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Word reading fluency: A transfer appropriate processing account of fluency transfer
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Word reading fluency, as indexed by the fast and accurate identification of single words, predicts both general reading ability and reading comprehension. This study compared the effects of context training and isolated word training on subsequent measures of word reading fluency. Good and poor readers were given 12 repetitions of two sets of words; 48 new words were learned in each condition. Words were presented in a story during context training and on a computer screen during isolated word training. Target words were read in isolation at test, randomly displayed within a series containing 72 untrained words. Results show that words trained in isolation are remembered longer and read faster when presented in isolation at test compared to words trained in context. Theoretical implications are discussed in relation to transfer appropriate processing.
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... The overlap of processing operations at encoding and at test can affect memory for encountered stimuli (such as recognition of words and nonwords) and the speed with which the stimuli can be retrieved (Franks et al., 2000;Martin-Chang & Levy, 2006). Recognition and ease of retrieval at test are key mechanisms in both memory and truth judgements, suggesting that findings in the memory literature on the role of match/mismatching processing operations on recognition memory may also apply to truth judgements in the ITE paradigm. ...
... In these studies, TAP effects are observed in simple word-learning paradigms where different encoding conditions were manipulated to observe differences in recognition memory performance for words at test. For instance, people either encoded words in isolation or in more contextualized conditions where target words appeared in a short story (Martin-Chang & Levy, 2006) or in a sentence (Ehri & Roberts, 1979;Johnston, 2000). In the word-learning paradigm, it is argued that encoding words with surrounding context decreases the amount of attention allotted to processing aspects of the word itself (e.g., spelling etc.) (Martin-Chang & Levy, 2006). ...
... For instance, people either encoded words in isolation or in more contextualized conditions where target words appeared in a short story (Martin-Chang & Levy, 2006) or in a sentence (Ehri & Roberts, 1979;Johnston, 2000). In the word-learning paradigm, it is argued that encoding words with surrounding context decreases the amount of attention allotted to processing aspects of the word itself (e.g., spelling etc.) (Martin-Chang & Levy, 2006). These findings point to the possibility thatdespite completing evaluative goals that focused on the target wordwhen participants in our experiments saw trivia claims at encoding, the boost in memory afforded by the context-rich trivia claims overrides any contribution provided by matching processing operations. ...
The Transfer-appropriate Processing (TAP) framework has demonstrated enhanced recognition memory when processing operations engaged at encoding and at test match. Our research applied TAP to study the illusory truth effect (ITE). We investigated whether the match/mismatch of evaluative goals at encoding and at test affects the ITE. At encoding, participants saw target words (Experiments 1-3; or full trivia claims Experiments 4-5) and completed an evaluative goal: imagery task or vowel-counting. At test, participants saw target words embedded in trivia claims that were old or new and completed the same (matching) or different (mismatching) evaluative goal that they completed at encoding, before making truth or memory ratings. We found a typical TAP effect for memory judgements when people saw words at encoding, but no TAP effect when people saw claims at encoding. We also found an ITE when people saw claims at encoding, but no ITE when people saw words at encoding (no evidence of TAP moderating truth judgments). Together these results extend both the TAP and ITE literatures, suggesting boundary conditions for TAP and the conditions under which the ITE emerges.
... (b) Connections between the temporal lobe (especially MTG) and frontal (and some parietal) regions point to a potential role in semantic and lexical control. The main difference between the two is that the former includes any situations that require activation of semantic-lexical concepts, while the latter selectively involves situations that include either high competition or weak association (Martin- Chang and Levy, 2006;Nozari et al., 2016a). We will return to this point at the end of this section. ...
... More recent studies have started to tap more closely into the functions of ILF and IFOF in terms of semantic-lexical control. Control has been discussed in two senses in the language literature: conflict and weak associations (e.g., Thompson-Schill and Botvinick, 2006;Martin-Chang and Levy, 2006; see Nozari et al., 2016a for a unifying view). For example, words belonging to the same semantic category but with opposite valences can make semantic judgment harder by inducing conflict. ...
