Article

Luxus Consumption: Wasting Food Resources Through Overeating

March 2006
Agriculture and Human Values 23(1):63-74

Authors:

Pennsylvania State University

In this paper, we redefine the term luxus consumption to mean food waste and overconsumption leading to storage of body fat, health problems, and excess resource utilization. We develop estimates of the prevalence of luxus consumption and its environmental consequences using US food supply, agricultural, and environmental data and using procedures modeled after energetics analysis and ecological footprint analysis. Between 1983 and 2000, US food availability (food consumption including waste) increased by 18% or 600 kcal (2.51 MJ) per person. This luxus consumption required 0.36 hectares (ha) of land and fishing area per capita, 100.6 million ha for the US population, and 3.1% of total US energy consumption. Luxus consumption increased more for particular foods, such as high fructose corn syrup (HFCS), 22% of which was used in carbonated beverages. As an example, the luxus consumption of sweetened soda, 31.8 l per capita, used 0.8% of the US corn crop (230,555 ha of land); 33.6 million kg of nitrogen fertilizer; 175,000 kg of Atrazine herbicide; 34 million kg of nitrogen fertilizer; 2.44 trillion kcal (10.2 PJ) for production inputs and post-harvest handling; and led to 4.9 million metric tons of soil erosion. Diet soft drink luxus consumption was 43.9 l/capita. Assuming half of US soft drink luxus consumption was bottled in plastic, the energy cost for plastics would have been 2.49 trillion kcal (10.4 PJ) in 2000. Total HFCS availability above baseline in 2000 required 4.6 times the resources used for soft drinks alone. This analysis suggests the utility and applicability of the concept of luxus consumption to environmental analysis and for estimating the effects of excess food utilization.

A conceptual framework for understanding the environmental impacts of ultra-processed foods and implications for sustainable food systems

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022
J CLEAN PROD

Minimising environmental impacts and prioritising the production of nutritious foods are essential qualities of a sustainable food system. Ultra-processed foods (UFPs) are potentially counterproductive to these objectives. This review aims to summarise the magnitude and types of environmental impacts resulting from each stage of the UPF supply chain and to develop a conceptual framework to display these impacts. It also aims to identify the terms used to describe UPFs in the sustainability literature, and the methods used to measure the associated environmental impacts. A narrative review approach with a systematic search strategy was used. Fifty-two studies were included that either described or quantified the environmental impacts of UPFs. This review found that UPFs are responsible for significant diet-related environmental impacts. Included studies reported that UPFs accounted for between 17 and 39% of total diet-related energy use, 36–45% of total diet-related biodiversity loss, up to one-third of total diet-related greenhouse gas emissions, land use and food waste and up to one-quarter of total diet-related water-use among adults in a range of high-income countries. These results varied depending on the scope of the term used to describe UPFs, stages of the lifecycle included in the analyses and country. Studies also identified that UPF production and consumption has impacts on land degradation, herbicide use, eutrophication and packaging use, although these impacts were not quantified in relation to dietary contribution. The findings highlight that environmental degradation associated with UPFs is of significant concern due to the substantial resources used in the production and processing of such products, and also because UPFs are superfluous to basic human needs. The conceptual framework and findings presented can be used to inform food policy and dietary guideline development, as well as provide recommendations for future research.

Sustainability outcomes of the United States food system: A systematic review

Article

Full-text available

May 2022

Food systems literature has shifted towards interdisciplinarity and the use of systems lenses but can still be disjointed and unconnected. To bring together disciplinary knowledge and establish a common understanding of food systems, we conducted a systematic review to inventory sustainability outcomes of the U.S. food system. The literature search returned 2,866 articles, which was reduced to 49, reviewed here. A qualitative content analysis process identified 93 outcomes. These were split across three main themes of environmental, socio-economic, and health outcomes. This review also identified several trends in food systems literature, such as an underrepresentation of socio-economic outcomes and a lack of inclusion of social outcomes in natural science journals. The sustainability outcomes inventoried here may help to facilitate greater communication and collaboration in food systems research and situate current and future food systems studies within this inventory.

Agrarian transformative changes of agriculture and food systems: A review

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2019

Agricultural and food systems are undergoing transformations because of increasing commitment in international trade apace with economic growth, dietary change and urbanisation. The importance of food systems for sustainable development: they are interrelated with food security, nutrition, and human health, the viability of ecosystems, climate change, and social justice. Food systems approaches are often undergoes several transformation processes, with particular strengths in linking social, economic and environmental dimensions of food in innumerable ways. Globally, agricultural and food systems need to transform and modify their approach and bring the desired change with new ways to integrate natural capital into social and economic systems. This transformed approach has the potential to secure food and ecological security to all, and to improve unconditional health in the society. It has four parts: first, food systems should enable all people to benefit from nutritious and healthy food. Second, they should reflect sustainable agricultural production and food value chains. Third, they should mitigate climate change and build resilience. Fourth, they should encourage a renaissance of rural territories. Therefore, the new ICT technologies and services help food operators deliver greater efficiency in resource use. In this review paper, we collected the literature majorly focus on the concepts of food systems, agrarian change, political economy, sustainable development and rural livelihood. It emphasizes the challenge of intriguing different paths for food systems transformation in agricultural sectors responding to local and national expectations within the context of global priorities.

