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PETER LILJEDAHL
PERSONA-BASED JOURNALING: STRIVING
FOR AUTHENTICITY IN REPRESENTING
THE PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS
Received: 13 October 2006; Accepted: 30 May 2007
ABSTRACT. Students_mathematical problem-solving experiences are fraught with
failed attempts, wrong turns, and partial successes that move in fits and jerks, oscillating
between periods of inactivity, stalled progress, rapid advancement, and epiphanies.
Students_problem-solving journals, however, do not always reflect this rather organic
process. Without proper guidance, some students tend to Fsmooth_out their experiences
and produce journal writing that is less reflective of the process and more representative
of their product. In this article, I present research on the effectiveness of a persona-based
framework for guiding students_journaling to reflect the erratic to-and-fro of the
problem-solving process more accurately. This framework incorporates the use of three
personasVthe narrator, the mathematician, and the participantVin telling the tale of the
problem-solving process. Results indicate that this persona-based framework is effective
in producing more representative journals.
KEY WORDS: journaling, persona, problem solving
For mathematicians, problem solving is a complex activity that involves
the confluence of both logical and extra-logical processes. Effective
problem solving involves the oscillation between inductive and deduc-
tive logic while regulating the responses to aesthetic and intuitive
sensibilities, and experiences with insight and illumination (Dewey,
1938; Fischbein, 1987; Hadamard, 1945; Poincare
´,1952). However, as
creative a process as problem solving may be, the results of these
processes are encoded in a linear textual format born out of the logical
formalist practice that now dominates mathematics (Borwein &
Jo¨rgenson, 2001). This discordance between the process of problem
solving and the presentation of its products is nicely summarized in the
comments of Dan J. Kleitman, a prominent research mathematician:
In working on this problem, and in general, mathematicians wander in a fog not
knowing what approach or idea will work, or if indeed any idea will, until by
good luck, perhaps some novel ideas, perhaps some old approaches, conquer the
problem. Mathematicians, in short, typically somewhat lost and bewildered most
of the time that they are working on a problem [sic]. Once they find solutions,
they also have the task of checking that their ideas really work, and that of writing
them up, but these are routine, unless (as often happens) they uncover minor
International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education (2007) 5: 661Y680
#National Science Council, Taiwan (2007)
errors and imperfections that produce more fog and require more work. What
mathematicians write thus bears little resemblance to what they do: they are like
people lost in mazes who only describe their escape routes, never their travails
inside. (Liljedahl, 2004, p. 157)
The discordance between process and product, however, is not a
dilemma that is restricted to the domain of professional mathematicians.
Students of mathematics also have a difficult time breaking away from
the formalist practices of conventions as delivered to them in the form of
curriculum, textbooks, and classroom instruction.
JOURNALING
Journal writing in mathematics education has a long and diverse history
of use. Journaling helps students learn mathematical concepts (Chapman,
1996; Ciochine & Polivka, 1997; Dougherty, 1996). It has been shown to
be an effective tool for facilitating reflection among students (Mewborn,
1999), as well as an effective communicative tool between students and
teachers (Burns & Silbey, 2001). Journaling has also become an accepted
method for qualitative researchers to gain insights into their participants_
thinking (Mewborn, 1999; Miller, 1992). This is especially true of
problem-solving journals, which can allow the researcher to enter into the
otherwise private world of problem solving. In order for this to be effective,
however, such problem-solving journals need to be representative of the
problem-solving process. This is not always the case. Students_problem-
solving experiences are fraught with failed attempts, wrong turns, and
progress that moves in fits and jerks, oscillating between periods of
inactivity, stalled progress, rapid advancement, and epiphanies. Without
proper guidance, students may tend to Fsmooth_out these experiences and,
as a result, present stories in their journals that are less reflective of their
Ftravails inside the maze_and more representative of their Fescape route_.
AM
ODEL FOR A MORE STRUCTURED METHOD OF JOURNALING
The literature that details mathematicians_problem-solving efforts is
unrepresentative of the true process of Fdoing_mathematics. One rare
exception to this is an account (Hofstadter, 1996) that tells the story of a
mathematical discovery with amazing sincerity. It is detailed and
complete, from initiation to verification. It tells the story of being lost
in a maze, searching for answers and, in a flash of insight, finding the
path. Perhaps the reason that the account is so different is that Hofstadter
is not a professional mathematician. He is a college professor of
PETER LILJEDAHL662
cognitive science and computer science and also an adjunct professor of
history and philosophy of science, philosophy, comparative literature,
and psychology. As such, he has a unique appreciation for tracking his
own problem-solving processes.
