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The Effect of Interpersonal Touch During Childhood on Adult Attachment and Depression: A Neglected Area of Family and Developmental Psychology?
Journal of Child and Family Studies
Abstract
Interpersonal touch has been little studied empirically as an indicator of parent- and peer-child intimacy. Undergraduate
students (n=390) were studied using a questionnaire survey regarding the frequencies of interpersonal touch by father, mother, same-sex
peers, and opposite-sex peers during preschool ages, grades 1–3, grades 4–6, and grades 7–9, as well as their current attachment
style to a romantic partner and current depression. A path model indicated that current depression was influenced significantly
by poorer self- and other-images as well as by fewer parental interpersonal touches throughout childhood. Other-image was
influenced by early (up to grade 3) parental interpersonal touch. Our findings suggest that a lower frequency of parental
touching during childhood influences the development of depression and contributes to a poorer image of an individual’s romantic
partner during later adolescence and early adulthood.
... The influence of early parental touch on adult attachment styles has been less investigated. A previous study by Takeuchi and colleagues explored self-reported frequencies of early parental touch in relation to attachment-related mental representations of 'self' and 'others' [42]. According to their results, a poorer 'other' image, which would be potentially indicative of higher avoidance, was predicted by lower self-reported frequencies of early parental touch. ...
... It is important to acknowledge that both earlier touch and adult touch from the TBIO were associated with attachment avoidance but not attachment anxiety. A potential explanation for the link between earlier touch an attachment avoidance in particular could be the suggested association between lower self-reported frequencies of early parental touch with a poorer 'other' image, which in turn is potentially indicative of higher attachment related avoidance [42]. In addition, while avoidant individuals can perceive touch as aversive, anxious individuals present more ambivalent feelings towards interpersonal touch [43,66]. ...
The sense of touch develops early in life and becomes a determinant aspect of our personal narratives, providing crucial information about the world around us and playing a prominent role in affective and social interactions. In this study we aimed to explore whether individual differences in touch experiences across the lifespan are related to adult attachment styles and to perceived touch deprivation. For this we first developed an instrument, namely the Tactile Biography, to quantify individual differences in affective touch experiences throughout life. Secondly, we performed a set of regressions models and a mediation analysis to investigate the role of attachment in relation to both the tactile history and perceived touch deprivation. We found that experiences of affective touch during childhood and adolescence seem to be closely associated with adult attachment styles and adult social touch experiences. Avoidant attachment appears to serve as a mediator in the relationship between earlier (childhood/adolescent) and later (adult) affective touch experiences, as well as between earlier affective touch experiences and perceived touch deprivation. These findings offer further support to existing literature, providing novel insights for the fields of social affective touch and attachment research.
... Recently, experimental and correlational studies have begun addressing the empirical lacuna related to touch's theoretical role in attachment. Takeuchi et al. (2010) reported on links between retrospectively reported parental interpersonal touch and depression and romantic partner attachment in adulthood calling touch "a neglected area of family and developmental psychology," (p. 1) that may underlie later romantic attachment. In two experimental studies, Jakubiak and Feeney (2016) reported on an affectionate touch paradigm that enhanced what they called state attachment security (i.e., accessibility of secure words on a memory task), suggesting that touch could be targeted as a security-enhancing intervention. ...
... Likewise, the aforementioned Anisfeld et al. (1990) study documented links between use of a touch-conducive soft baby carrier and later infant attachment security. Although these authors' work importantly, albeit preliminarily, links touch to attachment-related variables in adulthood, we concur with Takeuchi et al. (2010) that touch has been a neglected area within attachment studies and note that the systematic observation of touch in this field is in its infancy. Finally, it is important to note that important, methodologically rigorous research-like Fairhurst, Löken, and Grossmann (2014)documents the physiologically and behaviourally positive effects of sensitive touch on infants. ...
Despite an increase in research examining maternal and infant touch, and documenting its public health impact, this mode of interaction has historically been omitted from related fields of developmental research in human and non‐human primates. The broad aim of this review is to examine to what extent mother–infant touch has been included in relational paradigms and research. We argue that although theoretical and empirical scholarship on attachment and maternal sensitivity conceptualizes touch as fundamental to caregiver–infant interactions and child development more broadly, touch is rarely operationalized or measured in caregiver–infant interaction paradigms or clinical interventions. Data from primarily human, but also non‐human, primates are reviewed to document the importance of touch, and clinical research is reviewed to document the formal use of touch in human attachment and sensitivity research and intervention. The review closes with recommended directions for future research and related implications.
Highlights
Review examining to what extent mother–infant touch has been included in relational paradigms and research across human and non‐human primates.
Data from studies in human attachment, sensitivity research and intervention, and mother–infant interaction in non‐human primates are reviewed.
Touch is theoretically essential, but practically excluded, from attachment coding, maternal sensitivity research, and intervention paradigms. Recommended directions for future research are provided.
... It has been previously identified that mothers engage in more positive touch with their daughters than sons (Goldberg and Lewis 1969;Lindahl and Heimann 1997;Robin 1982). Additionally, Takeuchi et al. (2010) identified a significant correlation between selfreported levels of positive parental touch experienced in early childhood and gender, suggesting greater levels of parental touch to be received by females than males. It was therefore predicted that females would report more positive parental touch in childhood than males, as measured by the TEAQ ChT subscale. ...
... As predicted, gender differences in TEAQ responses were identified, with females having greater FFT, CIT, and ChT scores than males, suggesting that overall, females appear to experience more physical touch throughout their lifetimes than males. This is supported by previous literature which has identified females to experience more positive touch both during childhood (Lindahl and Heimann 1997;Takeuchi et al. 2010) and in adulthood (Hall and Veccia 1990;Jones 1986;Major et al. 1990;Webb and Peck 2015). As predicted, females had a more positive attitude to self-care than males, a result support by previous literature that females have significantly greater self-reported attitudes to body care than males in adolescence (Brausch and Muehlenkamp 2007). ...
Despite growing interest in the beneficial effects of positive touch experiences throughout our lives, and individual differences in how these experiences are perceived, there is not yet available a contemporary self-report measure of touch experiences and attitudes, for which the factor structure has been validated. This article describes four studies carried out during the construction and validation of the Touch Experiences and Attitudes Questionnaire (TEAQ). The original TEAQ, containing 117 items relating to positive touch experiences was systematically constructed. Principal component analysis reduced this measure to 57 items and identified six components relating to touch experiences during childhood and adult experiences relating to current intimate touch and touch with friends and family. Three attitudinal components were identified relating to attitude to intimate touch, touch with unfamiliar people, and self-care. The structure of this questionnaire was confirmed through confirmatory factor analysis carried out on data obtained from a second sample. Good concurrent and predictive validity of the TEAQ compared to other physical touch measures currently available was identified. Known-group validity in terms of gender, marital status and age was determined, with expected group differences identified. This study demonstrates the TEAQ to have good face validity, internal consistency, construct validity in terms of discriminant validity, known-group validity and convergent validity, and criterion-related validity in terms of predictive validity and concurrent validity. We anticipate this questionnaire will be a valuable tool for the field of physical touch research.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (10.1007/s10919-018-0281-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
... Positive touch increases psychological and physical intimacy and closeness between individuals (Andersen 1985;Guerrero and Andersen 1991). In the context of the family, positive touch is a channel through which parents and children show love and affection (Takeuchi et al. 2010). For example, undergraduate students who reported having had high levels of parental positive touch in their childhood, reported lower levels of depression and more satisfactory romantic relationships in adolescence and early adulthood (Takeuchi et al. 2010). ...
... In the context of the family, positive touch is a channel through which parents and children show love and affection (Takeuchi et al. 2010). For example, undergraduate students who reported having had high levels of parental positive touch in their childhood, reported lower levels of depression and more satisfactory romantic relationships in adolescence and early adulthood (Takeuchi et al. 2010). Given that touch entails physical proximity, we also examined physical proximity in this study. ...
This study examined gender, age, and task differences in positive touch and physical proximity during mother–child and father–child conversations. Sixty-five Spanish mothers and fathers and their 4- (M = 53.50 months, SD = 3.54) and 6-year-old (M = 77.07 months, SD = 3.94) children participated in this study. Positive touch was examined during a play-related storytelling task and a reminiscence task (conversation about past emotions). Fathers touched their children positively more frequently during the play-related storytelling task than did mothers. Both mothers and fathers were in closer proximity to their 6-year-olds than their 4-year-olds. Mothers and fathers touched their children positively more frequently when reminiscing than when playing. Finally, 6-year-olds remained closer to their parents than did 4-year-olds. Implications of these findings for future research on children’s socioemotional development are discussed.
... Prior versions of the TEAQ have shown sex differences favoring women in some subscales (e.g., , but these findings have not been consistent (e.g., Tumurbaatar et al., 2022). Effects were interpreted to mean that females experience more positive touch in both childhood and adulthood (see Takeuchi et al., 2010; or that they perceive affective touch as more pleasant than men (Russo et al., 2020). In the broader touch literature, the picture is not clear either. ...
Interpersonal touch is an essential part of human social life, impacting emotional and physical well-being. Variations in touch behavior and perception can be assessed by the Touch Experiences and Attitudes Questionnaire (TEAQ). Although comprehensive, the TEAQ appears lengthy with 57 items, limiting its usability for large surveys. Therefore, we developed a refined and shortened version of 16 items, tested in Germany and France. This manuscript presents three studies. In the first, we created the TEAQ-s (n = 313). In the second and third, we validated the TEAQ-s in German (n = 383) and French (n = 327), respectively. The resulting TEAQ-s showed strong reliability (Cronbach's alpha: 0.86 to 0.87; test-retest correlation: r = 0.85) and validity consistent with the original version. Analyses also revealed that being in a relationship, relationship satisfaction, mental health, and body appreciation were positively related to touch experiences and attitudes. A four-factor structure (4 items per scale) was confirmed through factor analysis. Final subscales are attitude to friendly touch, current intimate touch, childhood touch, and attitude to intimate touch. We hope that the TEAQ-s serves as a valuable tool for researchers in the field of touch and beyond, offering well-founded items in an efficient format.
... Prior versions of the TEAQ have shown sex differences favoring women in some subscales (e.g., , but these findings have not been consistent (e.g., Tumurbaatar et al., 2022). Effects were interpreted to mean that females experience more positive touch in both childhood and adulthood (see Takeuchi et al., 2010; or that they perceive affective touch as more pleasant than men (Russo et al., 2020). In the broader touch literature, the picture is not clear either. ...
