, possibly a signature of two independent acquisitions of the cluster within Psilocybe .
Hispanic and Latinx people practice spirituality in a wide array of forms. Whereas Catholicism has been the dominant religion for centuries, a re-birth of Native American and African spirituality has taken place over the last few decades. In parallel, the influence of the United States in the Latin world is reflected in the rapidly growing popularity of Evangelical Christianity. In order to better understand and study spiritual practices in Latin America, one must understand the historical vicissitudes that led to the formation of these religions and the context in which they became ingrained in these territories. [ Psychiatr Ann . 2023;53(12):545–549.]
With this editorial, I provide an overview of psychedelic-assisted therapies for military and Veteran communities, with a specific focus on 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a well-researched intervention nearing regulatory approval but not otherwise fully explored in the articles in this special edition. I present special safety, efficacy, policy and program considerations to help guide future scientific research and policy development.
The psychedelic prodrug psilocybin has shown therapeutic benefits for the treatment of numerous psychiatric conditions. Despite positive clinical end points targeting depression and anxiety, concerns regarding the duration of the psychedelic experience produced by psilocybin, associated with enduring systemic exposure to the active metabolite psilocin, pose a barrier to its therapeutic application. Our objective was to create a novel prodrug of psilocin with similar therapeutic benefits but a reduced duration of psychedelic effects compared with psilocybin. Here, we report the synthesis and functional screening of 28 new chemical entities. Our strategy was to introduce a diversity of cleavable groups at the 4-hydroxy position of the core indole moiety to modulate metabolic processing. We identified several novel prodrugs of psilocin with altered pharmacokinetic profiles and reduced pharmacological exposure compared with psilocybin. These candidate prodrugs have the potential to maintain the long-term benefits of psilocybin therapy while attenuating the duration of psychedelic effects.
Hallucinogenic mushrooms have been used in religious and cultural ceremonies for centuries. Of late, psilocybin, the psychoactive compound in hallucinogenic mushrooms, has received increased public interest as a novel drug for treating mood and substance use disorders (SUDs). In addition, in recent years, some states in the United States have legalized psilocybin for medical and recreational use. Given this, clinicians need to understand the potential benefits and risks related to using psilocybin for therapeutic purposes so that they can accurately advise patients. This expert narrative review summarizes the scientific basis and clinical evidence on the safety and efficacy of psilocybin-assisted therapy for treating psychiatric disorders and SUDs. The results of this review are structured as a more extensive discussion about psilocybin’s history, putative mechanisms of action, and recent legislative changes to its legal status. There is modest evidence of psilocybin-assisted therapy for treating depression and anxiety disorders. In addition, early data suggest that psilocybin-assisted therapy may effectively reduce harmful drinking in patients with alcohol use disorders. The evidence further suggests psilocybin, when administered under supervision (psilocybin-assisted therapy), the side effects experienced are mild and transient. The occurrence of severe adverse events following psilocybin administration is uncommon. Still, a recent clinical trial found that individuals in the psilocybin arm had increased suicidal ideations and non-suicidal self-injurious behaviors. Given this, further investigation into the safety and efficacy of psilocybin-assisted therapy is warranted to determine which patient subgroups are most likely to benefit and which are most likely to experience adverse outcomes related to its use.
Everyday Life in the Classic Maya World introduces readers to a range of people who lived during the Classic period (200–800 CE) of Maya civilization. Traci Ardren here reconstructs the individual experiences of Maya people across all social arenas and experiences, including less-studied populations, such as elders, children, and non-gender binary people. Putting people, rather than objects, at the heart of her narrative, she examines the daily activities of a small rural household of farmers and artists, hunting and bee-keeping rituals, and the bustling activities of the urban marketplace. Ardren bases her study on up-to-date and diverse sources and approaches, including archaeology, art history, epigraphy, and ethnography. Her volume reveals the stories of ancient Maya people and also shows the relevance of those stories today. Written in an engaging style, Everyday Life in the Classic Maya World offers readers at all levels a view into the amazing accomplishments of a culture that continues to fascinate.