In analysing Hofstadter_s account, it becomes clear that one of the
reasons it is so sincere is because of the way he incorporates the use of
three different personasVa trinity of voicesVin telling his tale. I have
come to name these personas the narrator, the mathematician, and the
participant. These personas are not explicit in Hofstadter_s writing in that
he does not introduce them, annotate them, or even acknowledge them.
Instead they are implicit, emerging from active analysis more than from
passive reading of his writing. Each persona contributes to the anecdotal
account in a different way. The narrator moves the story along. As such,
he often uses language that is rich in temporal phrases (e.g., and then or I
started). He also fills in nonmathematical details seemingly for the
purpose of providing context and engaging content. The mathematician is
the persona that provides the reasoning and the rational underpinnings for
why the mathematics behind the whole process is not only valid but also
worthy of discussion. Finally, the participant speaks in the voice of a real-
time, evolving present. This persona reveals the emotions and thoughts
that are occurring to Hofstadter as he is experiencing the phenomenon.
Waywood (1992) found very similar voices in the journals of year 11
mathematics students. He also identified three types of journaling within
his subjects, which he referred to as recount, summary, and dialogue.
Recounting is very similar to what I refer to as the voice of the narrator,
and summarizing is virtually identical to the voice of the mathematician.
Dialogue, however, is only part of what I refer to as the voice of the
participant. For Waywood, dialogue is the self-talk that goes on in the
journals through which ideas are revealed. He does not, however,
stipulate that dialogue contains any expressions of emotion. Both of
these characteristics, presentation of ideas and emotions, make up the
voice of the participant.
To demonstrate these personas, I present a portion of Hofstadter_s
chapter that contains all three voices. Before doing so, however, it would
be useful to introduce the general context of his mathematical encounter.
At the time of writing the chapter, Hofstadter had only recently become
impassioned with Euclidean geometry and had never been introduced to
the Euler line of a triangle. When he did learn about it, however, two
things immediately struck him: the connectivity of seemingly different
attributes and the exclusion of the incentre. Thus, he began a journey of
trying to find a connection between the Euler line and the incentre. At
PERSONA-BASED JOURNALING 663
the point in the passage presented below, Hofstadter has just discovered
something about the incentre (see Figure 1for an illustration of what
Hofstadter is talking about).
One day I made a little discovery of my own, which can be stated in the following
picturesque way: If you are standing at the vertex and you swing your gaze from the
circumcentre to the orthocentre, then, when your head has rotated exactly halfway
between them, you will be staring at the incentre. More formally, the bisector of the
angle formed by two lines joining a given vertex with the circumcentre and with the
orthocentre passes through the incentre. (A more technical way of characterizing
this property is to say that O and H are Fisogonic conjugates_.) It wasn_t too hard to
prove this, luckily. This discovery, which I knew must be as old as the hills, was a
relief to me, since it somehow put the incentre back in the same league as the points
I felt it deserved to be playing with. Even so, it didn_t seem to play nearly as
Fcentral_a role as I felt it merited, and I was still a bit disturbed by this imbalance,
almost an injustice. (Hofstadter, 1996,p.4)
Even from this brief excerpt, it can be seen how the three personas
interact with each other while at the same time presenting different
aspects of the mathematical experience. It begins with One day ... -a
clear indicator that the narrator is speaking:
One day I made a little discovery of my own, which can be stated in the following
picturesque way: If you are standing at the vertex and you swing your gaze from
the circumcentre to the orthocentre, then, when your head has rotated exactly
halfway between them, you will be staring at the incentre.
Hofstadter is telling us what he has found in an informal yet descriptive
way. This is followed by his mathematician persona coming in and
formalising this finding in a more precise and mathematical way:
More formally, the bisector of the angle formed by two lines joining a given
vertex with the circumcentre and with the orthocentre passes through the incentre.
(A more technical way of characterizing this property is to say that O and H are
Fisogonic conjugates_.)
O
H
I
Figure 1. Triangle with Incentre (I), Orthocentre (H), and Circumcentre (O)
PETER LILJEDAHL664
Finally, the participant reveals how he feels about his finding and what
thoughts this find precipitates:
This discovery, which I knew must be as old as the hills, was a relief to me, since
it somehow put the incentre back in the same league as the points I felt it deserved
to be playing with. Even so, it didn_t seem to play nearly as Fcentral_a role as I felt
it merited, and I was still a bit disturbed by this imbalance, almost an injustice.