... Nonetheless, accounts of miraculous interventions serve as timeless testimonials to the transformative power of compassionate touch. In recent decades, modern scientific approaches have demonstrated unequivocally how prolonged absence of affectionate touch in infancy and childhood causes long-term psychological and physical damage, increasing the risk of disturbed attachment patterns and depression later in life (4)(5)(6). Parallel to these findings, experimental and clinical research on the efficacy, as well as the potential mechanisms, of both social and salutary touch has yielded a plethora of clinically relevant insights (e.g., [7][8][9]. ...
Interpersonal touch represents the primal sensory experience between humans, fostering social bonding from the cradle to the death bed. In recent decades “affective touch” has been intensely studied, stimulated by the discovery of a population of mechanosensitive unmyelinated C-tactile afferents in mammalian skin. A lack of touch in childhood is associated with negative consequences for psychosocial and physical health and the benefits of professional touch techniques in the prevention and treatment of various diseases have been shown over and over again in clinical studies. However, its application in mainstream clinical applications remains limited. To bridge the gap between recent discoveries in touch research and clinical medicine, we propose the establishment of a new discipline: ‘Touch Medicine’. Here, we unfold the potential of Touch Medicine by focusing on the treatment of depression, which in our view is primarily a disorder of the lived body. Controlled studies and systematic reviews have demonstrated the antidepressant, anxiolytic and analgesic effects of specific massage techniques. Underlying mechanisms of action are currently under investigation, ranging from interoceptive, endocrinological, to stress-related or psychological underpinnings. Touch Medicine represents a novel interdisciplinary field connected to various medical specialities such as neonatology, pediatrics, pain medicine, neurology, psychiatry, and geriatrics – but also clinical psychology and psychosomatic medicine might benefit from the integration of these findings into their daily practice.
... These researchers also reported that women welcomed physical touch and have a more pleasurable experience with touch compared to men [26]. Consistent with these findings, women reported more experiences of physical touch in their day-to-day interactions compared to men [27,28]. While women are often the recipients of touch, men tend to initiate touch especially if the recipient is a woman [29,30]. ...
Human contact through physical touch is a core element in social bonding, which facilitates psychosocial well-being. Touch avoidance is an individual disposition that may prevent individuals from engaging in or benefiting from physical touch. The present study recruited 450 Italian participants (51.1% female) with a mean age of 32.2 ± 13.5 to complete a battery of demographic questionnaires and the Touch Avoidance Questionnaire (TAQ). Individuals who were single and reporting same-sex attraction avoided touch with family more often than their coupled counterparts or those reporting opposite-sex attraction. Moreover, males reporting same-sex attraction avoided touch with a potential partner more frequently. When comparing sex differences, women reported greater touch avoidance with opposite-sex friends more frequently, while males avoided touch with same-sex friends more frequently. Individuals reporting opposite-sex attraction reported greater touch amongst same-sex friends. Single males avoided touch with same-sex friends more frequently than those in a relationship. Overall, this contribution reflects the individual differences related to social touch avoidance with respect to sex, relationship status, and sexual orientation in an Italian sample.
... Another study focused on the relation between childhood physical affection and current depression symptoms. Using a cross-sectional survey, Takeuchi et al. (2010) found self-reports of more childhood affection predicted fewer current depression symptoms. ...
Resilience is the process by which individuals adapt successfully to acute or chronic challenge and adversity (see Preface, this volume). Initially studied in developmental contexts, it is now a focus in adult psychology, where it vies with risk-based models to explain behavior and health-related outcomes. Resilience researchers ask “Why are most people able to overcome trauma or misfortune, even to thrive in their wake, whereas others are critically damaged by these experiences?” Some answers to this question suggest a powerful resiliencepromoting role for interpersonal relationships and social connection (Cacioppo, Reis, & Zautra, 2011). As noted by Berkman and colleagues, relationships influence well-being by providing opportunities for social integration and engagement, giving and receiving social support, influencing and being influenced by others, experiencing positive and negative social interactions, and feeling companionship or loneliness (Berkman, Glass, Brissette, & Seeman, 2000). Relationships also provide opportunities for interpersonal touch, particularly physical affection.
... Additionally, individuals demonstrate different style of cognitive processing (Allinson & Hayes, 1996;Mayer & Massa, 2003), which affects their capacity for learning, even though it might not impact learning outcomes as much as personal engagement (Leslie, 2019). For instance, Pagani et al. (2019) show that engaging individuals via an interface is more effective with touch condition than voice only, and that interpersonal touch is a powerful behavioural driver, necessary for human development (Patterson et al., 1986;Takeuchi et al., 2010). Therefore, the more interfaces enable natural interaction by stimulating more senses beyond visual and auditory (i.e., touch; Racat & Capelli, 2020), the more knowledge transfer via distance learning will be effective, as virtual touch tricks nonverbal cues of traditional face-to-face communication (Haans et al., 2014). ...
Set in a French higher education context, this paper contributes to the knowledge management literature by arguing that the digital transformation of knowledge transfer via distance learning includes negative outcomes, in addition to many benefits. Based on quantitative and qualitative data, via an online survey from learners and instructors, our findings show that while online modes of delivery are convenient and cost-effective, they overlook many aspects that enable users to engage in knowledge transfer.
... Touch plays a salient role in close human relationships, supporting healthy development and emotional and social functioning (Burleson & Davis 2013;Dunbar 2010;Gallace & Spence 2010;Oliveras et al. 1990). While a lack of touch in childhood is a significant predictor of adult-onset depression (Brown et al. 2007;Takeuchi et al. 2010), tactile social interactions help regulate physiological arousal and confer resilience to acute and chronic stress (Davidson & McEwen 2012;DeVries et al. 2007;DeVries et al. 2003;Walker 2010). ...
Rationale
Affiliative tactile interactions help regulate physiological arousal and confer resilience to acute and chronic stress. C-tactile afferents (CTs) are a population of unmyelinated, low threshold mechanosensitive cutaneous nerve fibres which respond optimally to a low force stimulus, moving at between 1 and 10 cm/s. As CT firing frequencies correlate positively with subjective ratings of touch pleasantness, they are hypothesised to form the first stage of encoding affiliative tactile interactions. Serotonin is a key modulator of social responses with known effects on bonding.
Objectives
The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of acutely lowering central serotonin levels on perceptions of CT-targeted affective touch.
Methods
In a double blind, placebo-controlled design, the effect of acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) on 25 female participants’ ratings of directly and vicariously experienced touch was investigated. Psychophysical techniques were used to deliver dynamic tactile stimuli; some velocities were targeted to optimally activate CTs (1–10 cm/s), whereas other, faster and slower strokes fell outside the CT optimal range. Discriminative tactile function, cold pain threshold and tolerance were also measured.
Results
ATD significantly increased pleasantness ratings of both directly and vicariously experienced affective touch, increasing discrimination of the specific hedonic value of CT targeted velocities. While ATD had no effect on either tactile or cold pain thresholds, there was a trend for reduced tolerance to cold pain.
Conclusions
These findings are consistent with previous reports that depletion of central serotonin levels modulates neural and behavioural responsiveness to appetitive sensory signals.
... Die markinischen Berichte über den Modus der von Jesus bewirkten Heilungen, die die vormals Kranken ins soziale Leben zurückführten, illustrieren dies in besonderer Weise [3]. Ein Mangel an zärtlicher Berührung hinterlässt psychische und physische Schäden, insbesondere bei Neugeborenen und Kindern [4,5]. Die experimentelle und klinische Forschung zur Bedeutung und zu den potenziellen Mechanismen sowohl sozialer wie heilsamer Berührung hat in den letzten Jahrzehnten eine Vielzahl von Erkenntnissen erbracht, die für viele Bereiche der klinischen Medizin relevant, doch nach unserer Erfahrung vielen Ärztinnen und Ärzten nahezu unbekannt sind. ...
Zusammenfassung
Haut-zu-Haut-Berührung stellt die ursprünglichste Sinneserfahrung von Mensch und Tier dar. Ein Mangel an Berührung in der Kindheit ist mit negativen Folgen für die psychosoziale und körperliche Gesundheit verbunden. Für die Entdeckung von Rezeptoren für Temperatur und Berührung im Körper wurde 2021 der Medizin-Nobelpreis verliehen. Klinische Studien belegen den Nutzen von professionellen Berührungstechniken zur Prävention und Therapie verschiedener Erkrankungen. Der breiten Anwendung einer professionellen Berührungstherapie gilt jedoch bis heute nur ein geringes klinisches Interesse. Wir schlagen eine neue Fachdisziplin der „Berührungsmedizin“ vor und spannen nachstehend einen Bogen zwischen den Erkenntnissen moderner Berührungsforschung und der klinischen Medizin. Exemplarisch steht dabei die Behandlung der primär als Leibkrankheit konzipierten Depression im Vordergrund. Kontrollierte Studien und systematische Übersichten belegen die antidepressive, anxiolytische sowie analgetische Wirksamkeit spezieller Massagetechniken in dieser Indikation. Auch für die Neonatologie, Pädiatrie, Schmerzmedizin, Onkologie und Geriatrie konnte die Wirksamkeit heilsamer Berührung gezeigt werden. Die jeweiligen Wirkmechanismen werden auf verschiedenen Konstrukt-Ebenen diskutiert. Im Vordergrund des internationalen Forschungsinteresses stehen derzeit das Interozeptionskonzept, zum anderen endokrinologische, z. B. oxytocinerge Effekte und die Aktivierung sog. CT-Afferenzen.
... Небезопасная привязанность во взрослом возрасте зачастую является следствием нарушенной привязанности, эмоциональной и физической травматизации (конфликты, неуважение, оскорбления, физическое насилие) [4] в детском возрасте. Японские исследователи указывают, что риск развития депрессии во взрослом возрасте можно в некоторой степени предсказать по количеству прикосновений родителей, что, по мнению исследователей, может отражать степень привязанности [45]. Иранские исследователи на выборке 460 студентов медицинского колледжа продемонстрировали, что выявление небезопасного типа привязанности во взрослом возрасте может помочь в подсчете степени риска депрессивных и тревожных расстройств, также установлено, что риск развития депрессии выше у обладателей озабоченного типа, нежели опасающегося или отвергающего [23]. ...
The article provides an overview of insecure attachment and depression studies in adulthood. The relationship between childhood abuse, the development of insecure attachment, maladaptive personality traits, behavioral repertoire, and affective disorders is indicated. The generalized model of attachment insecurity associated with affective pathology in adulthood is suggested.
... A gentle, empathetic touch is generally experienced as pleasant. It can soothe feelings of social exclusion and facilitate interpersonal binding [50,51]. The neurophysiological correlates of this type of touch have been intensively investigated during the last two decades. ...