The psychedelic compound psilocybin has shown therapeutic benefit in the treatment of numerous psychiatric diseases. A recent randomized clinical trial conducted at Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center demonstrated the efficacy of psilocybin-assisted therapy in the treatment of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Similarly, a phase IIb study evaluating psilocybin-assisted therapy for treatment-resistant depression (TRD) presented statistically meaningful and long-term reduction in depressive symptoms. Also, many studies have reported the successful treatment of severe anxiety after a single oral dose of psilocybin, especially in patients struggling with cancer-related distress (CRD). Despite these compelling clinical results, concerns regarding the duration of the psychedelic experience produced by psilocybin pose a significant barrier to its widespread therapeutic application. Psilocybin, derived from magic mushrooms is the naturally occurring prodrug of the neuroactive compound psilocin. When orally administered, exposure to the acidic gastrointestinal (GI) environment together with enzymatic processing by intestinal and hepatic alkaline phosphatase lead to the dephosphorylation of psilocybin producing elevated levels of systemic psilocin. These plasma levels are detectable up to 24 h and produce a psychoactive episode lasting as long as 6 h post-ingestion. In order to positively modify the kinetics of the acute psychedelic response, we have engineered a library of novel prodrug derivatives (NPDs) of psilocin, introducing a diversity of alternative metabolically cleavable moieties modified at the 4-carbon position of the core indole ring. This library consists of twenty-eight unique compounds represented by nine distinct prodrug classes. Each molecule was screened in vitro for metabolic stability using isolated human serum, and human cellular fractions derived from liver and intestinal tissues. This screen revealed fifteen prodrugs that produced measurable levels of psilocin in vitro, with ester and thiocarbonate-based prodrug derivatives significantly represented. These fifteen NPDs were further evaluated for pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles in mice, assessing plasma levels of both residual prodrug and resultant psilocin. PK results confirmed the efficiency of ester and thiocarbonate-based prodrug metabolism upon oral and intravenous administration, achieving levels reduced, albeit comparable to levels of psilocybin-derived psilocin. Of note, almost all NPDs tested maintained reduced overall exposure of psilocin relative to psilocybin, with no measurable levels detected at 24 h post-dose. Finally, all NPDs were screened for CNS bioavailability in healthy mice using the Head Twitch Response (HTR), a behavioural biomarker of 5-HT2A receptor stimulation and an established proxy for psychoactive potential. Interestingly, five NPDs produced peak HTR that approached or exceeded levels induced by an equivalent dose of psilocybin. Among these bioactive prodrugs, an ester-based and thiocarbonate-based molecule produced long-term anxiolytic benefit in chronically stressed mice evaluated in the marble burying psychiatric model. Overall, this screening campaign identified novel candidate prodrugs of psilocin with altered metabolic profiles and reduced pharmacological exposure, potentially attenuating the duration of the psychedelic response. These molecules still maintained the long-term psychiatric and physiological benefits characteristic of psilocybin therapy. Additionally, these modified parameters also offer the opportunity for altered routes of administration bypassing conventional oral dosing.
The prospection of unusual sources and undiscovered habitats is valuable in natural product research. Indeed, the fungi kingdom has received special attention since its ability to produce novel and intriguing secondary metabolites with various biological uses. Among secondary metabolites, alkaloid-derived structures present a wide range of bioactivities, including antineurodegenerative, antidepressive, anxiolytic, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, and insecticidal properties. Furthermore, various studies showed particular properties of those alkaloids in reducing nicotine addiction and alcohol dependence. Alkaloids are categorized into several groups based on their heterocyclic ring system and biosynthetic precursor, such as indole, isoxazoles, and muscarine. Therefore, this chapter focuses on those fungi’s bioactive alkaloids with emphasis on pharmacokinetics as well as the current analytical approaches for extraction and compound identification. Furthermore, the main biological activities and action mechanisms of these fungus alkaloids will also be discussed.