The interplay between the three personas is further demonstrated in
Figure 2in which an entire page of text from Hofstadter_s work is
Figure 2. Excerpt from Hofstadter (1996)
PERSONA-BASED JOURNALING 665
presented. In this figure, each persona has been demarcated through the
use of highlighting. The narrator has been identified with the use of dark
highlighting, the participant with the use of light highlighting, and the
mathematician with no highlighting. The presented interplay is typical of
the first six pages of Hofstadter_s chapter. At that point in the account,
Hofstadter makes a profound discovery, which is revealed in his last use
of the participant_s voice. After this point, there is a brief interplay
between the narrator and the mathematician and then the voice of the
narrator also disappears. The last seven pages of the chapter are
comprised of the mathematician articulating and proving his discovery.
As mentioned above, Hofstadter makes no explicit mention of these
three personas, nor does he in any way acknowledge any intention to
demarcate the different aspects of the problem-solving process. Indeed,
Hofstadter may, himself, be unaware of the marked contrast between the
voices that emerge from his writing. I speculate that what motivates his
writing is his loyalty to preserving the integrity of the story of how he
came to solve the problem while at the same time working in a paradigm
in which logic and proof are the currency of practice. By existing within
this tension, Hofstadter is, in part, paying close attention to the Bdifferent
time dimensions - time of writing, time of the reader_s progression
through the text, time of events described^(Fauvel, 1988, p. 26). In so
doing, he is writing in a genre that Fauvel would describe as Cartesian
rhetoric, which Fauvel draws from the writing of Descartes. Fauvel
characterized this form of writing as Bquite another world of writer-
reader relation^(p. 25), in which a Bfinely constructed story about the
past persona (called FI_) of a narrator (also called FI_) [is] structured so as
to bring out an imaginary intellectual journey^(p. 26). Although not
intending to take the reader on a fictional journey, Hofstadter is certainly
aware of the reader and is engaged, through his writing, in establishing a
relationship among the writer, text, and reader (Fauvel), and through this
relationship to convey the complexity of the mathematical problem-
solving processes in general and the contributions of the extra-logical
processes in particular.
Whether Hofstadter uses the personas as an explicit strategy to convey
these processes or if these personas exist only as a result of a post hoc
descriptive analysis of Hofstadter_s writing is not clear. What is clear,
however, is that the use of these personas is an effective mechanism for
strengthening the relationship among Hofstadter_s problem-solving
process, the text, and the reader. As such, the question for this study
was, can the description analysis of this piece of text be turned into a
more prescriptive method for writing and, if so, how effective would
PETER LILJEDAHL666
such a method be? More specifically, could explicit use of the three
personas improve problem-solving journaling in such a way as to make
these journals more representative of the processes actually used while
problem solving?
METHOD
Participants for this study were drawn from two different offerings of an
elementary mathematics methods course (Designs for Learning Mathematics:
Elementary) and two different offerings of a secondary mathematics
methods course (Designs for Learning Mathematics: Secondary) taught by
the author in two consecutive years. Each course ran for 13 weeks, with
weekly, four-hour classes. During all four offerings of the course,
participants were immersed in a problem-solving environment; that is,
problems were used as a way to introduce concepts in mathematics,
mathematics teaching, and mathematics learning. Problems were assigned to
be worked on in class, as homework, and as a project. Each participant
worked on these problems within the context of a group, but these groups
were not rigid; as the weeks passed, the class became a very fluid and
cohesive entity that tended to work on problems as a collective whole.
Communication and interaction between participants was frequent, and
whole-class discussions with the instructor were open and frank.
Throughout the course, the participants kept problem-solving journals
in which they recorded their problem-solving processes. In one
elementary methods course (E1, n= 34) and one secondary methods
course (S1, n= 39), instructions regarding problem-solving journals were built
around an insistence that the journals should reflect the problem-solving
processVYour efforts are to be recorded in a journal format detailing your
progress, successes, failures, frustrations, thoughts, and reflections regarding
the problem. This was reiterated through a series of discussions on the
nonlinear and collaborative nature of problem solving.