The clinical picture of depressive disorders is characterized by a plethora of somatic symptoms, psychomotor retardation, and, particularly, anhedonia. The number of patients with residual symptoms or treatment resistance is high. Touch is the basic communication among humans and animals. Its application professionally in the form of, e.g., psychoactive massage therapy, has been shown in the past to reduce the somatic and mental symptoms of depression and anxiety. Here, we investigated the effects of a specially developed affect-regulating massage therapy (ARMT) vs. individual treatment with a standardized relaxation procedure, progressive muscle relaxation (PMR), in 57 outpatients with depression. Patients were given one ARMT or PMR session weekly over 4 weeks. Changes in somatic and cognitive symptoms were assessed by standard psychiatric instruments (Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD) and the Bech–Rafaelsen–Melancholia–Scale (BRMS)) as well as a visual analogue scale. Furthermore, oral statements from all participants were obtained in semi-structured interviews. The findings show clear and statistically significant superiority of ARMT over PMR. The results might be interpreted within various models. The concept of interoception, as well as the principles of body psychotherapy and phenomenological aspects, offers cues for understanding the mechanisms involved. Within a neurobiological context, the significance of C-tactile afferents activated by special touch techniques and humoral changes such as increased oxytocin levels open additional ways of interpreting our findings.
... Touch defined as positive for children's physical and psychological development has been described as patting, stroking, holding hands, tickling, hugging, kissing, stroking, and physically guiding the child (Stansbury et al., 2012). Positive touch during childhood is associated with lower levels of depression and higher relationship satisfaction during adolescence and early adulthood (Takeuchi et al., 2010). ...
Social touch is essential in relationships and well-being, but the unique personal experience of touch is not assessed and taken into account in health and social care services. The pleasantness of gentle stroking is influenced by gender, toucher genre, toucher familiarity, culture, and age. Moreover, pleasantness is influenced by touch avoidance, the attitude toward interpersonal touch. The aim of this article is to present the translation, adaptation, and validation in Italian of two scales to measure touch avoidance. For translation and validation, we selected the most used scale, the Touch Avoidance Measure (TAM) and a more recent scale, the Touch Avoidance Questionnaire (TAQ). Confirmatory factor analyses reported good model fit for the TAM [comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.947, Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) = 0.940, root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.065] and excellent model fit for the TAQ (CFI = 0.954, TLI = 0.950, RMSEA = 0.058). Internal consistency was high for all subscales, except the TAQ “Stranger” subscale. One-month test–retest reliability ranged from 0.67 to 0.90 for each subscale. Lastly, convergent validity between the TAM and TAQ was also found to be high. We conclude that the TAM and TAQ can be used to assess touch avoidance with Italian samples. The instrument can be used to support healthcare professionals and to assess attitudes toward touch in individuals with interpersonal difficulties.
... Other studies have shown how the frequency of parental touching (i.e., passive touch) during childhood may also affect individuals as they grow older. Indeed, low frequency of physical contact during childhood is linked to higher levels of depression in young adults (Takeuchi et al., 2010). In a similar vein, a study by Field and colleagues (1992) found that the use of physical contact in hospitalized depressed children and adolescents, positively impacted those children who received back massages for one week compared to those who viewed relaxing videotapes (control group). ...
Individuals possess an innate capacity to communicate and understand non-verbal cues (i.e., touch). In addition, touch affects individuals at the intrapersonal level (e.g., physiological reactions) and at the interpersonal level (e.g., impression formation, pro-social behavior). Recent studies testify to the effects of touch also at the intergroup level (e.g., improvement of outgroup attitudes). The present review will discuss the effects of touch on a wide range of situations, and differently from past reviews, special attention will be given to the effects of touch (also in its indirect form, i.e., imagined physical contact) at the intergroup level
... 24,25 There have been several previous studies of the internal consistencies and factor structures of the Japanese versions of these scales, which showed good reliability and validity. 34,35,36 Multiple Chemical Sensitivity ...
Objective:
We conducted an analysis using the Quick Environmental Exposure Sensitivity Inventory to examine the correlation between multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) and personality traits by using temperament and character inventory, and environmental exposures.
Methods:
An anonymous questionnaire was distributed to 667 employees working at an IT manufacturing plant in Japan. Variables including chemically sensitive population (CSP), personality, and environmental chemical exposure were individually evaluated using U-test, chi-squared test, and correlation analyses. We also did covariance structure analysis to build a structural equation model.
Results:
There was little direct impact of temperament on the CSP, while there was a significant impact of character on the CSP. Women were more likely to exhibit symptoms of CSP.
Conclusion:
MCS is correlated with personality, impacted more by character acquired later in life than innate temperament. There were sex differences in the incidence of MCS.
... Early skin-to-skin contact among mother and infant has been shown to aid in milk production, encourage breastfeeding, and foster development among low birthweight infants (Blaymore et al., 1996;Ohgi et al., 2002). Furthermore, positive interpersonal touch in early childhood has been shown to ward of depression and foster a healthier attachment to romantic partners in adulthood (Takeuchi, Miyaoka, Tomoda, Liu, & Kitamura, 2010). ...
The central purpose of this research was to examine the relationship between certain personal qualities with high and optimal sexual satisfaction. There is a breadth of research on sexual function and dysfunction and several studies on sexual satisfaction. However, very little research exists on what kind of qualities are likely to lead to optimal sexual experiences, and to my knowledge this is the first quantitative study on the topic. The author selected three key qualities–sensuality, imagination, and curiosity—to examine how they relate to high and optimal sexual satisfaction. Because the literature has shown strong support of the positive relationship between sexual satisfaction and relationship satisfaction, participants were divided into two groups – those judged to be in secure relationships versus those in insecure relationships. A large sample of people (N = 195) completed an online survey composed of five measures. Results indicated a statistically significant positive correlation between sensuality, imagination, and curiosity with sexual satisfaction—but only among individuals in a secure relationship. Results indicate a statistically significant positive correlation of sensuality and imagination among those with optimal sexual satisfaction. In conclusion, implications are discussed, including strengths and limitations of the study, suggestions for sex therapists and sex educators, and recommendations for future research.
... lar to those conducted by Sugawara (1984). Hundreds of experimental psychology and therapeutic studies of touch exist in developed countries and they have identified an array of positive physical and mental health benefits of touch including: a) various emotions can be communicated by simple touch (Hertenstein et al. 2006); b) lower levels of touch during childhood can influence the development of depression (Takeuchi et al. 2010); and c) children are more likely to express positive emotions when they are touched more often (Bai et al. 2016). We know from the previous sections that houses and beds in developed countries are large, the section below shows that children in developed countries seldom co-sleep after infancy, and most places of employment in these countries seldom allow touching. ...
This book was funded by the EU 7th Framework Programme (7FP), TropicMicroArch 623293 Project (http://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/187754_en.html). The book will be Open Access, thanks to FP7 post-grant Open Access (https://www.openaire.eu/postgrantoapilot).
... lar to those conducted by Sugawara (1984). Hundreds of experimental psychology and therapeutic studies of touch exist in developed countries and they have identified an array of positive physical and mental health benefits of touch including: a) various emotions can be communicated by simple touch (Hertenstein et al. 2006); b) lower levels of touch during childhood can influence the development of depression (Takeuchi et al. 2010); and c) children are more likely to express positive emotions when they are touched more often (Bai et al. 2016). We know from the previous sections that houses and beds in developed countries are large, the section below shows that children in developed countries seldom co-sleep after infancy, and most places of employment in these countries seldom allow touching. ...
This chapter argues that in order to fully understand the significance of sharing in the far distant past we need to make the connection between sharing that we see as an intimate social relationship in modern hunter-gatherers and sharing as seen in archaeological evidence as an economic system with long term ‘pay offs’. Linking these two aspects of sharing allows us to appreciate that the long term economic payoffs of sharing are only possible through complex emotional relationships of generosity, trust and response to vulnerability, mediated through social reputation.
... Beyond its many physiological benefits (Centers for Disease Control, 2012), breastfeeding is correlated longitudinally over a decade with less externalizing and internalizing behaviors . Positive (affectionate) touch increases oxytocin release (Carter, 2003;Feldman, 2007) and low amounts of reported affectionate parental touch in childhood by adults are correlated with contemporaneous levels of depression (Takeuchi, Miyaoka, Tomoda, Suzuki, Liu, Kitamura, 2009). Active physical play releases oxytocin in both parents and correlates with infant oxytocin levels, especially when interaction is synchronous Feldman, Gordon, Schneiderman, Weisman & Zagoory-Sharon, 2010). ...
‘In this fascinating book, the three authors employ a contemporary neurobiological framework that extends the insights of legendary psychologist Abraham Maslow regarding the importance of fulfilling basic needs. The authors convincingly show that wellbeing in early life orients a child to compassionate behavior instead of self-centered protectionism. The research described in this book adds significantly to our knowledge about the effects of parenting on children’s basic needs and on their subsequent socio-moral development.’
—Dr. William Damon, Professor at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and Director of the Stanford Center on Adolescence, USA
Basic needs fulfilment is fundamental to becoming human and reaching one’s potential. Extending the BUCET list proposed by Susan Fiske - which includes belonging, understanding, control/competence, autonomy, self-enhancement, trust, purpose and life satisfaction - this book demonstrates that the fulfilment of basic needs predicts adult physical and mental health, as well as sociality and morality. The authors suggest that meeting basic needs in childhood vitally shapes one’s trajectory for self-actualization, and that initiatives aimed at human wellbeing should include a greater emphasis on early childhood experience. Through contemporaneous and retrospective research in childhood, the authors argue that basic need-fulfilment is key to the development of the self and the possibility of reaching one’s full potential. This book will be of interest to scholars of human wellbeing and societal flourishing, as well as to health workers and educators.
Darcia Narvaez is Professor of Psychology at the University of Notre Dame, USA. Her research interests are focused around moral development and flourishing across the lifespan.
... Beyond its many physiological benefits (Centers for Disease Control, 2012), breastfeeding is correlated longitudinally over a decade with less externalizing and internalizing behaviors . Positive (affectionate) touch increases oxytocin release (Carter, 2003;Feldman, 2007) and low amounts of reported affectionate parental touch in childhood by adults are correlated with contemporaneous levels of depression (Takeuchi, Miyaoka, Tomoda, Suzuki, Liu, Kitamura, 2009). Active physical play releases oxytocin in both parents and correlates with infant oxytocin levels, especially when interaction is synchronous Feldman, Gordon, Schneiderman, Weisman & Zagoory-Sharon, 2010). ...