Much is known about the role of cortical areas in language processing. The shift towards network approaches in recent years has highlighted the importance of uncovering the role of white matter in connecting these areas. However, despite a large body of research, many of these tracts’ functions are not well-understood. We present a comprehensive review of the empirical evidence on the role of eight major tracts that are hypothesized to be involved in language processing (inferior longitudinal fasciculus, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, uncinate fasciculus, extreme capsule, middle longitudinal fasciculus, superior longitudinal fasciculus, arcuate fasciculus, and frontal aslant tract). For each tract, we hypothesize its role based on the function of the cortical regions it connects. We then evaluate these hypotheses with data from three sources: studies in neurotypical individuals, neuropsychological data, and intraoperative stimulation studies. Finally, we summarize the conclusions supported by the data and highlight the areas needing further investigation.
... It should be borne in mind that games dealt with features and words mostly in isolation, whereas in the e-reader features and words appeared integrated into whole, meaningful texts. Martin-Chang and colleagues (Martin-Chang & Levy, 2006;Martin-Chang et al., 2007) have suggested that when a word is processed in context the amount of semantic processing is elevated as opposed to reading a word in isolation. We concur with other researchers (Faulkner & Levy, 1994, 1999 who have suggested that words are better learned when contextually bound with the meaning of the passage. ...
The spring of COVID-19 forced teachers to restructure learning materials, content delivery, and learning environment, this leading to utilizing innovative course designs, high-tech learning tools, and engaging web-based learning environments. This shift affects, on the one hand, the perceptions of teachers and learners, and on the other hand, instructional practices, resulting in learned lessons and future envisions about the feasibility of utilizing the web in the context of English language education. In this introductory chapter, we present the background of this special collection on online English language teaching and learning, provide a summary of the expanding corpus of research on online English language education, and introduce the studies published in the collection. This collection of chapters covers the perspectives, implications, challenges, and opportunities of digital transformation in English language education prompted by the increasing accessibility of technology and the COVID-19 pandemic.
... It should be borne in mind that games dealt with features and words mostly in isolation, whereas in the e-reader features and words appeared integrated into whole, meaningful texts. Martin-Chang and colleagues (Martin-Chang & Levy, 2006;Martin-Chang et al., 2007) have suggested that when a word is processed in context the amount of semantic processing is elevated as opposed to reading a word in isolation. We concur with other researchers (Faulkner & Levy, 1994, 1999 who have suggested that words are better learned when contextually bound with the meaning of the passage. ...
This book focuses on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and provides advice on how to approach EFL teaching in the online context. Coronavirus has accelerated e-learning significantly and has highlighted the need of appropriate web tools that will allow teachers to present their material either synchronously or asynchronously, while also adequately assess their students. At the same time, there is a need of tools that can engage the students and motivate them to actively participate in the lesson.
With e-learning being a rather new challenge for both teachers and students, this book provides research- and practice-based chapters with strategies, techniques, approaches, and methods which have proven to be successful in e-learning environments, maximizing their impact. Apart from presenting research results with strong pedagogical implications on online or blended English language learning and teaching, the book also trains educators on utilizing online tools and managing online learning environments and platforms.
... It should be borne in mind that games dealt with features and words mostly in isolation, whereas in the e-reader features and words appeared integrated into whole, meaningful texts. Martin-Chang and colleagues (Martin-Chang & Levy, 2006;Martin-Chang et al., 2007) have suggested that when a word is processed in context the amount of semantic processing is elevated as opposed to reading a word in isolation. We concur with other researchers (Faulkner & Levy, 1994, 1999 who have suggested that words are better learned when contextually bound with the meaning of the passage. ...