In the second elementary methods course (E2, n= 39) and the second
secondary methods course (S2, n= 36), instructions regarding problem-
solving journals were specifically focused on using personas in their
writing. This was done over a period of four lessons, having students
work on three different problems (see Appendices Aand B). In the first
lesson, problem #1 was to be solved, but only the solution was to be
written up using as precise a mathematical language as possible (the
voice of the mathematician). In the second lesson, problem #2 was to be
solved, but only the story of how they arrived at the solution was to be
PERSONA-BASED JOURNALING 667
written up (the voice of the narrator). In the third lesson, problem #3 was
to be attempted, but only the feelings they experienced in attempting the
problem were to be documented and subsequently presented (the voice
of the participant).
These problems were carefully selected for their appeal to all three
personas. For example, the Magic Addition problem used with the
preservice elementary teachers in lesson #1 (Appendix A) appeals to the
narrator because it has a clearly defined beginning, middle, and end. The
beginning of this problem is different from other problems in that it is
accompanied by the seemingly magical nature of the problem. Likewise,
the ending (or solution) of this problem is very different from other
problems in that it is immediately followed by the student performing the
magic on someone else. As such, this problem is not only different from
many other problems, but both the beginning and end are much more
clearly demarcated from the middle. All this conspires to make for a
good storyVa story to be told. At the same time, there are affective
aspects to this story that can be accentuated in the telling of the story.
Finally, it is easy to articulate a solution to the problem. What is asked
for, however, is that only the solution be presented. This serves to create
a situation where the students feel that, although they are able to satisfy
the requirements of the task, they are not satisfied with the narrow nature
of the requirements. All of the problems used in this context have this
same quality.
During the fourth class, the three journaling styles were discussed, and
the students expressed their frustration with the constricting nature of the
requirements and proposed that they should be allowed to use all three
voices in their journaling. This proposal was formalized with an
introduction to the three personas: the mathematician, the narrator, and
the participant. From that point forth, it was explained that they were to
write the remainder of their problem-solving journals using the voices of
all three personas. No specifications were made as to how these voices
were to be integrated or what proportions of voices were to be used.
All participants submitted their problem-solving journals for marking
in week 9 or 10 of the course. These journals were not returned until the
end of the course.
The Data
Aside from the problem-solving journals, all participants in this study
were also asked to keep a reflective journal in which they responded to
assigned prompts. These prompts varied from invitations to think about
PETER LILJEDAHL668
assessment to instructions to comment on curriculum. One set of prompts,
given in either week 11 or 12 of the course, had them reflect on some of
their problem-solving experiences. These prompts were as follows:
Reflect on your own problem-solving process.
How do you go about solving problems?
Does it always work? If so, how often?
For which problems in this course did this process work?
For which didn_t it, and what was it about those problems that
made it so it didn_t work?
The reflective journals were submitted in week 13 of the course for
marking.
Authenticity of Data
Hofstadter (1996) presented an account of his experience in solving a
problem that he had set for himself. We ask: Is the account authentic? Is
the experience as documented in his writing truly reflective of the
process as Hofstadter experienced it? As already mentioned, problem
solving is a complex activity that involves the confluence of both logical and
extra-logical processes. Effective problem solving involves the oscillation
between inductive and deductive logic while regulating the responses to
aesthetic and intuitive sensibilities, moments of insight, and affective states.
Many of these processes, by their very nature, are private phenomena and
accessible only to the person experiencing it. Thus, research on these
experiences must rely on post hoc accounts as data; and researchers of these
experiences must live in the tension between relying on such accounts as
their primary source of data and the realization that these accounts may not
be authentic representations of the aforementioned phenomena.
Having stated this, however, there are ways to heighten the likelihood
that the post hoc accounts of problem-solving experience are accurate
representations of the process. These checks are no different than the checks
that would be used with any first-person narrative data. The first of these is
to check the account for verisimilitude, that is, its adherence to an
understood reality. In the case of Hofstadter, for example, his account
adheres closely to all aspects of mathematical discovery (Hadamard, 1945;
Poincare
´,1952). Unfortunately, this could also be attributed to his
familiarity with the discourse of mathematical discovery and hence does
not necessarily lend itself to increasing the credibility of the account.
However, the participants in this study were likely not aware of the
PERSONA-BASED JOURNALING 669
discourse on mathematical discovery, and thus the adherence of their
accounts to the discourse of discovery adds to the authenticity of the data.
A second measure of reliability comes from triangulation of the data.
If different data sources correlate with each other, then there is greater
likelihood that the data are authentic. In this study, triangulation comes
from the redundancy of the data collected through two different forms of
journaling (problem solving and reflective) at different times in the
study.