Maslow spends a great deal of thinking and writing about human fulfillment, including reaching one’s potential. After studying exemplars in literature and biography, as well as personal acquaintances, he described the nature of “self-actualization.” The assumption of basic needs fulfillment is that one can then focus on self-actualization. We review his description and contrast the descriptions with our ancestral context, small-band hunter-gatherer societies. Then we examine the human capabilities approach which also emphasizes adult needs. We suggest that meeting the needs of babies is fundamental to potentialities for self-actualization and human capabilities. Meeting the needs of babies means following the evolved nest for the young. To make this clear, we present a baby bill of rights.
... Beyond its many physiological benefits (Centers for Disease Control, 2012), breastfeeding is correlated longitudinally over a decade with less externalizing and internalizing behaviors . Positive (affectionate) touch increases oxytocin release (Carter, 2003;Feldman, 2007) and low amounts of reported affectionate parental touch in childhood by adults are correlated with contemporaneous levels of depression (Takeuchi, Miyaoka, Tomoda, Suzuki, Liu, Kitamura, 2009). Active physical play releases oxytocin in both parents and correlates with infant oxytocin levels, especially when interaction is synchronous Feldman, Gordon, Schneiderman, Weisman & Zagoory-Sharon, 2010). ...
We describe Maslow’s hierarchy of basic needs and the importance of basic needs satisfaction and how lack of provision leads to stress. When basic needs are not provided, it creates a situation of stress, leading to poorer health outcomes. We discuss the outline of the book where we discuss two new comprehensive measures of basic needs. In Chapter 2, we describe the creation and validation of a comprehensive measure of basic needs. In Chapter 3, we examine the evolutionary inheritances of basic needs as they pertain to the evolved nest, discuss and test a retrospective measure of basic needs in childhood and contrast it with the evolved developmental niche (EDN) history measure. In Chapter 4, we examine the relation of basic needs to moral functioning. In Chapter 5, we examine other models of basic needs and draw some conclusions.
... Beyond its many physiological benefits (Centers for Disease Control, 2012), breastfeeding is correlated longitudinally over a decade with less externalizing and internalizing behaviors . Positive (affectionate) touch increases oxytocin release (Carter, 2003;Feldman, 2007) and low amounts of reported affectionate parental touch in childhood by adults are correlated with contemporaneous levels of depression (Takeuchi, Miyaoka, Tomoda, Suzuki, Liu, Kitamura, 2009). Active physical play releases oxytocin in both parents and correlates with infant oxytocin levels, especially when interaction is synchronous Feldman, Gordon, Schneiderman, Weisman & Zagoory-Sharon, 2010). ...
Interdisciplinary research is demonstrating the importance of physiological and neurobiological development for adult functioning. Recently, the theoretical linkages between early experience and adult morality have been drawn. We examine the relation of early experience to basic needs fulfillment and their relation to adult moral functioning. Using the Basic Needs Satisfaction Scale (BNSS), a short, comprehensive scale with two subscales: Life Effectance and Life Discouragement. In two studies, we demonstrate evidence of basic needs satisfaction mediating the relationship between childhood experience and morality. We also examine which retrospective factors in childhood are most predictive of moral outcomes in adulthood. These results suggest that comprehensive satisfaction of basic needs may help explain the mechanism behind key relationships between childhood experiences and outcomes in adulthood that have been previously established by others.
... Beyond its many physiological benefits (Centers for Disease Control, 2012), breastfeeding is correlated longitudinally over a decade with less externalizing and internalizing behaviors . Positive (affectionate) touch increases oxytocin release (Carter, 2003;Feldman, 2007) and low amounts of reported affectionate parental touch in childhood by adults are correlated with contemporaneous levels of depression (Takeuchi, Miyaoka, Tomoda, Suzuki, Liu, Kitamura, 2009). Active physical play releases oxytocin in both parents and correlates with infant oxytocin levels, especially when interaction is synchronous Feldman, Gordon, Schneiderman, Weisman & Zagoory-Sharon, 2010). ...
Prior research proposed five basic needs: belonging, understanding, control, enhancing self, and trust (BUCET). Individually, each has been associated with physical and mental health. To date, basic psychosocial needs have been measured individually. These studies aim to validate a new, short and comprehensive measure of basic psychosocial needs, the Basic Needs Satisfaction Survey (BNSS), and demonstrate its association with physical and mental health. Study 1 confirmed previous EFA results for the BNSS and tested both convergent and predictive validity. Study 2 used CFA and examined divergent validity. Regression models investigated the role of the BNSS subscales as predictors of physical and mental health. Analyses from two studies demonstrated construct validity and predictive ability, providing evidence that the BNSS is reliable and valid and significantly related to both physical and mental health independent of socioeconomic status. Useful for predicting health outcomes, BNSS may be useful as a screener in medical settings.
... Although adolescents may be aware that their parents will be available and responsive in times of need (Allen & Land, 1999), they may be reluctant to rely on their parents' as a source of safety. Consistent with this notion, retrospective self-report research found that parental touch in late childhoodunlike parental touch in adolescence-relates to individuals' later trust in others (Takeuchi et al., 2010). Thus, we hypothesized that the effects of touch would be more pronounced in late childhood than early adolescence. ...
The sense of touch develops in utero and enables parent-child communication from the earliest moments of life. Research shows that parental touch (e.g., licking and grooming in rats, skin-to-skin care in humans) has organizing effects on the offspring's stress system. Little is known, however, about the psychological effects of parental touch. Building on findings from ethology and psychology, we propose that parental touch-even as subtle as a touch on the shoulder-tells children that their environment is safe for exploration, thus reducing their social vigilance. We tested this hypothesis in late childhood (ages 8-10) and early adolescence (ages 11-14) in 138 parent-child dyads. Parents were randomly assigned to touch or not touch their child briefly and gently on the shoulder, right below the deltoid. Parental touch lowered children's implicit attention to social threat. While parental touch lowered trust among socially non-anxious children, it raised trust among those who needed it the most: socially anxious children. The effects were observed only in late childhood, suggesting that parental touch loses its safety-signaling meaning upon the transition to adolescence. Our findings underscore the power of parental touch in childhood, especially for children who suffer from social anxiety.
... Similarly, a study by Shaker and Homeyli on 110 psychological patients referring to the clinics of Ardebil concluded that affectionless control of parents is significantly related to children's depression (17). Studies by Lau & Kwok, Hay & Ashman, and Takeuchi et al also confirm the positive relationship between family relationships which are warm, positive and without intense control and low depression scores and high selfconcept, corroborating our findings (18)(19)(20). In fact, our findings confirm that the adolescent on search for independence and entry into the adult world needs not only freedom of action, but also mental support and emotional confirmation of parents. ...
Introduction: Depression and low self-esteem are the most important psychological disorders common among adolescents. But few studies have investigated the association between parental bonding patterns and depression and low self esteem in adolescents. The aim of this study was to detect the effects of parental bonding on depression and self esteem during adolescence in Bushehr in 2010. Material and Methods: In this cross-sectional study, a total of 482 adolescents (246 females and 236 males) in the first grade at 8 high schools of Bushehr were selected according to cluster random sampling. A series of valid and reliable questionnaire by each subject including the Beck Depression Inventory, Cooper Smith Self esteem Inventory and Parental Bonding Inventory (PBI) were completed. Descriptive statistics and independent t-test were used for analysis of the data in SPSS, version 11.5. Results: Parental care was more associated with depression and low self esteem in both male and female adolescents than parental protection. An interactive combination of low care and high protection (affectionless control) revealed a significant relationship with depression and low self esteem in female adolescents. Conclusion: The results showed that a combination of low care and over-protection increases the risk of depression and low self-esteem in female adolescents. Optimum parental behavior is characterized by the behavior through which adolescents get a feeling of freedom, love and protection.
... The adaptive nature of such interactions is also supported by work showing that more frequent hugging, and other positive types of physical contact from parents in childhood, predict healthier relationships and lower levels of depression in adulthood (Takeuchi et al., 2010). In contrast, children with more emotionally distant caregivers tend to display behaviors associated with an "avoidant attachment style" and are more at risk for displaying antisocial behaviors at later points in their life (Burgess, Marshall, Rubin, & Fox, 2003;Isabella & Belsky, 1991). ...
Emotional experience (EE) and trait emotional awareness (tEA) have recently become topics of considerable experimental/theoretical interest within the cognitive and neural sciences. However, to date there has been limited empirical focus on how individual differences in the factors contributing to EE (a state-based construct) might account for differences in tEA. To promote clear, well-guided empirical research in this area, in this article we first offer a concise review of the primary factors contributing to EE. We then provide a theoretical investigation into how individual differences in these factors (i.e., differences in affective response generation, affective response representation, and conscious access) could mechanistically account for differences in tEA; we also discuss plausible origins of these individual differences in light of current empirical findings. Finally, we outline possible experiments that would support (or fail to support) the role of each factor in explaining differences in tEA—and how this added knowledge could shed light on the known link between low tEA and multiple emotion-related mental and systemic medical disorders.
... Nurturing touch, rather than the frequency of touch per se, has been found to be important for the forming of secure attachment relationships for low-birthweight infants [74]. Still, children who are less frequently touched by their parents, score higher on reports of current depression and show less secure attachment styles in later life [76]. ...
This survey provides an overview of work on haptic technology for social touch. Social touch has been studied extensively in psychology and neuroscience. With the development of new technologies it is now possible to engage in social touch at a distance or engage in social touch with artificial social agents. Social touch research has inspired research into technology mediated social touch, and this line of research has found effects similar to actual social touch. The importance of haptic stimulus qualities, multimodal cues, and contextual factors in technology mediated social touch is discussed. This survey is concluded by reflecting on the current state of research into social touch technology, and providing suggestions for future research and applications.
... There is a long history in the field of touch whereby researchers use selfreport measures to begin to understand how touch varies as a function of particular contexts and cultures (e.g. Andersen, Andersen, & Lustig, 1987;Floyd & Morman, 2000;Takeuchi et al., 2010). The next step in this area of research is to assess the degree to which actual behaviour maps onto our current data. ...
Physical touch is central to the emotional intimacy that separates romantic relationships from other social contexts. In this study of 256 adults (128 heterosexual couples, mean relationship length = 20.5 months), we examined whether individual differences in social anxiety influenced comfort with and avoidance of physical touch. Because of prior work on sex difference in touch use, touch comfort, and social anxiety symptoms and impairment, we explored sex-specific findings. We found evidence that women with greater social anxiety were less comfortable with touch and more avoidant of touch in same-sex friendships. Additionally, a woman’s social anxiety had a bigger effect on a man’s comfort with touch and avoidance of touch in the romantic relationship than a man’s social anxiety had on the woman’s endorsement of touch-related problems. These effects were uninfluenced by the length of romantic relationships. Touch is a neglected emotional experience that offers new insights into the difficulties of individuals suffering from social anxiety problems, and their romantic partners.