Online assessment practices have been affected by various factors ranging from teachers’ technological competence to devices and tools offered and made available both to teachers and students. The current study aimed at exploring challenges and issues experienced by language lecturers in Turkish tertiary contexts during their transition to online/distance learning and teaching. The participants of the study included seventy-five language lecturers at the School of Foreign Languages and the Department of Foreign Language Education at various state universities in Turkey. The study used quantitative data provided by the participants’ responses to the online survey which included several short-answer questions regarding how they assessed students during the pandemic. The survey was created through Google Forms and shared with the participants via emails and social networking sites. The major results of the study indicated that a great majority of the participants did not have any power in the selection of the assessment types as the university senates determined the main assessment to be assignments or projects. The results also showed that academic integrity and grading were other concerns during the online assessment, in addition to technical problems, limitations, and devices available to lecturers and students.KeywordsEnglish as a foreign languageOnlineAssessmentTestingChallengesOpportunities
... It should be borne in mind that games dealt with features and words mostly in isolation, whereas in the e-reader features and words appeared integrated into whole, meaningful texts. Martin-Chang and colleagues (Martin-Chang & Levy, 2006;Martin-Chang et al., 2007) have suggested that when a word is processed in context the amount of semantic processing is elevated as opposed to reading a word in isolation. We concur with other researchers (Faulkner & Levy, 1994, 1999 who have suggested that words are better learned when contextually bound with the meaning of the passage. ...
This chapter takes a snapshot of the current situation in terms of secondary school English teachers’ capacity to engage in teaching remotely, as has been necessary during the COVID-19 pandemic, in three distinct locations within Asia – India, Malaysia, and Taiwan. In addition, taking account of the potential effects of COVID-19, it seeks to uncover any mismatch between teachers’ theoretical understandings of what remote teaching of English language classes involves and what has been happening in practice. It is based upon a small-scale qualitative study that used questionnaire data from English teachers working in secondary schools in different locations and interview data from academics working in the field of English language teacher education in each location. Through the data, the study revisits how teachers’ capacity to teach remotely is modelled as well as making recommendations in terms of supporting and training teachers to deliver classes remotely and the need to pay attention to both teacher and student wellbeing in order to make remote teaching sustainable.KeywordsEnglish language teachingemergency remote teachingTPACKteacher support and trainingstaff and student wellbeing
... Recent work found a similar interaction of learning approach by task demand (or the particular aspect of word knowledge being recruited in the task) in skilled readers: Undergraduate students remembered semantic information better from words read in context and remembered orthographic information better from words that were presented in lists (Martin-Chang & Levesque, 2015). In addition, Martin-Chang and Levy (2006) found that (a) the type of task influenced performance and (b) the method of reading instruction was directly linked with the intended reading outcomes. More specifically, they found that across two reader groups (skilled and unskilled), words learned in isolation were read faster when tested in list form, whereas words learned in context were read faster when tested in context. ...
Learning to read relies upon the integration of phonological, orthographic, and semantic information. However, no studies have investigated how children with varying reading abilities learn phonological-orthographic (PO) and semantic aspects of novel words as a function of both learning approach (LA; e.g., learning new words in isolation or context) and outcome (fluency or comprehension). In this study, 45 children participated in three tasks that differentially tested PO and semantic attributes of novel pseudo-words learned through two learning approaches. Children were classified into groups as having dyslexia (DYS), having specific reading comprehension deficits (S-RCDs), or being typically developing readers (TD). Differences were found between groups, with S-RCD poorer than TD on semantic but not PO components of learning. Children with DYS displayed impaired results on both semantic and PO learning but showed an interaction on task by LA performance. Specifically, in the DYS group, isolation LA yielded better performance on PO learning, while context LA was better for semantic learning. These results indicate that (a) children with S-RCDs have a unique learning profile that is dissociable from DYS and TD and (b) reading impairments are not static but rather influence acquisition of reading skill in different ways, depending on reading profile.