The mushroom genus Psilocybe is best known as the core group of psychoactive mushrooms, yet basic information on their diversity, taxonomy, chemistry, and general biology is still largely lacking. In this study, we reexamined 94 Psilocybe fungarium specimens, representing 18 species, by DNA barcoding, evaluated the stability of psilocybin, psilocin, and their related tryptamine alkaloids in 25 specimens across the most commonly vouchered species (Psilocybe cubensis, Psilocybe cyanescens, and Psilocybe semilanceata), and explored the metabolome of cultivated P. cubensis. Our data show that, apart from a few well-known species, the taxonomic accuracy of specimen determinations is largely unreliable, even at the genus level. A substantial quantity of poor-quality and mislabeled sequence data in public repositories, as well as a paucity of sequences derived from types, further exacerbates the problem. Our data also support taxon- and time-dependent decay of psilocybin and psilocin, with some specimens having no detectable quantities of them. We also show that the P. cubensis metabolome possibly contains thousands of uncharacterized compounds, at least some of which may be bioactive. Taken together, our study undermines commonly held assumptions about the accuracy of names and presence of controlled substances in fungarium specimens identified as Psilocybe spp. and reveals that our understanding of the chemical diversity of these mushrooms is largely incomplete. These results have broader implications for regulatory policies pertaining to the storage and sharing of fungarium specimens as well as the use of psychoactive mushrooms for recreation and therapy. IMPORTANCE The therapeutic use of psilocybin, the active ingredient in "magic mushrooms," is revolutionizing mental health care for a number of conditions, including depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and end-of-life care. This has spotlighted the current state of knowledge of psilocybin, including the organisms that endogenously produce it. However, because of international regulation of psilocybin as a controlled substance (often included on the same list as cocaine and heroin), basic research has lagged far behind. Our study highlights how the poor state of knowledge of even the most fundamental scientific information can impact the use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms for recreational or therapeutic applications and undermines critical assumptions that underpin their regulation by legal authorities. Our study shows that currently available chemical studies are mainly inaccurate, irreproducible, and inconsistent, that there exists a high rate of misidentification in museum collections and public databases rendering even names unreliable, and that the concentration of psilocybin and its tryptamine derivatives in three of the most commonly collected Psilocybe species (P. cubensis, P. cyanescens, and P. semilanceata) is highly variable and unstable in museum specimens spanning multiple decades, and our study generates the first-ever insight into the highly complex and largely uncharacterized metabolomic profile for the most commonly cultivated magic mushroom, P. cubensis.
Psilocybin fungi, aka “magic” mushrooms, are well known for inducing colorful and visionary states of mind. Such psychoactive properties and the ease of cultivating their basidiocarps within low-tech setups make psilocybin fungi promising pharmacological tools for mental health applications. Understanding of the intrinsic electrical patterns occurring during the mycelial growth can be utilized for better monitoring the physiological states and needs of these species. In this study we aimed to shed light on this matter by characterizing the extra-cellular electrical potential of two popular species of psilocybin fungi: Psilocybe tampanensis and P. cubensis. As in previous experiments with other common edible mushrooms, the undisturbed fungi have shown to generate electric potential spikes and trains of spiking activity. This short analysis provides a proof of intrinsic electrical communication in psilocybin fungi, and further establishes these fungi as a valuable tool for studying fungal electro-physiology.
In the past decade, the consumption of psilocybin mushrooms has become a popular therapeutic tool for people looking to deal with mental and emotional health issues. The emerging interest in psilocybin therapy in the global north has led to the development of retreat centers in locations where psilocybin is legal or unregulated. Drawing on ethnographic research at a psilocybin retreat center in Jamaica, this article examines the emotional and somatic reactions attributed to psilocybin that influence the social interactions and the mental and emotional state of the guests at this retreat center. We argue that guests go through a symbolic healing process that involves the construction of a meaning response based on internal and collective experiences of altered consciousness via psilocybin. Additionally, we emphasize how both attending the retreat and the psychedelic experience there can be considered a liminal state that leads to different modes of relation while in Jamaica.