... Someone deprived of early nurturant touch is likely to experience significant ongoing psychological and physical health issues, whereas children with significant sensory impairments can, with appropriate nurturant touch, grow up with good physical and mental health (Linden, 2015). Positive attachment behaviours bond individuals and involve affectionate touch between siblings, parents and people outside the nuclear family (Takeuchi et al., 2010;Howe, 2011;Jung and Fouts, 2011). Children in deprived orphanage situations often experience multiple physical, psychological, social and neurological difficulties (Maclean, 2003), although separating out the effects of touch deficit or abusive touch from other factors is complex. ...
This article overviews multidisciplinary knowledge on touch and explores its relevance for social work. It evaluates the limited literature from social work and related practice-based disciplines which suggests how potentially harmful and risk-averse many current ‘professional’ touch practices are. Alternative biological and psychological literature is analysed, elucidating the importance of regular positive touch for good physical and mental health, the adverse consequences of abusive touch or touch deficit and the corresponding potential for restorative touch practices. Social-psychological, clinical and consumer research is also drawn on, demonstrating links between touch, persuasion and aversion, and registering clear gender, age, sexuality, power and cross-national differences. The analysis is then extended through an examination of sociological and philosophical literature which guards against viewing the mind and body as unrelated entities, evaluates work-based touch within organisational contexts, and highlights the profound influence of history, culture and social class. This synthesis of diverse multidisciplinary literature therefore illuminates the potential consequences of social workers adopting an uninformed, defensive and avoidant or control-orientated stance towards touch whilst simultaneously constructing new insights to help social workers acquire more nuanced understandings and practise more knowledgeably and empathically.
... Positive (affectionate) touch affects the development of multiple systems. Touch increases oxytocin release (Carter, 2003;Feldman, 2007) and low amounts of reported affectionate parental touch in childhood are correlated with adult levels of depression (Takeuchi et al., 2009). • Responsiveness to needs so that baby does not get distressed, as is common in SBHG societies (Morelli, Ivey Henry, & Foerster, 2014). ...
Most of human history and prehistory was lived in economic poverty but with social and ecological wealth, both of which are diminishing as commodification takes over most everything. Human moral wealth has also deteriorated. Because humans are biosocially, dynamically, and epigenetically shaped, early experience is key for developing one’s moral capital. When early experience is species-atypical, meaning that it falls outside the evolved developmental niche (EDN), which is often the case in modern societies, biopsychosocial moral development is undermined, shifting one’s nature and worldview to self-protectionism. Individuals develop into self-regarding shadows of their potential selves, exhibiting threat-reactive moral mindsets that promote unjust treatment of other humans and nonhumans. Humanity’s moral wealth can be re-cultivated by taking up what indigenous people all over the world know: that a good life, a virtuous life, is a one that is led by a well-cultivated heart, embodied in action that includes partnership with nonhumans. Moral educators can help students to revamp their capacities with self-calming skills, the development of social pleasure and communal ecological imagination.
... Beyond its many physiological benefits (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014), breastfeeding is correlated longitudinally over a decade with less externalizing and internalizing behaviors (Oddy et al., 2010). Positive (affectionate) touch increases oxytocin release (Carter, 2003;Feldman, 2007) and adult reports of low amounts of affectionate parental touch in childhood are correlated with contemporaneous levels of depression (Takeuchi et al., 2009). Active physical play releases oxytocin in both parents and correlates with infant oxytocin levels, especially when interaction is synchronous Feldman, Gordon, Schneiderman, Weisman, & Zagoory-Sharon, 2010). ...
Following prior work linking childhood experience to adult outcomes, we used an evolutionary framework to examine effects of childhood experience on adult psychopathology and morality. Every animal provides an early life developmental system, developmental manifold or “niche” for its young, a set of inherited extra-genetic characteristics that match up with the maturational schedule of the offspring to optimize development. Humans inherit a niche first shaped over 30 million years ago with the emergence of social mammals and modified through human evolution. The human “evolved developmental niche” (EDN) has been related to positive outcomes in young children. Using an adult sample (n = 606), we examined adult retrospective recollection of childhood EDN and its relation to attachment, psychopathology, sociomoral capacities, and ethical orientations. Significant direct and indirect effects were found through mediation models, with EDN predicting Social Engagement orientation through perspective taking, Social Opposition orientation through lack of perspective taking and Social Withdrawal orientation through personal distress.
... Moreover, some studies indicate that these positive effects for children are long lasting (Adamson-Macedo, Dattani, Wilson, & De Carvalho, 1993). Recently, Takeuchi and his colleagues (Takeuchi et al., 2010), using retrospective methods, investigated the effect of parental touch during childhood on attachment styles and depression in adulthood. According to their findings, people who reported having had more positive parental touch experiences early in childhood also reported lower levels of depression and better perceptions of their romantic partners in adolescence and early adulthood. ...
We examined differences in male and female caregivers’ behavioral styles, and their use of negative or positive touch in noncompliance episodes with preschool-aged children that occurred in public settings. Coders reliably coded adult caregiver behavioral style (authoritarian-type, authoritative-type, and permissive-type), positive and negative touch, and children’s latency to comply, as well as the child’s demeanor at the end of the noncompliance event. Surprisingly, almost a quarter of all children were touched negatively by adults during these public episodes. Contrary to expectations based on self-report and laboratory studies, male caregivers were more likely to use touch in noncompliance episodes with children, and more likely to use positive touch, than female caregivers. Adult caregiver behavioral style, and positive versus negative touch were each related to children’s responses in the noncompliance episodes. This work extends the findings of earlier studies about adult caregiver behavioral styles and highlights the use of positive versus negative touch as an important behavioral context for compliance requests of young children. Further, child demeanor is a crucial measure of the success of parenting behavior in noncompliance episodes because it indexes behavior occurring after compliance occurs, but which has the potential to be a significant influence on family harmony. The use of naturalistic observational methodology is a suggested as a critical step in validating findings on harsh discipline and corporal punishment that rely on methods in which social desirability may be a confound.
... The findings of the present study were consistent with parts of the research by Janani that examined the interactive relationship within the family and the mental health of third grade students of Borojerd. [23] Studies conducted by Takeuchi et al. [24] and Bahreini et al. [8] also emphasize the positive relationship between warm, positive family relationships without tight control and low score of depression and high self-concept. These results confirm the findings of the present study. ...
One of the most critical periods of the life of a person is adolescence. During this period, individuals face many problems such as low self-esteem. Self-esteem can be influenced by many factors such as school, friends, and inner personality, but it seems that the family has a crucial role in shaping self-esteem. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine the relationship between family functioning and self-esteem in female high school students in Isfahan, Iran.
This descriptive correlational study was performed with multi-stage random sampling method on 237 female high school students who met the inclusion criteria of the study. The data collection tools included Bloom's Family Functioning Scale and Pop's self-esteem questionnaire. The data obtained from the questionnaires were analyzed through SPSS software.
The results showed that the majority of the samples examined had moderate level self-esteem (48.5%) and family function (56.5%). There was a significant correlation between the dimensions of family functioning and areas of self-esteem (except for lack of independence, and public, academic, and physical self-esteem). In addition, the correlation between family aspirations and self-esteem (r = 0.636, P < 0.01) was higher than other variables. Moreover, across the dimensions of family functioning, a significant negative correlation was found between the lack of independence and the family self-esteem subscale.
The results of the study showed that adolescents' self-esteem is highly correlated with their family's performance. Therefore, to enhance the self-esteem of adolescents, family-centered empowerment programs should be planned and implemented by health service providers, especially nurses, in order to improve and enhance family functioning.
... The TCI measures four temperament dimensions—NS, HA, RD, and Persistence (P)—and three character dimensions—SD, C, and ST. There are studies on the internal consistencies and factor structures of the Japanese versions [52, 56, 57]. These items were examined at T1. ...
Objective. To examine the effects of temperament and character profiles on state and trait depression and anxiety in a Japanese youth population. Method. Japanese university students were solicited for participation in a two-wave study, with assessments performed at Time 1 (T1) and Time 2 (T2), separated by a five-month interval. A total of 184 students completed the Japanese version of the temperament and character inventory (TCI) at T1 and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) at T1 and T2. We posited two latent variables, trait depression and anxiety, composed of the T1 and T2 HADS depression and anxiety scores, respectively. We also posited that temperament domain traits would predict character domain traits, and that all the personality traits would be linked to trait depression and anxiety and also predict T2 depression and anxiety. Results. Structural regression modeling showed that (1) only high Novelty Seeking predicted T2 Anxiety score, (2) trait depression and anxiety were linked to high harm avoidance and low self-directedness, and (3) trait depression was linked to high self-transcendence whereas trait anxiety was linked to low reward dependence, persistence, and cooperativeness. Conclusion. The characteristic associations between TCI subscales and depression and anxiety were limited to the trait rather than state aspects of depression and anxiety.
Caress-like is a crucial component of caregiving and a key factor in mother-infant interactions. Mother’s experience of touch during her own childhood (i.e., tactile biography) has been found to be related to maternal actual use of caress-like touch (i.e., stroking) during mother-infant exchanges. Evidence also suggests that maternal interoceptive sensibility (i.e., self-perceived sensitivity to inner-body sensations) might be related to sensitive caregiving abilities. However, further empirical investigation is needed to understand to what extent tactile biography and interoceptive sensibility have an impact on mothers’ stroking when interacting with their infants. Using an online survey, this cross-sectional study explored the potential association between maternal tactile biography, interoceptive sensibility and use of touch for interaction with their own infants in a group of 377 Italian mothers (mean age = 33.29; SD = 4.79). We tested and compared a series of multivariate linear mediation models using maternal tactile biography as predictor, maternal use of affective touch as outcome variable and Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA) subscale scores as mediators. We found that, if a mother had positive touch experiences in her own childhood, she may be more likely to use touch in a positive and nurturing way with her own infant (i.e., stroking). Furthermore, mothers’ interoceptive sensibility in the form of attention regulation, self-regulation and body listening mediates the association between their past experiences of positive touch and their use of caress-like touch in mother-infant exchanges. This study highlights that maternal tactile biography is directly associated with mothers’ use of caress-like touch and indirectly linked to it through the mediating role of interoceptive sensibility.
Introduction: Nurses use physical touch to interact with patients and address their needs.
Human touch benefits social development, stress/anxiety reduction, and rapport building.
Touch has been a part of nursing care for centuries, however nurses’ perceptions of expressive
touch are not easily ascertained from the literature. Literature currently offers one review on the
perceptions of various medical professionals regarding touch of all kinds. No reviews specific
to the nurses’ perception of expressive touch exist. This integrative review provides a greater
understanding of nurses’ perceptions of expressive touch.