The final reliability check is concerned with an analysis of what
participants stand to gain through the fictionalization of their narrative
accounts. For example, in this study, both types of journals (problem
solving and reflective) had explicit value within the course. Initially, this
was in the mark that was assigned to each journal. This, in itself, could
potentially corrupt the data as participants may fabricate their journals to
adhere to some perceived normative quality. However, in all cases (E1,
E2, S1, S2), this value of the mark was de-emphasized in favour of the
explicit and repeated instructions that the journals were to be used as
authentic communicative and representational tools. Furthermore, it was
emphasized that this standard of authenticity was the only standard by
which the journals would be assessed.
Analysis
With both the problem-solving and reflective journals in hand, an
analysis was conducted for each participant in which reflections on their
problem-solving processes (see prompts 3 and 4 above) were compared
with their relevant problem-solving journals. Of particular interest was
if their after-the-fact reflections of specific processes (from their
reflective journals) correlated with their in-the-moment documentation
of problem-solving processes (from their problem-solving journals) and
especially evidence of authentic aspects of the problem-solving process
(such as collaboration, insight, intuition, and discovery) in both
journals.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Given the significant difference in the nature of the participants enrolled
in the elementary version from the participants enrolled in the secondary
version of the course, the results have been disaggregated accordingly.
PETER LILJEDAHL670
Comparison of E1 and E2
In general, participants enrolled in the elementary methods courses were
quite adept at and equally receptive to journaling. There are many possible
reasons for this, foremost of which is that they have experience with
undergraduate courses in which writing in general and journaling in particular
are more common. This includes their required prior enrolment in a
Foundations of Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers course in
which there is always a problem-solving journal assignment. Notwithstanding
this comfort with journaling, the aforementioned analysis still revealed a
difference between the two groups. This difference is presented in Table 1.
Although not remarkable, the results indicate greater correlation in the
E2 group. At a more qualitative level, however, the difference between
the two groups_journals is quite remarkable. The E2 group produced
journals much richer in descriptions of the extra-logical (Dewey, 1938)
processes of mathematics, such as instances of insight, intuition, and
aesthetic sensitivities. This is nicely exemplified in one of Marie_s (from
E2) problem-solving journal entries.
Yes! I think I have figured it out! The solution has to do with symmetry! I
discovered that the cross is always divisible by 5, and I am pretty sure it is because it
is symmetrical. Shoot! This doesn_t necessarily work because there are other shapes
like FTee_and FZ_that are always divisible. Why! I really think that symmetry has
something to do with it! But wait ... FTee_is only divisible when it is upright.
It is clear from this passage that something has occurred to her, even
though it does not work out as nicely as she had hoped. From the
exclamation of the participant as well as from the change in reasoning by
the mathematician, it is reasonable to assume that she has had some
sudden insight. However, because the voice of the narrator is missing,
TABLE 1
Correlation comparison between E1 and E2
E1 (n=34) E2 (n=39)
Number of participants whose
reflective journals correlated
with their problem-solving journals
24 33
Percentage of participants whose
reflective journals correlated
with their problem-solving journals
70% 85%
PERSONA-BASED JOURNALING 671
we need to read about this in her reflective journal to find out exactly
how the idea came about.
I had an interesting thing happen to me while I was trying to solve the
Pentominoes puzzle. I was stuck on trying to figure out what the remainder was
going to be just by looking at the numbers ... I couldn_t possibly imagine that you
could memorize all of the possible combinations. I had been working on the
problem all day, and struggling with it, and had finally given up trying. I went out
for the evening and came home and sat in the hot tub for about half an hour. Even
though I wasn_t consciously thinking about the problem, I think that the ideas
were still in my head. I honestly don_t know why the idea came to me ... perhaps it
was because I was so relaxed and tired and not consciously struggling with the
problem, but all of a sudden, I had the feeling that it wasn_t about the numbers but
rather about the specific configuration of the shapes ... obviously this discovery
made me feel good because this idea eventually led me to the solution.
The journals of the E2 group were also much more reflective of the
social and collaborative nature of the problem-solving process encour-
aged in class. Unlike the extra-logical processes, which are private
phenomena and largely unobservable, the collaborative aspects of
problem solving are visible. As such, the first level of analysis is the
correlation between the problem-solving journals and what was observed
in class. At this rudimentary level of analysis, the E2 group showed
greater correlation as, in general, the events I read about in their journals
resonated with my own recollections of their problem-solving efforts.