The Western world is experiencing a resurgence of interest in the therapeutic potential of psychedelics, most of which are derived from plants or fungi with a history of Indigenous ceremonial use. Recent research has revealed that psychedelic compounds have the potential to address treatment‐resistant depression and anxiety, as well as post‐traumatic stress disorder and addictions. These findings have contributed to the decriminalization of psychedelics in some jurisdictions and their legalization in others. Despite psychedelics’ opaque legal status, numerous companies and individuals are profiting from speculative investments with few, if any, benefits accruing to Indigenous Peoples. In this paper, we suggest that the aptly named “psychedelic renaissance,” like the European Renaissance, is made possible by colonial extractivism. We further suggest that Indigenous philosophical traditions offer alternative approaches to reorient the “psychedelic renaissance” towards a more equitable future for Indigenous Peoples, psychedelic medicines, and all our relations.
The consumption of fungi by animals is a significant trophic interaction in most terrestrial ecosystems, yet the role mammals play in these associations has been incompletely studied. In this review, we compile 1 154 references published over the last 146 years and provide the first comprehensive global review of mammal species known to eat fungi (508 species in 15 orders). We review experimental studies that found viable fungal inoculum in the scats of at least 40 mammal species, including spores from at least 58 mycorrhizal fungal species that remained viable after ingestion by mammals. We provide a summary of mammal behaviours relating to the consumption of fungi, the nutritional importance of fungi for mammals, and the role of mammals in fungal spore dispersal. We also provide evidence to suggest that the morphological evolution of sequestrate fungal sporocarps (fruiting bodies) has likely been driven in part by the dispersal advantages provided by mammals. Finally, we demonstrate how these interconnected associations are widespread globally and have far-reaching ecological implications for mammals, fungi and associated plants in most terrestrial ecosystems.
Citation: Elliott TF, Truong C, Jackson S, Zúñiga CL, Trappe JM, Vernes K (2022). Mammalian mycophagy: a global review of ecosystem interactions between mammals and fungi. Fungal Systematics and Evolution 9: 99–159. doi: 10.3114/fuse.2022.09.07
There has been a reemergence of research into the use of substances such as LSD, MDMA, and psilocybin for the treatment of psychiatric disorders. This increase in consideration toward the medicinal use of these compounds has been termed the "Psychedelic Renaissance." This article specifically explores the background of psilocybin, a psychoactive compound that is naturally derived from certain species of fungi. Pubmed was searched by one doctoral-level researcher using specific Boolean operator terms. The results were filtered by title and abstract and 76 articles were screened and analyzed in full detail. Oral psilocybin is showing itself to be clinically efficacious by producing statistically significant reductions in depression and anxiety symptoms over time versus control in multiple clinical trials. It has also been shown to reduce cigarettes per day and drinks per day in patients with substance use disorders. Thus far, there have been no significant adverse clinical events from psilocybin and there also have been no verifiable recorded deaths reported. Larger studies need to be performed before the drug can potentially become approved for use in the general population.