Reading in an L2 is a complex skill that has been claimed to be facilitated by serious games. Serious games in online environments have the potential to draw learners’ attention to language and to personalize learning. This innovation experience presents a serious game that uses an algorithmic sequence for the presentation of linguistic units for the acquisition of reading skills. The game also gives teachers the opportunity to alter the algorithmic path. The goal is to explore gameplay behavior and teachers’ perceptions of adaptivity and learning. 105 students played games for over 4 months and 7 teachers participated in the training and interviews. This study draws both on quantitative data coming from gameplay, and qualitative data coming from teacher interviews. Results show that the algorithmic sequence triggered a wider variety of features played from basically grapheme-phoneme correspondence. Teachers used the teacher tool to cover a more limited variety of features but from a wider range of linguistic dimensions and with more games per feature. Data from interviews suggest that teachers had a range of perceptions regarding the connection of the tools to their own goals, they noticed and applied adaptivity, and they saw the learning potential of adaptive technologies.KeywordsL2 reading skillsGame-based learningSerious gamesAlgorithmic sequencingAdaptivityDigital learning games
Ein ausreichendes Lesetempo, eine hohe Lesegenauigkeit und ein entwickeltes Leseverständnis sind in fast allen Schulfächern Voraussetzung für eine erfolgreiche Teilnahme am Unterricht. Internationale Schulleistungsstudien belegen, dass ein hoher Anteil von Schülern bereits in der Grundschule unzureichende Lesekompetenzen aufweist und daher auf zusätzliche Förder- oder Therapiemaßnahmen angewiesen ist. Im Hinblick darauf wurden in einem Gruppen-Prä-Post-Follow-Up-Design mit zweifacher Prä-Messung zwei unterschiedliche Interventionen zur Verbesserung der Lesefähigkeiten bei Zweit- und Drittklässlern evaluiert: Ein modellgeleitetes Therapieverfahren zur Verbesserung der Lesegeschwindigkeit von Wörtern und ein von Eltern durchgeführtes Fördertraining zur Verbesserung der Lesegenauigkeit und Lesegeschwindigkeit von Pseudowörtern. Zur Teilnahme an den Interventionen wurden 58 Zweit- und Drittklässler mit einem gravierenden Leserückstand ausgewählt und entweder dem Therapieprogramm oder dem Fördertraining zugeteilt. Beide Gruppen erhielten über 5 Wochen ein tägliches 45-minütiges Training. Während das Training der Therapiegruppe von einem ausgebildeten Therapeuten durchgeführt wurde und in der Schule stattfand, wurde das Training der Fördergruppe von Eltern zu Hause durchgeführt. Es wurden Veränderungen in der Lesegeschwindigkeit, dem Leseverständnis und verschiedenen Blickbewegungsparametern ausgewertet.
The study was designed to investigate the effect of two repeated reading procedures on second-grade transitional readers' (Chall, 1983) oral reading performance with practiced and unpracticed passages. Seventeen transitional readers were selected on the basis of average or better decoding ability but below-average reading rate and were assigned to one of two types of repeated reading training, using either a read-along procedure or independent practice. Results showed that transitional readers' rate, accuracy, comprehension, and prosodic reading (reading in meaningful phrases) were significantly improved by repeated reading practice regardless of the training procedure employed. Gains in repeated reading of practiced passages transferred to unpracticed, similar passages; however, practice on a single passage was not as effective as practice on a series of passages. Prosodic reading was most facilitated by the read-along procedure. /// [French] Cette recherche veut étudier l'effet produit par deux procédés de lecture répétée sur les performances d'élèves de deuxième année ayant atteint un niveau de lecture dit transitionnel (lequel se réfère à la capacité de découpage des syllabes) lorsqu'ils doivent lire à haute voix certains passages déjà lus et certains inconnus. On a sélectionné 17 de ces lecteurs démontrant une habileté au décodage moyenne ou supérieure, mais une vitesse de lecture sous la moyenne. Ils ont été soumis à l'un des deux types d'apprentissage de la lecture répétée, soit un procédé de lire avec le voix d'un lecteur met en bande, soit la pratique individuelle. La vitesse de lecture, l'exactitude, la compréhension et l'intonation (à la lecture de phrases significatives) ont été grandement améliorées grâce à l'exercice de lecture répétée, peu importe le procédé utilisé. On a observé le transfert du progrès réalisé par la lecture répétée lors de passages connus sur des passages semblables mais inconnus. Toutefois, l'exercice avec un seul passage ne s'est pas révélé aussi efficace que l'exercice avec une série de passages. Le procédé de lecture en groupe permettait de lire avec une meilleure intonation. /// [Spanish] El estudio fue diseñado para investigar el efecto que dos procedimientos de lectura repetida tienen en la abilidad de lectura con pasajes practicados y no practicados en lectores transicionales de