Agrarian transformative changes of agriculture and food systems: A review

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2019

Food Loss and Waste: Measurement, Drivers, and Solutions

Article

Aug 2019

It has been estimated that one-third of global food is lost or wasted, entailing significant environmental, economic, and social costs. The scale and impact of food loss and waste (FLW) has attracted significant interest across sectors, leading to a relatively recent proliferation of publications. This article synthesizes existing knowledge in the literature with a focus on FLW measurement, drivers, and solutions. We apply the widely adopted DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) framework to structure the review. Key takeaways include the following: Existing definitions of FLW are inconsistent and incomplete, significant data gaps remain (by food type, stage of supply chain, and region, especially for developing countries), FLW solutions focus more on proximate causes rather than larger systemic drivers, and effective responses to FLW will require complementary approaches and robust evaluation.

Food Loss and Waste: Measurement, Drivers, and Solutions

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2019

Losses, inefficiencies and waste in the global food system

Article

Full-text available

May 2017

Losses at every stage in the food system influence the extent to which nutritional requirements of a growing global population can be sustainably met. Inefficiencies and losses in agricultural production and consumer behaviour all play a role. This paper aims to understand better the magnitude of different losses and to provide insights into how these influence overall food system efficiency. We take a systems view from primary production of agricultural biomass through to human food requirements and consumption. Quantities and losses over ten stages are calculated and compared in terms of dry mass, wet mass, protein and energy. The comparison reveals significant differences between these measurements, and the potential for wet mass figures used in previous studies to be misleading. The results suggest that due to cumulative losses, the proportion of global agricultural dry biomass consumed as food is just 6% (9.0% for energy and 7.6% for protein), and 24.8% of harvest biomass (31.9% for energy and 27.8% for protein). The highest rates of loss are associated with livestock production, although the largest absolute losses of biomass occur prior to harvest. Losses of harvested crops were also found to be substantial, with 44.0% of crop dry matter (36.9% of energy and 50.1% of protein) lost prior to human consumption. If human over-consumption, defined as food consumption in excess of nutritional requirements, is included as an additional inefficiency, 48.4% of harvested crops were found to be lost (53.2% of energy and 42.3% of protein). Over-eating was found to be at least as large a contributor to food system losses as consumer food waste. The findings suggest that influencing consumer behaviour, e.g. to eat less animal products, or to reduce per capita consumption closer to nutrient requirements, offer substantial potential to improve food security for the rising global population in a sustainable manner.

Sustainability of food waste prevention through food consumption

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2024

Niina Sundin

Food is wasted in unacceptable amounts and an epidemic of overeating is sweeping the world, while billions of people suffer from food insecurity. In Sweden, retailers waste around 89,000 tons and public caterers 37,000 tons annually, comprising mostly edible food. Halving food waste at the consumption level faces challenges due to complex root causes. A stronger focus on food waste prevention is needed, but existing measures lack empirical evidence of their reduction potential and sustainability impacts. These gaps were addressed in this thesis by assessing two reduction measures, surplus food redistribution and plate waste prevention in school meals. Using diverse methods, such as surveys, life cycle assessment, material flow analysis and nutritional calculations, the food waste reduction potential and environmental, economic and social impacts of the measures were evaluated. The magnitude and climate impact of food overconsumption, i.e. metabolic food waste, was also analysed. The results revealed high environmental impact of overeating, corresponding to up to 10% of food-related climate impact in Sweden. The redistribution system proved effective, with approximately 78% of donated food eaten. Donations also outcompeted anaerobic digestion in environmental impact mitigation despite substantial rebound effects, while adding social stakeholder value. Educational approaches, including plate waste tracker and serving popular instead of unpopular school meals, showed great long-term reduction potential for plate waste (~19%). Overall, the results indicated high importance of limiting food overconsumption from both a health and environmental perspective and showed that redirecting edible food waste to people can protect the environment and provide valuable nutrients, accruing potential health benefits.