Recently there has been a surge of renewed interest in the psychedelic compound psilocybin. In particular, psilocybin is being studied in clinical settings as a potential breakthrough treatment for depression. Alongside this growing therapeutic interest, there has been a rise in the religious use of psilocybin, as evidenced by the creation of a number of psilocybin mushroom churches in the United States. While the dominant popular discourse surrounding psilocybin is currently clinical, psilocybin churches offer an alternative form of meaning making regarding the psychedelic experience. Specifically, this article argues that psilocybin churches enable their followers to participate in a dynamic social process of sacred sensemaking, whereby psilocybin mushrooms are considered to be a sacrament, church members follow a ritual-based psychopharmacological practice, and the psychedelic experience is interpreted in terms of a direct encounter with the divine. Different psilocybin churches have unique approaches, ritual practices and cosmologies, nonetheless this article suggests that they may be united by this common process of 'sacred sensemaking'.
https://www.oregon.gov/oha/PH/PREVENTIONWELLNESS/Documents/Psilocybin%20evidence%20report%20to%20OHA%206-30-21_Submitted.pdf
Debido a la posibilidad de que los hongos alucinógenos o psicotrópicos mexicanos ayuden a resolver problemas médicos, fundamentalmente relacionados con ciertas enfermedades mentales, son hoy objeto de una intensa investigación por parte de diversos institutos en varios países.
An exhaustive world revision of all names considered in the genus Psilocybe s.l. is presented, of which the hallucinogenic species were treated with special emphasis. Seven hundred eighteen names related to Psilocybe were found reported in the bibliography, of which only 227 are accepted taxa in Psilocybe. The concept of the genus followed here is that of Guzmán 1983; therefore Hypholoma, Melanotus, and Stropharia were excluded. Moreover, 53 species of Psathyrella, many times related with Psilocybe, were also excluded. The hallucinogenic species are 144, which are distributed in all the continents, of which Latin America (including the Caribbae), has the top, with more than 50 species. There are only 22 species in Canada and the US, while Mexico is the country with the higest number in the world, with 53 species. Europe has only 16 species, Asia 15, Africa 4, and Australia and eastern islands 19. Some Psilocybe species are common in several countries or regions, as are P. cubensis and P. subcubensis in all the tropics; P. coprophila in many temperate and tropical regions; P. argentina in several high mountains or in the Austral and Boreal regions; and P. fimetaria and P. semilanceata in Europe, Canada, and the US, but unknown in Mexico.
Psilocybe fagicola comprises a complex of more than eight species, six of them in Mexico, and all of them possessing a long pseudorhiza, a characteristic not listed by Heim and Cailleux in 1959 in the original description of the type species, but described by Guzmán in 1978 and 1983. The description of Psilocybe fagicola s.s. is here emended to include the length of the cheilocystidia of (6-) 12-20 (-30) microm, as well as the absence or scarcity of pleurocystidia. Psilocybe xalapensis and P. wassoniorum are considered to be synonymous with P. fagicola s.s. However, Psilocybe banderillensis and P. herrerae from Mexico, P. columbiana from Colombia, and P. keralensis from India are considered to be valid species within this complex. Moreover, P. novoxalapensis and P. teofilae, both from Mexico, are described as new species. Length of spores, presence or absence of pleurocystidia and their variations, and type of cheilocystidia constitute the principal defining characteristics of the species. Setaceous hyphae at the base of the stipe, as well as caulocystidia, lack taxonomic value, as do other morphological characteristics, including pileipellis and subpileipellis. A key to the eight considered species is also presented within the paper.
Based upon data obtained from a study of the type as well as from Heim's and Singer and Smith's descriptions and from several fresh specimens collected by the author, Psilocybe aztecorum is here emended. This fungus is reported for the first time from four new localities in the states of Mexico and Tlaxcala. Psilocybe bonetii is reduced to varietal status of P. aztecorum. Relationships with P. baeocystis, P. quebecensis and P. cyanescens are discussed and a possible evolutionary pathway of these species is proposed. The description of P. baeocystis is emended.