Methods: Using Cooper’s steps for integrative review, CINAHL, Medline, Academic Search
Premier, and Complimentary Index were searched from 2000-2022; using search term
expressive touch or caring touch or compassionate touch and nurse/nurses/nursing and
perception or perspective.
Results: Of 283 articles identified, 22 articles remained for full-text review after duplicate
removal and application of inclusion/exclusion criteria. Five topics on nurses’ perceptions of
expressive touch were identified: Comfort with touch and job satisfaction, expressive touch
as an essential part of nursing practice, expressive touch as a form of compassion and/or
communication, the impact of expressive touch on the humanization of patients in the nurses’
perception, and nurse discomfort with expressive touch.
Conclusion: This integrative review provides findings that assist in understanding nurses’
perceptions of expressive touch. Further research should examine the impact of gender, education,
and experiences on nurses’ perceptions as they use expressive touch in nursing practice.
Determining factors of why elementary school student feel better and happier study at school during pandemic
The unmyelinated C-tactile afferents system holds a hedonic function in touch experiences, shaping social functioning in the so-called affective touch hypothesis. Despite the fact that females are recognized as more sensitive to discriminative aspects of touch and respond more positively to touch than men, sex differences in the perception of affective touch have not been extensively investigated. We aimed to fill this gap by meta-analyzing existing studies on this topic. Thirteen studies were eligible and pooled effect sizes (Hedges⿿ g) were compared. Random effect models were used. Results, which are not influenced by publication bias, show that there is a sex asymmetry in the pleasantness perceived during an affective tactile stimulation, with females showing higher pleasantness ratings than males. The size of the association does not vary as a function of sex distribution, age and methodological quality. Hormonal as well as evolutionary differences related to the caregiving and nurturing function of females may explain sex differences in affective touch. Results are limited by the small number of studies included in the meta-analysis.
C-tactile afferents (CTs) are slowly conducting nerve fibres, present only in hairy skin. They are optimally activated by slow, gentle stroking touch, such as those experienced during a caress. CT-stimulation activates affective processing brain regions, alluding to their role in affective touch perception. We tested a theory that CT-activating touch engages the pro-social functions of serotonin, by determining whether reducing serotonin, through acute tryptophan depletion, diminishes subjective pleasantness and affective brain responses to gentle touch. A tryptophan depleting amino acid drink was administered to 16 healthy females, with a further 14 receiving a control drink. After 4 hours, participants underwent an fMRI scan, during which time CT-innervated forearm skin and CT non-innervated finger skin was stroked with 3 brushes of differing texture, at CT-optimal force and velocity. Pleasantness ratings were obtained post-scanning. The control group showed a greater response in ipsilateral orbitofrontal cortex to CT-activating forearm touch compared to touch to the finger where CTs are absent. This differential response was not present in the tryptophan depleted group. This interaction effect was significant. Additionally, control participants showed a differential primary somatosensory cortex response to brush texture applied to the finger, a purely discriminatory touch response, which was not observed in the tryptophan depleted group. This interaction effect was also significant. Pleasantness ratings were comparable across treatment groups. These results implicate serotonin in the differentiation between CT-activating and purely discriminatory touch responses. Such effects could contribute to some of the social abnormalities seen in psychiatric disorders associated with abnormal serotonin function. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Depression is more frequently experienced among medical students than in the general population. In addition, medical training seems to have a negative impact on students' mental health. The main objective of this study was therefore to determine the effects of parental support, personality, and self-efficacy on depression among medical students. This study also sought to find out the effects of parental support and personality on self-efficacy. Participants were 1,029 first to fifth year medical students in seven universities in peninsular Malaysia. A set of questionnaires comprised of Career-Related Parent Support Scale, NEO Personality Inventory-Revised, College Self-Efficacy Scale, and Beck Depression Inventory were used to measure parental support, personality, self-efficacy and depression respectively. Results of multiple regression analysis showed that conscientiousness, extraversion and neuroticism predicted self-efficacy while self-efficacy, neuroticism, and conscientiousness predicted depression. The implication of this study indicated that in order to ensure success of medical students, selection of students into medical study program should not solely be based on their academic excellence but on their personalities as well.
The paper aims to differentiate (or cluster) the major constructs (e.g., 'Emotional', 'Cognitive', 'Motivational', and 'Physical and vegetative') of depression-symptoms using linkage-based clustering, such as Hierarchical (having three subtypes: single, average and complete) and K-means
(KM) techniques. Linkage-based techniques work by measuring distances among the clusters. Hence, three different distance measures, such as squared Euclidean (ED), City block (CB) and Cosine (COS) are used to investigate the best 'technique-distance' combination in obtaining the best clusters
of the desired number. The algorithms are then tested on a sample of real-world depression cases (N = 302), each having fifteen quantified [0,1] symptoms and the corresponding depression probability (i.e., chance of depression). The symptoms are grouped under four constructs (mentioned above),
each of which represents one cluster. The study observes that COS is the best distance measure for both the linkage-based techniques. 'KM-COS combination' is able to produce the best set of clusters. It also provides cluster center information, which could be useful to frame IF-THEN rules
for automating the screening process. Finally, the clustering performance of KM-COS has been tested and the accuracy is found as 83.86%.
The author tested the hypothesis that attachment to comfort objects is based on the sensory processing characteristics of the individual. Fifty-two undergraduate students with and without a childhood comfort object reported sensory responses and performed a tactile threshold task. Those with a comfort object described their object and rated their attachment to it. Participants with a strong attachment liked the texture of their comfort object and sleeping with it. Smell sensitivity in childhood, seeking out tactile stimulation as children, and tactile threshold predicted the intensity of object attachment. Participants with comfort objects showed a higher tactile threshold and reported seeking out more tactile stimulation as children than participants without a comfort object did. These findings suggest that children with an object attachment seek out more sensory stimulation through touch, which in turn is soothing. Results support growing research linking sensory processing to psychological functioning.
This article explores the possibility that romantic love is an attachment process--a biosocial process by which affectional bonds are formed between adult lovers, just as affectional bonds are formed earlier in life between human infants and their parents. Key components of attachment theory, developed by Bowlby, Ainsworth, and others to explain the development of affectional bonds in infancy, were translated into terms appropriate to adult romantic love. The translation centered on the three major styles of attachment in infancy--secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent--and on the notion that continuity of relationship style is due in part to mental models (Bowlby's "inner working models") of self and social life. These models, and hence a person's attachment style, are seen as determined in part by childhood relationships with parents. Two questionnaire studies indicated that relative prevalence of the three attachment styles is roughly the same in adulthood as in infancy, the three kinds of adults differ predictably in the way they experience romantic love, and attachment style is related in theoretically meaningful ways to mental models of self and social relationships and to relationship experiences with parents. Implications for theories of romantic love are discussed, as are measurement problems and other issues related to future tests of the attachment perspective.
The results of two studies are reported. Study I involved the development of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA), a self-report instrument for use with adolescents. Subject were 179 college students aged 16-20 years. Item content of the instrument was suggested by attachment theory's formulations concerning the nature of feelings toward attachment figures. In Study II, the convergent validity of the IPPA was examined. Also, a hierarchial regression model was employed to investigate the association between quality of attachment and self-esteem, life-satisfaction, and affective status. Respondents were 86 adolescents from the Study I sample. As hypothesized, perceived quality of both parent and peer attachments was significantly related to psychological well-being. Results of the development of a theoretically focused, exploratory classification scheme indicated that adolescents classified as highly securely attached reported greater satisfaction with themselves, a higher likelihood of seeking social support, and less symptomatic response to stressful life events.
For structural equation models, a huge variety of fit indices has been developed. These indices, however, can point to conflicting conclusions about the extent to which a model actually matches the observed data. The present article provides some guide-lines that should help applied researchers to evaluate the adequacy of a given struc-tural equation model. First, as goodness-of-fit measures depend on the method used for parameter estimation, maximum likelihood (ML) and weighted least squares (WLS) methods are introduced in the context of structural equation modeling. Then, the most common goodness-of-fit indices are discussed and some recommendations for practitioners given. Finally, we generated an artificial data set according to a "true" model and analyzed two misspecified and two correctly specified models as examples of poor model fit, adequate fit, and good fit. In structural equation modeling (SEM), a model is said to fit the observed data to the extent that the model-implied covariance matrix is equivalent to the empirical co-variance matrix. Once a model has been specified and the empirical covariance matrix is given, a method has to be selected for parameter estimation. Different estimation meth-ods have different distributional assumptions and have different discrepancy functions to be minimized. When the estimation procedure has converged to a reasonable
Examined in this study were the relations between adolescent ratings of parental attachment (affective quality of parental relationship and parental fostering of autonomy)and self-reported psychological well-being over the 1-year period from the eighth to the ninth grade. Through structural equation modeling, relations between adolescent perceptions of parental attachments and psychological well-being (positive view of self and low levels of depressive symptoms) at Grades 8 and 9 were tested separately for girls and for boys. Adolescent ratings of maternal and paternal attachment at Grade 8 contributed to changes in well-being I year later for boys only. Adolescent boys `ratings of well-being at Grade 8 were associated with changes in ratings of attachment to father from the eighth to the ninth grade.
The validity of the insecure/disorganized attachment pattern has been clearly established in over 80 studies with more than 100 samples. However, given that child maltreatment is considered one of the most important causes of insecure/disorganized attachment, it is notable that few studies have been published specifically examining the maltreatment/insecure attachment hypothesis. The purpose of this paper was to review the research findings and conduct a meta‐analysis to examine the effect size of maltreatment and insecure attachment across studies. A second goal was to conduct a subpopulation analysis to investigate effect size by type of maltreatment. Following a literature search which yielded 25 articles, we identified eight studies (n = 791) that: (a) consisted of children who experienced different types of maltreatment including cases of malnutrition and failure‐to‐thrive, (b) consisted of children under 48 months of age, (c) used the Strange Situation or a modification of it to measure attachment, (d) had comparison groups, and (e) contained sufficient detail to conduct a meta‐analysis. Results showed that the maltreated infants were significantly more likely to have an insecure attachment than the controls. A subpopulation analysis by type of abuse was conducted. Overall the findings support the maltreatment/insecure attachment hypothesis. The subpopulation analysis, although extremely small, indicates that different types of maltreatment affect the magnitude of the effect. These findings suggest further investigation into the differential impact by type or multiple types of maltreatment as well as the frequency of events on outcomes.