segundo año. Se seleccionaron 17 estudiantes transicionales en base de su habilidad superior o promedio para decodificar material combinada esta con una velocidad de lectura por debajo del promedio, y fueron asignados a uno de dos tipos de entrenamiento de lectura repetida, utilizando un procedimiento de lectura simultánea con la voz de un lector registrada en cinta, o práctica independiente. La velocidad de lectura, la exactitud, comprensión, y lectura prosódica (lectura en frases con significado) de los lectores transicionales mejoraron significativamente debido a la práctica de la lectura repetida independientemente del procedimiento de entrenamiento empleado. Las mejoras en la lectura repetida de pasajes practicados fue transferida a pasajes similares no practicados; con todo, la práctica de un solo pasaje no fue tan efectiva como la práctica de un serie de pasajes. La lectura simultánea con otro lector fue el procedimiento que más facilitó la lectura prosódica. /// [German] Diese studie wurde entworfen, um den Einfluß von zwei Wiederholungslesen-Vorgängen bei mündlichem Vorlesen von geübten und ungeübten Abschnitten bei Uebergangslesern im zweiten Schuljahr zu erforschen. Siebzehn Uebergangsleser wurden ausgewählt aufgrund von Durchschnitts- oder besserer Entzifferungsfähigkeit, jedoch aufgrund weniger als durchschnittlicher Lesefähigkeit, und diese wurden einer von den beiden Typen von Wiederholungslesen-Klassen zugeteilt, wobei entweder eine Zusammen-Lesen-Prozedur oder aber unabhängiges Lesen durchgeführt wurden. Die Leseschnelle, die Genauigkeit, das Verständnis und Silbenlesen (Lesen in logischen Sätzen) von Uebergangslesern wurde wesentlich verbessert durch wiederholtes Lesen, gleich welche Uebungsmethode benutzt wurde. Fortschritte in wiederholtem Lesen von geübten Abschnitten wurden auf ungeübte Abschnitte übertragen; allerdings war das Ueben eines einzelnen Abschnittes nicht so wirkungsvoll wie das Ueben einer Serie von Abschnitten. Silbenlesen wurde am meisten gefördert durch das Miteinander-Lesen.
First graders practiced reading 10 unfamiliar function words (i.e., might, which, enough). Half of the children studied the words embedded in printed sentences. Half studied the words in unstructured lists of words and then listened to sentences comprised of the words. Posttest measures revealed that the sentence readers learned more about the syntactic/semantic identities of function words, whereas list readers remembered their orthographic identities better and could pronounce the words faster and more accurately in isolation. Findings show that there are multiple aspects of printed words to be learned by beginning readers. Which aspect gets learned depends upon how the words are practiced. Results are interpreted to support a theory of printed word learning in which various identities of words become amalgamated in lexical memory as a consequence of reading experiences with the words./// [French] Des élèves de cours préparatoire ont pratiqué la lecture de dix mots de fonction qui ne leur étaient pas familiers (par exemple: pourrait (might), qui (which), assez (enough). La moitié des enfants a étudié les mots placés dans des phrases imprimées. L'autre moitié a étudié les mots dans des listes de mots sans structure, et ensuite a écouté des phrases comprenant ces mots. Des mesures post-test ont révélé que les lecteurs de phrases ont plus appris sur les identités syntaxiques et sémantiques des mots de fonction, tandis que les lecteurs de listes se sont mieux souvenus de leurs identités orthographiques et ont pu prononcer les mots plus vite et de manière plus précise en isolement. Les découvertes montrent qu'il y a des aspects multiples des mots imprimés qui peuvent être appris par des lecteurs débutants. L'aspect qui est appris dépend de la méthode utilisée pour pratiquer les mots. Les résultats sont interprétés pour soutenir une théorie d'instruction de mots imprimés selon laquelle différentes identités de mots sont amalgamées dans la mémoire lexicologique à la suite des expériences de lecture avec les mots./// [Spanish] Alumnos de primer grado practicaron la lectura de 10 palabras de función previamente desconocidas (v.gr.: el que, bastante). La mitad del grupo de niños estudió las palabras incluidas en oraciones impresas. La otra mitad estudió las palabras en listas no estructuradas, escuchando luego oraciones compuestas por estas palabras. Medidas de examenes que siguieron revelaron que los lectores de oraciones aprendieron más sobre las identidades sintáctico-semánticas de palabras de función, mientras que los lectores de listas recordaron mejor las identidades ortográficas, pronunciando las palabras aisladas más rápidamente y con más precisión. Los resultados muestran que existe una multiplicidad de aspectos de la palabra impresa que el principiante necesita aprender. Qué aspecto deberá aprenderse, dependerá de cómo se practican las palabras. Se interpretan los resultados para respaldar una teoría de aprendizaje de la palabra impresa en la que las varias identidades de palabras se amalgaman en la memoria lexicológica como consecuencia de la práctica de lectura con las palabras.