This dictionary of Tzotzil (Mayan) vocabulary from the town of Zinacantan, Chiapas, Mexico, was compiled by the author over a period of fourteen years. In addition to unsystematic data gathering in Zinacantan, formal interviews were conducted in San Cristobal. Two Zinacantec men accompanied the author to the United States on two occasions for further interviewing. All hypothetically possible CVC (consonant-vowel-consonant) roots were tested to discover their existence and to determine their productivity. In addition to verbal suggestions, props were helpful: objects in everyday use, dolls, sound-effect records, play-acting. Special attention was directed to ethnobotanical lexicon and data; over 3000 specimens were collected and identified both by their Tzotzil name and by their scientific name. With the aid of aerial photographs and ground surveys the township and adjoining areas were mapped. Over one thousand place names were located. A system was developed to present considerable ethnographic context for the vocabulary within each root as succinctly as possible. Wherever possible, the etymology of loan words is indicated. Each entry is furnished with grammatical analysis. The approximately 30,000 Tzotzil entries and 15,000 English entries (including scientific names) were placed on magnetic tape to permit offset printing and further scholarly investigation. The body of the text is preceded by an introduction that records the eliciting techniques, organization of material, assessment and justification of the author's ethnographic approach, together with a sample of Tzotzil oral literature. Explanatory notes provide a more technical description of the contents and organizations of the dictionary as well as observations on Tzotzil grammar.
This dictionary of Tzotzil (Mayan) vocabulary from the town of Zinacantan, Chiapas, Mexico, was compiled over a period of fourteen years. In addition to unsystematic data gathering in Zinacantan, formal interviews were conducted in San Cristobal. Two Zinacantec men came to the United States for futher interviewing. All hypothetically possible CVC (consonant-vowel-consonant) roots were tested to discover their existence and to determine their productivity. Special attention was directed to ethnobotanical lexicon and data: over 3,000 specimens were collected and identified both by their Tzotzil and their scientific names. The township and adjoining areas were mapped, and over one thousand place names were located. A system was developed to present considerable ethnographic context for the vocabulary within each root as succinctly as possible. Wherever possible, the etymology of loan words is indicated. Each entry is furnished with grammatical analysis. There are approximately 30,000 Tzotzil entries and 15,000 English entries, including scientific names. The body of the text is preceded by an introduction that records the eliciting techniques, organization of material, assessment and justification of the author's ethnographic approach, together with a sample of Tzotzil oral literature. Explanatory notes provide a more technical description of the contents and organizations of the dictionary as well as observations on Tzotzil grammar. (Author/CLK)
The active principle ofPsilocybe mexicana Heim, a mexican mushroom with hallucinogenic properties, has been isolated in crystalline form. The compound has been given the namePsilocybin; it possesses indole characteristics and contains phosphorus. A second substance, closely related toPsilocybin but found only in traces, has been calledPsilocin.
Based upon data obtained from a study of the type as well as from Heim's and Singer and Smith's descriptions and from several fresh specimens collected by the author, Psilocybe aztecorum is here emended. This fungus is reported for the first time from four new localities in the states of Mexico and Tlaxcala. Psilocybe bonetii is reduced to varietal status of P. aztecorum. Relationships with P. baeocystis, P. quebecensis and P. cyanescens are discussed and a possible evolutionary pathway of these species is proposed. The description of P. baeocystis is emended.
Sur les Agarics Divinatoires des Totonaques. Comptes Rendus des Séances de l
- Stresser
- G Péan
- R Heim
Historical, Ethno-and Economic Botany Series 4. Discorides, Portland. ———. 2003. Traditional Uses and Abuses of Hallucinogenic Fungi: Problems and Solu-tions
- R Gordon
- Wasson
R. Gordon Wasson. Historical, Ethno-and Economic Botany Series 4. Discorides, Portland. ———. 2003. Traditional Uses and Abuses of Hallucinogenic Fungi: Problems and Solu-tions. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 5:57–59.
Una Iglesia Dedicada al Culto de un Hongo
- R G ———
- T Wasson
- Herrera
———, R. G. Wasson, and T. Herrera, 1975. Una Iglesia Dedicada al Culto de un Hongo, " Nuestro Señor del Honguito, " en Chigna-huapán, Puebla. Boletín de la Sociedad Mex-icana de Micología 9:137–147.