Infant monkeys were reared with the aid of a laboratory constructed mother-substitute. "We produced a perfectly proportioned streamlined body stripped of unnecessary bulges and appendices. Redundancy in the surrogate mother's system was avoided by reducing the number of breasts from two to one and placing this unibreast in an upper-thoracic, sagittal position, thus maximizing the natural and known perceptual-motor capabilities of the infant operator. The surrogate was made from a block of wood, covered with sponge rubber, and sheathed in tan cotton terry cloth. A light bulb behind her radiated heat. The result was a mother, soft, warm, and tender, a mother with infinite patience, a mother available twenty-four hours a day, a mother that never scolded her infant and never struck or bit her baby in anger." The data obtained "make it obvious that contact comfort is a variable of overwhelming importance in the development of affectional responses, whereas lactation is a variable of negligible importance." It is suggested that the primary function of nursing "is that of insuring frequent and intimate body contact of infant with mother." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
[define and discuss] the 3 dominant approaches to conceptualizing and measuring individual differences in adult attachment: dimensional, typological, and prototype / outline a particular theory of adult attachment, K. Bartholomew's 4-category model, that incorporates all 3 approaches / describe the associated measurement instruments / define and illustrate a number of conceptual questions that arise within and between the measurement approaches / how can the 'correct' attachment dimensions be identified / are these dimensions reducible to general personality factors / are prototype measures of attachment more powerful than categorical measures / what implications do the different approaches hold for the assessment of reliability and stability / emphasize the interconnection of theoretical analysis and measurement procedure (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three studies were conducted to examine the correlates of adult attachment. In Study 1, an 18-item scale to measure adult attachment style dimensions was developed based on Hazan and Shaver's (1987) categorical measure. Factor analyses revealed three dimensions underlying this measure: the extent to which an individual is comfortable with closeness, feels he or she can depend on others, and is anxious or fearful about such things as being abandoned or unloved. Study 2 explored the relation between these attachment dimensions and working models of self and others. Attachment dimensions were found to be related to self-esteem, expressiveness, instrumentality, trust in others, beliefs about human nature, and styles of loving. Study 3 explored the role of attachment style dimensions in three aspects of ongoing dating relationships: partner matching on attachment dimensions; similarity between the attachment of one's partner and caregiving style of one's parents; and relationship quality, including communication, trust, and satisfaction. Evidence was obtained for partner matching and for similarity between one's partner and one's parents, particularly for one's opposite-sex parent. Dimensions of attachment style were strongly related to how each partner perceived the relationship, although the dimension of attachment that best predicted quality differed for men and women. For women, the extent to which their partner was comfortable with closeness was the best predictor of relationship quality, whereas the best predictor for men was the extent to which their partner was anxious about being abandoned or unloved.
This study investigated the relationship between intimate touching behaviors and corresponding cognitions of relational commitment as a function of gender. One hundred fifty-two subjects were surveyed regarding perceptions of commitment for seven intimate touches. The 2-way ANOVA revealed significant effects for gender, type of touch, and the touch by gender interaction. Progressively intimate touches were associated with greater commitment. Females associated significantly higher levels of commitment than males, particularly for the more intimate touches. The discrepancy in the level of commitment inferred by gender increases as the touching behavior grows more intimate, resulting in a greater potential for miscommunication across the more intimate channels of haptic communication.
Insecure attachment relations have been theorized to play a significant role in the development of depressogenic modes of adaptation and to thus form a vulnerability factor for the emergence of depressive disorder in children. This study examined security of parent and peer attachment among four groups of early adolescents: clinically depressed, nondepressed psychiatric controls, nonpsychiatric controls, and adolescents with resolved depression. Depressed adolescents reported significantly less secure parent attachment than either of the control groups, and less secure peer attachment than the nonpsychiatric control group. Attachment security of adolescents with resolved depression was on a par with the nonpsychiatric control group. Among all psychiatric patients, security of attachment to parents was negatively correlated with severity of depression according to interview and selfreport ratings. Less secure attachment to parents, but generally not to peers, was also related to more maladaptive attributional styles, presence of separation anxiety disorder, and history of suicidal ideation.
This study was designed to test the hypothesis that increased physical contact, experimentally induced, would promote greater maternal responsiveness and more secure attachment between infant and mother. Low-SES mothers of newborn infants were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 23) that received soft baby carriers (more physical contact) or to a control group (n = 26) that received infants seats (less contact). Using a transitional probability analysis of a play session at 31/2 months, it was demonstrated that mothers in the experimental group were more contingently responsive than control mothers to their infants' vocalizations. When the infants were 13 months old, the Ainsworth Strange Situation was administered. Significantly more experimental than control infants were securely attached to their mothers. We infer from these results that for low-income, inner-city mothers, there may be a causal relation between increased physical contact, achieved through early carrying in a soft baby carrier, and subsequent security of attachment between infant and mother.
This article explores the possibility that romantic love is an attachment process--a biosocial process by which affectional bonds are formed between adult lovers, just as affectional bonds are formed earlier in life between human infants and their parents. Key components of attachment theory, developed by Bowlby, Ainsworth, and others to explain the development of affectional bonds in infancy, were translated into terms appropriate to adult romantic love. The translation centered on the three major styles of attachment in infancy--secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent--and on the notion that continuity of relationship style is due in part to mental models (Bowlby's "inner working models") of self and social life. These models, and hence a person's attachment style, are seen as determined in part by childhood relationships with parents. Two questionnaire studies indicated that relative prevalence of the three attachment styles is roughly the same in adulthood as in infancy, the three kinds of adults differ predictably in the way they experience romantic love, and attachment style is related in theoretically meaningful ways to mental models of self and social relationships and to relationship experiences with parents. Implications for theories of romantic love are discussed, as are measurement problems and other issues related to future tests of the attachment perspective.
The development of a measure of simulated personal space, using standardized instructions, is described. Reliability and validity were assessed.
A relatively unobtrusive apparatus, the Interpersonal Distance Mat (IDM), is described as a means of acquiring immediate and accurate measures of interpersonal distances. Two brief experiments tested the sensitivity of the apparatus to gender differences in preferred interpersonal distance. Results from 78 male and 93 female American college students indicate that female/female dyads selected closer interaction distances than male/male dyads, but that freedom of movement may be a necessary factor in this relationship.
Scholars have paid increasing attention to the role of non-verbal communication within intimate relationships. Reportedly, immediate behaviors such as touch escalate opposite-sex relationships by promoting increased intimacy and psychological closeness. This study examined the effects of relational stage, gender and touch avoidance on unobtrusively coded public touch behavior. An ANOVA indicated that relational stage was curvilinearly related to public interpersonal touch such that the level of touch was higher in intermediate stage of relationships than in either initial or stable stages. Gender had no effect on touch. Instead, a high correlation was found between the amount of touch used by males and the amount of touch used by their female partners. Touch avoidance was found to be linearly related to the amount of touch displayed, with low touch avoiders touching the most and high touch avoiders touching the least. There was a strong additive effect for touch avoidance, with all three touch avoidance groups following a curvilinear pattern for relational stage. x2 tests found that touch increased primarily in the hand and waist areas during the intermediate stage. Implications for the study of reciprocity, immediacy, intimacy and stage theory are discussed.
One hundred sixty-three sixth, seventh, and eighth grade boys (n = 72) and girls (n = 91) were given the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment and a 23-item self-report measure of antisocial behavior. Correlations between attachment to mother, father, and best friend and antisocial behavior showed moderate, inverse associations for the sample as a whole. Explained variance in antisocial behavior predicted by attachment to best friend was redundant with parent attachment. Both for boys and girls, attachment to father was the strongest predictor of antisocial behavior. For boys, attachment relationships with best friends were related to antisocial behavior and parent attachment. For girls, relationships with best friends were independent of other attachments and antisocial behavior. Across the 11-year through 14-year age span studied here, girls showed a positive correlation between age and aggressive antisocial behavior
Observation of neonates revealed that when crying infants are picked up and put to the shoulder, they not only stop crying but they frequently alert and scan the environment. In order to explore the relations between soothing and visual alertness, 12 2-3-day-old healthy females were picked up while crying and put alternately to the right and left shoulder and propped to a sitting position. For 30 seconds following these interventions, incidences of alerting and scanning were recorded. For control trials the same was done without any intervention. Results reflect significant differences between positions in alerting and scanning. Each infant alerted and scanned in the majority of trials when put to the shoulder. Handling alone did not induce alertness significantly more often than control trials. The implications of the findings were discussed, particularly with respect to animal and human research on the effects of early stimulation.
A basic principle of attachment theory is that early attachment relationships with caregivers provide the prototype for later social relations. Working within an attachment framework, a new 4-group model of characteristic attachment styles in adulthood is proposed. In particular, two forms of adult avoidance of intimacy are differentiated: a fearful style that is characterized by a conscious desire for social contact which is inhibited by fears of its consequences, and a dismissing style that is characterized by a defensive denial of the need or desire for greater social contact. This distinction corresponds to two differing models of the self: people who fearfully avoid intimacy view themselves as undeserving of the love and support of others, and people who dismiss intimacy possess a positive model of the self that minimizes the subjective awareness of distress or social needs. The emotional and interpersonal ramifications of the two proposed styles of adult avoidance are discussed.
Ethological attachment theory is a landmark of 20th century social and behavioral sciences theory and research. This new paradigm for understanding primary relationships across the lifespan evolved from John Bowlby's critique of psychoanalytic drive theory and his own clinical observations, supplemented by his knowledge of fields as diverse as primate ethology, control systems theory, and cognitive psychology. By the time he had written the first volume of his classic Attachment and Loss trilogy, Mary D. Salter Ainsworth's naturalistic observations in Uganda and Baltimore, and her theoretical and descriptive insights about maternal care and the secure base phenomenon had become integral to attachment theory. Patterns of Attachment reports the methods and key results of Ainsworth's landmark Baltimore Longitudinal Study. Following upon her naturalistic home observations in Uganda, the Baltimore project yielded a wealth of enduring, benchmark results on the nature of the child's tie to its primary caregiver and the importance of early experience. It also addressed a wide range of conceptual and methodological issues common to many developmental and longitudinal projects, especially issues of age appropriate assessment, quantifying behavior, and comprehending individual differences. In addition, Ainsworth and her students broke new ground, clarifying and defining new concepts, demonstrating the value of the ethological methods and insights about behavior. Today, as we enter the fourth generation of attachment study, we have a rich and growing catalogue of behavioral and narrative approaches to measuring attachment from infancy to adulthood. Each of them has roots in the Strange Situation and the secure base concept presented in Patterns of Attachment. It inclusion in the Psychology Press Classic Editions series reflects Patterns of Attachment's continuing significance and insures its availability to new generations of students, researchers, and clinicians.