Food Waste—Introduction and Origin

Chapter

Mar 2024

Globally, 1.3 billion tons of food fit for human consumption have been estimated to be wasted or lost per year. Subsequently, a broad scope of negative consequences generates unnecessary emissions of greenhouse gases related to the destruction of land, water, and energy. However, there is an increasing citizen, scientific, and political consensus about reducing global waste generated by the current food system. Therefore, effective policies to prevent wastage should be multi-faceted to cover the consumer, society, and manufacturing food industry changes in both habits and motivations to reduce negative economic and environmental impacts. In this sense, economic stimulus to promote sustainable consumption, taxes and fees for consumer education, waste treatment, and alternative marketing channels support have drawn attention to governments. In addition, there are several offsets between the prevention of food waste and collective aims like food safety and environmental goals, which require consideration. Finally, agro-food valorization could be a source of “green” compounds for developing sustainable chemistry with multiple tecno-functional applications.

Promoting Food for the Trash Bin? A Review of the Literature on Retail Price Promotions and Household-Level Food Waste

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2021

Supermarkets receive criticism for irresponsible marketing practices, such as price promotions, that trigger over-purchasing and seemingly contribute to consumer waste. In the wake of this, retailers have abolished certain price promotions as part of an effort to meet corporate social responsibility (CSR) goals. We aim to investigate whether the underlying assumption that price promotions are positively related to consumer food waste needs to hold true. Through a review of the existing literature, we show that there is no scientific consensus on this assumption. Our findings show that half of the studies conclude that price promotions result in food waste by encouraging over-purchase, while the remaining conclude that consumers buying price-promoted food products show average or even lower levels of household food waste. Unraveling this inconsistency, we contribute by proposing a multi-level model of CSR behavior, where CSR actions at an institutional level (retailer) interact with individual characteristics at a micro (consumer) level leading to demonstrably different outcomes. We argue that the assumption that price promotions necessarily cause food waste has been overly simplistic, as it did not take into account the consumers’ role. We conclude that the relationship between price promotions and consumer food waste is conditional on price consciousness, attitudes, values, household identities, and household roles. Thus, we illustrate that CSR problems are often wicked ones, where first-order solutions often lead to secondary problems that stymie the progress of institutions and policy makers in addressing social needs in business. We derive specific recommendations for retailers seeking to meet CSR goals.

Identifying the links between consumer food waste, nutrition, and environmental sustainability: a narrative review

Article

Jun 2020
NUTR REV

Emerging research demonstrates unexpected relationships between food waste, nutrition, and environmental sustainability that should be considered when developing waste reduction strategies. In this narrative review, we synthesize these linkages and the evidence related to drivers of food waste and reduction strategies at the consumer level in the United States. Higher diet quality is associated with greater food waste, which results in significant quantities of wasted resources (e.g., energy, fertilizer) and greenhouse gas emissions. Food waste also represents waste of micronutrients that could otherwise theoretically fill nutritional gaps for millions of people. To make progress on these multiple fronts simultaneously, nutrition professionals must expand beyond their traditional purview, into more interdisciplinary arenas that make connections with food waste and environmental sustainability.

Behavior of Non-Conventional Contaminants in the Closed Valleys

Article

Oct 2019

Natalia Andrea Cano

In this research non-conventional pollutants (BTX) behavior in closed valleys is analyzed by consolidating information from different monitoring campaigns carried out in 2006-2007, 2011-2012, and 2015-2016 periods, defined in three work zones given the topographic characteristics of the Aburrá Valley located in the department of Antioquia (Colombia); southern zone, central zone and northern zone. Sampling was carried out using passive sensors and the location and height of the sampling points were selected according to the requirements established by the European standard UNE EN 13528-3 (AEN/CTN, 2004). The northern zone presented the lowest concentrations for the three pollutants, followed by the southern zone, and increased in the central zone where there is a higher vehicular traffic, evidencing higher values for benzene and lower values for xylenes and toluenes; this pattern may be given by the topographical features of the valley, the local land morphometric parameters, traffic flow and possibly contaminant leaching since winds go generally north-south direction.

The untenable role of “junk food” in a healthy and sustainable food system

Chapter

Full-text available

Oct 2019

Junk food consumption has peaked in high-income countries but is still increasing rapidly throughout much of the developing world. While the adverse health impacts of junk food are undeniable, much less attention has been paid to its environmental impacts. This chapter takes a more nuanced approach to the topic by consolidating the evidence on the health and sustainability implications of junk food production and consumption. It begins with a review of the nomenclature used in the literature to describe junk food, followed by a descriptive analysis of current global consumption patterns and trends. Associated health and environmental impacts are then considered with some options to address these. Based on the available evidence, it is concluded that junk food is incompatible with sustainability objectives and concurrent efforts to curtail its production and consumption should be a key agenda item in promoting healthy and sustainable food systems.