The Great Tzotzil Dictionary of San Lorenzo Zinacatán. Smith-sonian Contributions to Anthropology Series, Amanita muscaria and the Thunderboldt Leyend in Guatemala and Mexico
- R M Laughlin
- D C Washington
- B Lowy
Laughlin, R. M. 1975. The Great Tzotzil Dictionary of San Lorenzo Zinacatán. Smith-sonian Contributions to Anthropology Series, #19. Washington, D.C. Lowy, B. 1974. Amanita muscaria and the Thunderboldt Leyend in Guatemala and Mexico. Mycologia 66:188–190.
The Hallucinogenic Species of Psilocybe in Colombia
- F ———
- M Ramírez-Guillén
- Torres
———, F. Ramírez-Guillén, and M. Torres. 2004. The Hallucinogenic Species of Psilocybe in Colombia, Their Indian Use, New Records, and New Species. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 6:83–93.
ein Psychotroper Wirkcstoff aus dem Mexikanishchen Rauchpilz Psilocybe mexicana Heim
- Psilocybin
Psilocybin, ein Psychotroper Wirkcstoff aus dem Mexikanishchen Rauchpilz Psilocybe mexicana Heim. Experientia 14:107–109.
Laura Guzmán- Dávalos
- Virginia Leagues Etelvina Gándara
- Florencia Ramírez-Cruz
- Ramírez-Guillén
leagues Etelvina Gándara, Virginia Ramírez-Cruz,
and Florencia Ramírez-Guillén (all of them in
Instituto de Ecología at Xalapa), Laura Guzmán-
Dávalos (Universidad de Guadalajara), Elizur
Montiel-Arcos and Victor Mora (Universidad de
Morelos), and James Q. Jacobs (Arizona) for their
help in the laboratory and with other information.
Wasson provided much important information and bibliographic material Teofilo Herrera (University of Mexico) assisted in making initial contacts with Singer and Heim. Manuel Hernández (Instituto de Ecología at Xalapa) helped with computer tasks
- Richard E In The Past
- Rolf Schultes
- Roger Singer
- R Heim
- Gordon
In the past, professors Richard E. Schultes, Rolf
Singer, Roger Heim, and R. Gordon Wasson
provided much important information and bibliographic material. Teofilo Herrera (University of
Mexico) assisted in making initial contacts with
Singer and Heim. Manuel Hernández (Instituto
de Ecología at Xalapa) helped with computer
tasks. David Arora and Glenn H. Shepard, Jr.
assisted in the final revision of the manuscript.
Literature Cited
Les Champignons Divinatoires Utilizes dans les Rites des Indies Mazatèques, Recuellis du Cours de Leur Premier Vovage an Mexique in 1953, par M me Valentina Pavlovna Wasser et
- R M R Heim
- Gordon Wasson
Heim, R. 1956. Les Champignons Divinatoires
Utilizes dans les Rites des Indies Mazatèques,
Recuellis du Cours de Leur Premier Vovage an
Mexique in 1953, par M
me Valentina
Pavlovna Wasser et M.R. Gordon Wasson.
Species Diversity of the Genus Psilocybe in the World Mycobiota, with Special Attention to Hallucinogenic Properties
- A López-González
---. 2005. Species Diversity of the Genus
Psilocybe in the World Mycobiota, with Special
Attention to Hallucinogenic Properties. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms
7:305-331.
---and A. López-González, 1970. Nuevo
Hábitat y Datos Etnomicológicos de Psilocybe
muliercula. Boletín de la Sociedad Mexicana de
Micología 4:44-48.
- V P Wasson
- R G Wasson
Wasson, V. P. and R. G. Wasson. 1957. Mushrooms, Russia and History. Pantheon Books,
New York.