Refining this analysis by seeking correlation with their reflective
journals confirmed the initial analysis. The E2 group was more willing
and/or able to articulate their collaborations within their problem-solving
journals than the E1 group. This can be seen in some of Rebecca_s (from
E2) entries. In her reflective journal, Rebecca commented that she relied
heavily on peer discussion as part of her problem-solving process.
I have to say that the thing that works best for me is to talk problems over with
other people in class. Even if they don_t know the answer, just talking about it
really helps. I think I did this for all of the problems, but the one it really helped
on was the FTreasure of Captain Bird_problem.
This was corroborated in her problem-solving journal in the documenting
of her solution to the Treasure of Captain Bird problem.
This problem had been driving me nuts all weekend. I tried talking to my husband
about it, but he had no idea where to begin. Finally on Monday I saw Rita and we
talked about the problem. She suggested that rather than look for a trick in the
problem I just draw out a couple of examples. As soon as she suggested it, I knew
it would lead to an answer - Rita always gives good hints. Anyway, after I drew
three examples, I saw that it didn_t matter where the oak tree was, the treasure ...
PETER LILJEDAHL672
Comparison of S1 and S2
Participants enrolled in the S1 and S2 course offerings, by the very
nature of the course, tended to have more courses in undergraduate
mathematics. Thus, they had more exposure to a culture of presenting
mathematical work logically rather than chronologically. The result of
this exposure had been reflected in their previous problem-solving
journal writings. This was very much the case for the S1 group. Their
problem-solving journals were more reflective of an after-the-fact
reorganization of what they had found into a mathematically sound
explanation rather than an in-the-moment description of their process.
Their only deviation from this was in response to my insistence that they
tell me the story of how they solved the problem. This, more often than
not, resulted in an overlay of narration on top of their logically organized
solution. For example, Stan_s (from S1) problem-solving entries about
how he solved the Four Pocket problem reads more like a mathematical
proof than a true process.
First, I know that after a diagonal move and adjacent move I will always have an
orientation of cups such as XXXO.I know this because, without loss of
generality, and regardless of the original orientation ...
Stan_s use of the word know as initial knowledge is immediately
compromised by his ensuing explanation of how he knows it. Having
watched Stan work on this problem, I know that it took Stan a very long
time and a lot of dialogue with his group mates before he (they) arrived
at this conclusion. This part of the process is not presented anywhere in
his journals.
This propensity to write logically rather than chronologically was
overcome through the use of the more structured, persona-based
framework. The results presented in Table 2show the difference in
TABLE 2
Correlation comparison between S1 and S2
S1 (n=39) S2 (n=36)
Number of participants whose
reflective journals correlated
with their problem-solving journals
14 26
Percentage of participants whose
reflective journals correlated with
their problem-solving journals
36% 72%
PERSONA-BASED JOURNALING 673
correlation between the two groups. Like the E2 group, the descriptions
of problem-solving processes of the S2 group were much richer,
including both the extra-logical and the social aspects of problem
solving. Again, this can be exemplified by the journal entries of one S2
member. Stephan_s problem-solving journal has the following entry with
respect to the Pentomino Problem:
I_ve got it! ... It_s simple really and I_ve gotten it because of, believe it or not, golf!
The explanation may be muddled but it makes perfect sense (in my head). In golf
there are two values when keeping score: the number of shots actually taken and the
number of shots relative to par ... How does this apply to the Pentominoes puzzle? ...
When all the blocks are vertical, their sum divided by five will always be a whole
number, no matter where they are on the number grid. These vertical blocks are par
(E). If you then move a block to the right one, then your score changes to +1. If you
move it left, then it changes to j1.
The nice interchange of voice among the participant, the narrator, and
the mathematician continues into his reflective journal:
The solution came right after I_d played a round of golf and I was watching golf
on TV in the clubhouse. On the screen flashed a player_s scorecard and I realized
that the very notion of par was the solution to the Pentomino puzzle.
Comparison of Groups 1 and 2
Other than the aforementioned correlations between the two forms of
journals, there were other interesting results that emerged out of the
study. First, the extensive use of problem solving both as mathematical
content and pedagogical context had a profoundly transformative effect
on the participants_beliefs about mathematics and their beliefs about the
teaching and learning of mathematics. This result was more pronounced
with the preservice elementary teachers than the preservice secondary
teachers. In part, these results have been reported elsewhere (Liljedahl,
Rolka, & Ro¨sken, 2007a; Liljedahl, Rolka, & Ro¨sken, 2007b; Liljedahl,
Ro¨sken, & Rolka, 2006; Rolka, Ro¨sken, & Liljedahl, 2006). Although
the details of these results extend beyond the scope of this article, it is
clear that a primary contributing factor is the role that the reflective
journals played in the transformation.