Studied the effect of presenting 4 printed words in 4 different ways on the acquisition of reading responses of 164 first and second graders. The printed word was presented alone, in association with a picture, embedded in a sentence, or in a combination of sentence plus a picture. The study attempted to resolve the seeming conflict between Samuels' focal attention theory and Goodman's findings that presenting words in a context facilitates children in identifying the words. The focal attention theory contends that picture and context cues deter acquisition of reading responses because they enable the child to identify the word in practice without focusing on its graphic features. Comparing both on trials to a criterion and on correct responses on test trials, the subjects scored best on word alone, next on word plus picture, third on word plus sentence, and worst on word plus sentence and picture. The results are seen as support for Samuels' theory./// [French] A étudié comment une présentation de 4 mots imprimés de 4 façons différentes a pu agir sur l'acquisition de réactions à la lecture chez 164 élèves de première et de deuxième année. On a presenté le mot d'abord par lui-même, ensuite associé à une image, puis inserré dans une phrase et enfin dans une combination de phrase et d'image. Le but était de résoudre le soi-disant conflit entre la théorie de Samuels d'une part sur l'attention focale et d'autre part les recherches de Goodman qui a découvert qu'une présentation de mots dans un contexte facilite l'identification de mots par les enfants. Par contre, la théorie d'attention focale prétend que les suggestions proférées par l'image et le contexte sont autant d'obstacles à l'acquisition des réactions à la lecture, puisqu'elles permettent à l'enfant de n'identifier le mot qu'en pratique sans faire attention à son aspect graphique. Une comparaison des 2 théories au cours d'épreuves selon un même critère et selon la fréquence de réponses correctes montre que les élèves ont réussi le mieux avec la présentation du mot isolé, et de moins en moins bien quand on a présenté le mot avec une image, dans une phrase, ou avec une image et une phrase. Ces résultats semblent soutenir la théorie de Samuels./// [Spanish] Estudio el efecto que la presentación de 4 palabras impresas de 4 maneras diferentes tiene en la adquisición de respuestas de lectura en 164 niños de primer y segundo grado. La palabra impresa se presentaba sola, junto a un dibujo, inserta en una oración, o en una combinación de oración y dibujo. El estudio pretendia resolver el aparente conflicto que existe entre la teoría de atención focal de Samuels y los descubrimientos de Goodman, en el sentido de que la presentación de palabras dentro de un contexto, facilita a los niños la identificación de las palabras. La teoría de atención focal sostiene que los indicios del dibujo y del contexto, disuaden la adquisición de respuestas de lectura porque permiten que el niño identifique la palabra en la práctica, sin enfocarse en sus caracteres gráficos. Poniendo a prueba tanto el criterio como las respuestas correctas examinadas, los sujetos obtuvieron los mejores resultados en la palabra sola, luego en la palabra y el dibujo, en tercer lugar en la palabra y la oración, y los peores resultados correspondieron a la palabra junto con la oración y el dibujo. Los resultados indican una sustentación de la teoría de Samuels.
Beginning readers' reported word identification strategies for identifying unfamiliar words in text were examined in relation to reading achievement, reading-related skills, and academic self-perceptions. Children who were participating in a three-year longitudinal study of reading acquisition in a whole language instructional context were placed in two groups according to their reported word identification strategies obtained towards the end of their first year of schooling. Results indicated that children who reported using word-based strategies showed superior reading and reading-related performance, and reported more positive self-efficacy beliefs in reading and more positive academic self-concepts than children who reported using text-based strategies. The results are discussed in terms of predictions stemming from the different theoretical assumptions about reading acquisition that underlie the code-emphasis and whole language approaches to beginning reading instruction.