412
ECONOMIC BOTANY
[VOL 62
Wasson and the Development of Mycology in Mexico The Sacred Mushroom Seeker: Essays for 410
———. 1990. Wasson and the Development of
Mycology in Mexico. In TH. J. Riedlinger, ed.,
The Sacred Mushroom Seeker: Essays for
410
ECONOMIC BOTANY
[VOL 62
Mycological Investigations on Teonanácatl, the Mexican Mushrooms II. A Taxonomic Monograph of Psilocybe, Section Caerulescentes
---. 1975. The Agaricales in Modern Taxonmy.
Third ed. Cramer, Vaduz.
---and A. H. Smith. 1958. Mycological
Investigations on Teonanácatl, the Mexican
Mushrooms II. A Taxonomic Monograph of
Psilocybe, Section Caerulescentes. Mycologia
50:262-303.
Nuevo Hábitat y Datos Etnomicológicos de Psilocybe muliercula
- A López-González
- G. Guzmán
Etnomicología Purépecha. El Conocimiento y uso de los Hongos en la Cuenca de Pátzcuaro, Michoacán. Dirección de Culturas Populares and Sociedad Mexicana de Micología
- C Mapes
- G Guzmán
- J Caballero
- C. Mapes
Mapes, C., G. Guzmán, and J. Caballero. 1981.
Etnomicología Purépecha. El Conocimiento y
uso de los Hongos en la Cuenca de Pátzcuaro,
Michoacán. Dirección de Culturas Populares and
Sociedad Mexicana de Micología, Mexico City.
Nuevos Datos Sobre los Supuestos Licoperdáceos Psicotrópicos y dos Casos de Intoxicación Provocados por Hongos del Género Scleroderma en Mexico
- J Ott
- G Guzmán
- J Roman
- J L Díaz
- J. Ott
Ott, J., G. Guzmán, J. Roman, and J. L. Díaz.
1975. Nuevos Datos Sobre los Supuestos
Licoperdáceos Psicotrópicos y dos Casos de
Intoxicación Provocados por Hongos del
Género Scleroderma en Mexico. Bol. Soc.
Mex. Mic. 9:67-76.
Fungi Allucinogeni. Studi Etnomicologici
- G Samorini
Una Iglesia Dedicada al Culto de un Hongo, “Nuestro Señor del Honguito,” en Chignahuapán
- R G Wasson
- T Herrera
Plantae Mexicanae II. The Identification of Teonanácatl, a Narcotic Basidiomycete of the Aztecs. Botanical Museum Leaflets
- R E Schultes
Schultes, R. E. 1939. Plantae Mexicanae II. The
Identification of Teonanácatl, a Narcotic
Basidiomycete of the Aztecs. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University 7:37-56.
---. 1940. Teonanácatl: The Narcotic Mushroom of the Aztecs. American Anthropologist
42:429-443.
Les Champignons Divinatoires Utilizes dans les Rites des Indies Mazatèques, Recuellis du Cours de Leur Premier Vovage an Mexique in 1953
- R Heim
Historia de las Cosas de la Nueva España. Mexico City (with several reprints both in Spanish and English, besides two Indian bilingually codexes
- Fray B Sahagún
- De
Sahagún, Fray B. de. 1569-1582. Historia de las
Cosas de la Nueva España. Mexico City (with
several reprints both in Spanish and English,
besides two Indian bilingually codexes, in
Nahuatl and Spanish, directed by Sahagún,
also reprinted).
The Hallucinogenic Species of Psilocybe in Colombia, Their Indian Use
- F Ramírez-Guillén
- M Torres
———, F. Ramírez-Guillén, and M. Torres.
2004. The Hallucinogenic Species of Psilocybe
in Colombia, Their Indian Use, New Records,
and New Species. International Journal of
Medicinal Mushrooms 6:83–93.
Mitobotánica Zapoteca
- B P Reko
Reko, B. P. 1945. Mitobotánica Zapoteca.
Private ed., Tacubaya, D.F.