More relevant to this article is the result that this transformation was
also more pronounced in the groups that used persona-based journaling.
That is, although both E groups had more profound transformations than
PETER LILJEDAHL674
the S groups, the E2 group had a more profound transformation than the
E1 group. Likewise, the S2 group had a more profound transformation
than the S1 group. This may be due to the fact that the persona-based
method of journaling used in the problem-solving journals seemed to
transfer into the reflective journals as well. This can be seen, for
instance, in both Marie_s and Stephan_s journal entries above. These
entries exemplify the intertwining that occurred between the problem-
solving journal and the reflective journal in groups E2 and S2.
CONCLUSIONS
The mathematical problem-solving process is complex at best. It
involves not only the logical processes of inductive and deductive logic
but also the extra-logical processes of intuition, insight, aesthetics, and
illumination. This process is again nicely summarized by Kleitman
(Liljedahl, 2004, p. 34).
Thus while you can turn the problem over in your mind in all ways you can think
of, try to use all the methods you can recall or discover to attack it, there is really
no standard approach that will solve it for you. At some stage, if you are lucky,
the right combination occurs to you, and you are able to check it and use it to put
an argument together. Thus in answer to your first question, deliberate endeavour
is required, but it is rarely sufficient for important discoveries. ... You must try
and fail by deliberate efforts, and then rely on a sudden inspiration or intuition or
if you prefer to call it luck.
At the same time, problem solving involves the regulation of responses
to these aforementioned phenomena.
Hofstadter (1996) offered more than mathematical insights; he offered
insights into the process of mathematical problem solving. This results
both from his mathematical prowess and his ability to articulate that
prowess in his writing. Through an analysis of this work comes a framework
for writing that is meant to help shape others_articulation of their own
problem-solving processes. In this article, I examined the effectiveness of
this framework in helping preservice elementary and secondary teachers
articulate their problem-solving processes in general and their extra-logical
and collaborative processes in particular. In this regard, the persona-based
framework proved to be very effective in producing journals that correlated
well with the participants_reflections on their problem-solving processes.
This effectiveness was most visible within preservice secondary mathe-
matics teachers. For both elementary and secondary preservice teachers,
PERSONA-BASED JOURNALING 675
however, the persona-based framework facilitated the production of richer
descriptions of problem-solving processes.
Implicit in this outcome is the implication that the persona-based
method of journaling has for research on extra-logical processes.
Methodologically, the persona-based framework could prove an invalu-
able tool for gathering data on these private and often unobservable
phenomena. As such, it offers us a window into the very real, often tacit,
but pivotal aspects of the problem-solving process. The use of such a
method raises powerful questions for research on the problem-solving
process. As a method, persona-based journaling is not inert. It does not
quietly gather data without affecting that which it is intended to capture.
Preliminary analysis of this framework indicates that it may be more
than a descriptive toolVit seems to shape that which it meant to reflect.
As such, further research is needed to ascertain its metacognitive
influence on the problem-solving process.
If the persona-based framework does prove to be as effective a
metacognitive tool as it seems to be, then further work will be needed to
establish more effective pedagogical methods for developing this
capacity in students of all ages. At the same time, there is also a
separate, but related, line of research that can be pursued in the domain
of discourse analysis. Such research would serve to add a finer layer of
analysis to the research questions presented in this article.
Although the research presented in this article was motivated by
questions concerning the presentation of authentic and often invisible
aspects of the problem-solving process, there are other questions that can
motivate this line of inquiry. In particular, questions around the
assessment of problem solving have been raised by the use of this
persona-based framework.
At the most basic level, assessment of any process needs to be aimed
at that process. When that process is unobservable, as it often is with
problem solving, then steps need to be taken to uncover the authentic
process. Failure to do so will first result in a shifting of the focus of the
assessment towards more concrete aspects of the process. This will be
followed shortly thereafter by a shifting of the actual process to more
concrete aspects. In the context of mathematical problem solving, this
could manifest itself in a number of ways. For example, a teacher_s
inability to capture the extra-logical processes of problem solving may
result in her/his over-emphasising the logical processes of problem
solving in assessment instruments. This would likely materialize as a
focus on correct answers or logically organized explanations. Such a
focus would be perceived by students as a value statement; that is, the
PETER LILJEDAHL676
logically organized explanation is all that is valuable. This will result in a
shifting of the students_problem-solving processes towards that which is
valuable.