The CES-D scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. The items of the scale are symptoms associated with depression which have been used in previously validated longer scales. The new scale was tested in household interview surveys and in psychiatric settings. It was found to have very high internal consistency and adequate test- retest repeatability. Validity was established by pat terns of correlations with other self-report measures, by correlations with clinical ratings of depression, and by relationships with other variables which support its construct validity. Reliability, validity, and factor structure were similar across a wide variety of demographic characteristics in the general population samples tested. The scale should be a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of de pression.
Parenting styles and family functioning have been proved individually to make an important contribution to the development of adult attachment styles. However, few studies have attempted to clarify how these two factors influence adult attachment styles when taken into account simultaneously. In order to examine the relationship between adult at- tachment, perceived parenting, and family functioning, data derived from 1,141 males (29.6%) and 2,709 females (70.4%) were analyzed in the present study. The results indicated that perceived parenting predicted adult attachment and family functioning, while family functioning failed to significantly predict adult attachment. The present study also highlighted the fact that paternal and maternal parenting played equally important roles in shaping adult attachment styles of off- spring.
Conducted a short-term longitudinal study with 26 mother–infant pairs (16 boys, 10 girls) from White middle-class families, during which data were collected in observations in the home of mother–infant interactions. A "strange situation" was also created in the laboratory consisting of 8 episodes in which mother and baby were together, baby was left with a stranger, baby was reunited with mother. From this infants were classified as anxious and avoidant (A), securely attached (B), or anxiously attached and resistant (C). Infants' behaviors were most affected by how their mothers responded to their signals and communications (e.g., crying), and thus geared their behavior to the characteristics of their infants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study was designed to test the hypothesis that increased physical contact, experimentally induced, would promote greater maternal responsiveness and more secure attachment between infant and mother. Low-SES mothers of newborn infants were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n= 23) that received soft baby carriers (more physical contact) or to a control group (n= 26) that received infant seats (less contact). Using a transitional probability analysis of a play session at 31/2 months, it was demonstrated that mothers in the experimental group were more contingently responsive than control mothers to their infants' vocalizations. When the infants were 13 months old, the Ainsworth Strange Situation was administered. Significantly more experimental than control infants were securely attached to their mothers. We infer from these results that for low-income, inner-city mothers, there may be a causal relation between increased physical contact, achieved through early carrying in a soft baby carrier, and subsequent security of attachment between infant and mother.
An introspective measure of tactile tendency was developed for college-age students. Personality correlates of high and low tactile tendencies explain some individual differences in the use of tactile communication.
A measure of comfort with touching was found to predict whether or not subjects would volunteer to participate in an experiment involving hugging strangers of both sexes and also to predict levels of personal space. Among those volunteering to give hugs, subjects reporting greater comfort with touch rated those hugs more positively, but this seemed to reflect a readiness to interpret touch positively rather than any clear differences in the nature of the hug actually given. Earlier findings that women report greater comfort with touch than do men were replicated. It was found that reported touch comfort was directly related to such constructs as satisfaction with life, with oneself, and with one's childhood, as well as to self-confidence, assertiveness, socially acceptable self-presentation, and active rather than passive modes of coping with problems. Touch comfort was inversely related to expressed concerns with touches which might reflect status differentials, homosexuality, or negative affective states. It was concluded that the touch comfort construct reflects the degree of one's openness to expressing intimate behavior, the degree to which one adopts an active, rather than passive, interpersonal style, and the degree to which one's social relationships are satisfactory.
College students attributed meaning on a questionnaire to 31 types of nonreciprocal touch occurring in opposite-sex romantic relationships. Subject sex and origin of touch (self vs. partner) had minor effects on attributed meanings. Subjects most often perceived these touches as expressing warmth/love, and rarely as expressing dominance/control.
Gender differences in touch in U.S. populations have been well demonstrated. The age of participants and the setting in which touch occurs have been shown to affect the gender differences. Some investigators have concluded that a gender asymmetry exists with men touching women more than women touch men. A number of studies have shown that men and women interpret touch differently. Past research has provided little information about the effect of the relationship between a couple and the meaning of their touch. In the present study touch initiation among couples was observed in a variety of public settings and then the couples were asked to identify their relationship. It was found that men were more likely to initiate touch during courtship and women were more likely to initiate touch after marriage. A sex difference in reproductive strategies was suggested as one explanation for the phenomenon.
Subjects filled out three touch attitude scales, a measure of recollections of early childhood touch, and a social competence inventory, and then proceeded to record their touches in a log for one week. The touch questionnaires, although correlated with one another, did not predict day-to-day touching as recorded in logs. However, the results also suggest that questionnaire responses (for the one recall measure and two attitude scales) and log records are each independently predictive of social self-confidence. These findings are interpreted to mean that both positive attitudes/remembrances about touch and active engagement in touch behavior are important elements in social competence. Implications for future research are discussed, including the suggestion that the possible effects of skills training in touch on tactile attitudes, touch communication practices, and social self-esteem should be investigated.
Development of two touch-avoidance measures via factor analysis are reported. Touch avoidance is a nonverbal communication predisposition that consists of two dimensions, same-sex touch avoidance and opposite-sex touch avoidance. The results are replicated across two distinct samples with consistent reliability of measurement. Touch avoidance is then related to communication apprehension, self-disclosure, self-esteem, and a series of cultural role variables. The cultural role variables seem to have the greatest relationship with the two measures of touch avoidance. A program for future research on touch avoidance is also discussed.
To investigate the relationship among adult attachment style, life stress, and daily depression, a sample of 437 undergraduate students was prospectively studied. Insecure adult attachment and perceived life stress were related to their daily depressive mood. Further analyses using both multiple hierarchical regression and structural equation models (SEM) demonstrated that adult attachment style and perceived life stress independently predicted depression and had no interactive effects on daily depression. The impact of adult attachment on depression was not contingent upon the presence of life stress and securely attached participants were less impacted by depression than insecurely attached ones. These results suggest that adult attachment can play an important role in mental health intervention and may be helpful when it comes to preventing and treating depression.
A new 4-group model of attachment styles in adulthood is proposed. Four prototypic attachment patterns are defined using combinations of a person's self-image (positive or negative) and image of others (positive or negative). In Study 1, an interview was developed to yield continuous and categorical ratings of the 4 attachment styles. Intercorrelations of the attachment ratings were consistent with the proposed model. Attachment ratings were validated by self-report measures of self-concept and interpersonal functioning. Each style was associated with a distinct profile of interpersonal problems, according to both self- and friend-reports. In Study 2, attachment styles within the family of origin and with peers were assessed independently. Results of Study 1 were replicated. The proposed model was shown to be applicable to representations of family relations; Ss' attachment styles with peers were correlated with family attachment ratings.
Out of a consideration of the relevance of interpersonal physical contact to mental health is developed the hypothesis that unsatisfactory physical contact experience predisposes to depression. This hypothesis is then systematically explored using self-ratings of depression and physical contact (and love) experience obtained on admission and at discharge from 254 unselected psychiatric in-patients. Following the demonstration of a strong association between unsatisfactory physical contact experience and depression a significant relationship is also found between depression and the experience of being not loved. These two relationships are shown to exist independently of one another and when direction of causation is investigated both unsatisfactory physical contact experience and the experience of being not loved are seen to be causal of depression rather than vice versa. Unsatisfactory physical contact experience, however, clearly has the greater utility as an indicator of depression-proneness. Different categories and different kinds of physical contact experience are explored, first in relation to depression generally and then to each of the three major forms of depressive illness. Considered too is the patterning of physical contact experience and love experience for each of these latter. The results suggest that depression generally tends to be more closely linked with stable than unstable unsatisfactory physical contact experience and with present rather than childhood such experience. In addition endogenous depression is seen to be characterised by an absence of any physical contact experience in the present, while manic-depressive psychosis combines unsatisfactory physical contact experience with the experience of being loved and shows a relative lack of exclusively bad physical contact experience in childhood. Reactive depression, however, emerges with no distinguishing features of this kind. There follows an examination of the relationships between unsatisfactory physical contact experience and those psychiatric conditions other than depression represented in the subject sample. This raises the possibility that unsatisfactory physical contact experience could also be closely linked with schizophreniform disorder and adjustment disorder. Finally it is suggested that, above all, physical contact experience may be a major determinant of the capacity to cope with stress. Unsatisfactory such experience might then be predisposing to a wide range of psychiatric disorders, with depression seen as a commonly occurring symptom of inadequate coping.
Although Meyer and Freud believed that the seeds of mental health are sown in childhood, systematic research has proved difficult and disappointing, and theory has remained intensely controversial. Research of the past two decades by developmental psychologists using an ethologically based theory of socioemotional bonds, however, is yielding findings that consistently confirm predictions. The author outlines this research, giving examples of the results, which are shown to be compatible with findings of epidemiological studies of depressed adults. He holds that a person's degree of vulnerability to stressors is strongly influenced by the development and current state of his or her intimate relationships.
Tactile/kinesthetic stimulation was given to 20 preterm neonates (mean gestational age, 31 weeks; mean birth weight, 1,280 g; mean time in neonatal intensive care unit, 20 days) during transitional ("grower") nursery care, and their growth, sleep-wake behavior, and Brazelton scale performance was compared with a group of 20 control neonates. The tactile/kinesthetic stimulation consisted of body stroking and passive movements of the limbs for three, 15-minute periods per day for a 10 days. The stimulated neonates averaged a 47% greater weight gain per day (mean 25 g v 17 g), were more active and alert during sleep/wake behavior observations, and showed more mature habituation, orientation, motor, and range of state behavior on the Brazelton scale than control infants. Finally, their hospital stay was 6 days shorter, yielding a cost savings of approximately $3,000 per infant. These data suggest that tactile/kinesthetic stimulation may be a cost effective way of facilitating growth and behavioral organization even in very small preterm neonates.
This naturalistic, longitudinal study of 26 infant-mother pairs shows that consistency and promptness of maternal response is associated with decline in frequency and duration of infant crying. By the end of the first year individual differences in crying reflect the history of maternal responsiveness rather than constitutional differences in infant irritability. Close physical contact is the most frequent maternal intervention and the most effective in terminating crying. Nevertheless, maternal effectiveness in terminating crying was found to be less powerful than promptness of response in reducing crying in subsequent months. Evidence suggests that whereas crying is expressive at first, it can later be a mode of communication directed specifically toward the mother. The development of noncrying modes of communication, as well as a decline in crying, is associated with maternal responsiveness to infant signals. The findings are discussed in an evolutionary context, and with reference to the popular belief that to respond to his cries "spoils" a baby.