The persona-based method of journaling about problem-solving
processes offers a way to break this cycle. Through its ability to help
students articulate the authentic processes involved in problem solving,
the persona-based framework can also help teachers to assess that which
is authenticVthey would be able to evaluate what they value.
Some research has already been done in this area and preliminary
results indicate that the framework is also an effective instrument for
authentic assessment. However, these results are preliminary, and much
work needs to be done before any conclusions can be drawn. Such work
is similar to the aforementioned work on the framework as a research
methodology in that it seeks answers to many of the same questions. In
particular, when used for assessment, how does the persona-based
framework shape the problem-solving process?
APPENDIX A
Problems for E2
Problem #1 (Magic Addition). Write down any three 3-digit numbers as
if you are going to add them up using column addition. I will then add
two 3-digit numbers to this list and instantly tell you what the sum is. For
example: you provide the numbers 271, 742, and 836. I will provide the
numbers 728 and 257 and instantly tell you that the sum of all five is
2834. How do I do it so quickly?
Problem #2 (The Treasure of Captain Bird). The treasure of Captain
Bird lies buried on the island of the parrot. Near the centre of this island
three great trees form a triangle. The mightiest of the three is a great oak
older than the treasure itself. Towards the west of the oak, some distance
away there stands an elm tree, and towards the east of the oak there
stands an ash. To find the treasure of Captain Bird, count out the paces
from the oak to the elm. When you get to the elm, make a precise left
turn and count out the same number of paces. Mark this spot with a flag.
Return to the oak and count out the paces from the oak to the ash. When
you get to the ash, make a precise right turn and count out the same number
of paces. Mark this spot with a flag. The treasure lays buried midway
between the two flags. So, you rent a boat and set out for the island. When
you get there, however, you discover that the oak tree is missing without a
trace. Where is the treasure? Why is it there?
PERSONA-BASED JOURNALING 677
Problem #3 (Psychic Math). Figure out how the Flash Mind Reader
works. It can be found at http://www.albinoblacksheep.com/flash/
mind.php.
Project (Pentomino Problem). A pentomino is a shape that is created by
the joining of five squares such that every square touches at least one other
square along a full edge. How many are there? Name them. If a pentomino
is placed on the number grid, will the sum of the numbers it covers up be
divisible by 5? When will it? When will it not? If not, what will the
remainder be? Why?
APPENDIX B
Problems for S2
Problem #1 (Corner to Corner). An NN array has a red marker in
every cell except for two. One corner of the array is left empty and the
corner furthest from this empty cell has a white marker in it. What is the
smallest number of moves required to get the white marker into the
initially empty cell given that the only valid move is to move a marker
into an adjacent empty cell (that is, not kitty-corner)?
Problem #2 (Four Pockets). A round table has four deep pockets equally
spaced around its perimeter. There is a cup in each pocket oriented either
up or down, but you cannot see which. The goal of the game is to get all
the cups facing up or all the cups facing down. You do this by reaching
into any two pockets, feeling the orientation of the cups, and then doing
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
PETER LILJEDAHL678
something with them (you can flip one, both, or none). However, as soon
as you take your hands out of the pockets, the table spins in such a way
that you can_t keep track of where the pockets you have visited are. If the
four cups ever get oriented all up or all down, a bell rings to signal you
are done. Can you guarantee that you will get the bell to ring in a finite
number of moves and, if so, in how many moves?
Problem #3 (Student Moves). The desks of 25 students are arranged in a
55 array. The teacher comes in and tells the 25 students that everyone
has to change to a different desk. The stipulation is, however, that they
are only allowed to move into an adjacent seat (not kitty-corner) and
everyone must move. Can it be done?
Project (Pentomino Problem). A pentomino is a shape that is created by
the joining of five squares such that every square touches at least one
other square along a full edge. How many are there? Name them. If a
pentomino is placed on the number grid, will the sum of the numbers it
covers up be divisible by 5? When will it? When will it not? If not, what
will the remainder be? Why?
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Peter Liljedahl
Faculty of Education
Simon Fraser University
8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada
E-mail: liljedahl@sfu.ca
PETER LILJEDAHL680