Conceptual framework to integrate food waste research and food systems research

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2025

It is estimated that a quarter to one-third of food intended for humans does not fulfil its original purpose. Yet, and despite its universally acknowledged importance for sustainability, mechanisms behind food waste generation are often studied unconnectedly from other challenges surrounding food systems. Here, we examine how concepts, assumptions and frameworks adopted in the food waste literature and the food systems literature overlap, contradict and complement one another. We discuss the current evidence on why and how food waste occurs and discuss modifications required for a conceptual framework to improve the integration between the two groups of studies. The resulting framework makes an explicit distinction between context-specific direct causes and context-independent indirect drivers of food waste, with practice theory interlinking them by portraying human behaviour and associated agency that translate the latter into the former. Central to our conceptualisation is an enhanced recognition that the ultimate cause of food waste is almost always natural decay, which cannot be prevented but can be managed through a systems approach with clear definitions of temporal boundaries.

Impuestos saludables en Colombia. Reorientar las políticas públicas desde el derecho humano a la alimentación adecuada

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2023

Cristina Carreño Aguirre

Los impuestos saludables gravan productos nocivos para la salud como los ultraprocesados y las bebidas azucaradas, cuyo consumo elevado se ha asociado con la prevalencia de enfermedades no transmisibles e incluso afectaciones al medioambiente. Así, estas medidas han tomado relevancia desde la salud pública para enfrentar diversas formas de malnutrición. No obstante, su discusión política debe trascender el alcance de un objetivo económico a corto plazo, poniendo como centro del debate la visión del derecho humano a la alimentación adecuada. Acceso en: https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/debates/article/view/353351

The Impact of Mukbang Live Streaming Commerce on Consumers’ Overconsumption Behavior

Article

Apr 2023

Food live streaming shopping, which features a host eating and promoting the products to viewers, has become a new form of food marketing. In three studies, the authors examine the impact of content, influencer, and channel factors of mukbang live streaming on consumers’ perceived value and subsequent impulse purchase and food consumption behavior. Study 1, an experiment with 216 participants, reveals that a non–autonomous sensory meridian response (non-ASMR) video in which the mukbanger talks to viewers while eating regular (i.e., nonjunk) food is more influential in enhancing the video's perceived value and increasing impulse purchase and consumption. Study 2, with 624 participants, introduces influencer factors into the experiment. It shows that a credible and parasocial influencer significantly affects consumers’ perceived value, regardless of the food featured, resulting in impulse purchase and consumption. Study 3, which excludes the content factors fully mediated by influencer factors, examines the impact of the live streaming influencer and the shopping platform on perceived value and food well-being. A cross-sectional survey of 630 respondents finds that channel factors (food product offerings and convenience) and influencer factors (credibility and parasocial relationship) significantly enhance consumers’ perceived value, leading to impulse purchase and overconsumption. The authors provide theoretical and practical implications to enrich future research and responsible business practices in online food marketing.

Persistence and remote sensing of agri-food wastes in the environment: Current state and perspectives

Article

Jan 2023
CHEMOSPHERE

Food demand is expected to increase globally by 60-110% from 2005 to 2050 due to diet shifts and population growth. This growth in food demand leads to the generation of enormous agri-food wastes (AFWs), which could be classified into pre-consumption and post-consumption. The AFW represents economic losses for all stakeholders along food supply chains, including consumers. It is reported that the direct financial, social, and environmental costs of food waste are 1, 0.9, and 0.7 trillion USD/year, respectively. Diverse conventional AFW management approaches are employed at the different life cycle levels (entre supply chain). The review indicates that inadequate transportation, erroneous packaging, improper storage, losses during processing, contamination, issues with handling, and expiry dates are the main reason for the generation of AFWs in the supply chain. Further, various variables such as cultural, societal, personal, and behavioral factors contribute to the AFW generation. The selection of a specific valorization technology is based on multiple physicochemical and biological parameters. Furthermore, other factors like heterogeneity of the AFWs, preferable energy carriers, by-products management, cost, end-usage applications, and environmental legislative and disposal processes also play a crucial role in adopting suitable technology. Valorization of AFW could significantly impact both economy and the environment. AFWs have been widely investigated for the development of engineered added-value biomaterials and renewable energy production. Considering this, this study has been carried out to highlight the significance of AFW cost, aggregation, quantification, and membrane-based strategies for its management. The study also explored the satellite remote sensing data for Spatio-temporal monitoring, mapping, optimization, and management of AFW management. Along with this, the study also explained the most recent strategies for AFW valorization and outlined the detailed policy recommendation along with opportunities and challenges. The review suggested that AFW should be managed using a triple-bottom-line strategy (economic, social, and environmental sustainability).

Did France really ban food waste? Lessons from a pioneering national regulation

Chapter

Oct 2022

Marie Mourad

In 2016, France became the first country to pass a national law specifically against food waste, establishing mandatory partnerships for donations. That policy earned significant international attention and was often inaccurately portrayed as a complete “ban” on food waste. Based on more than 130 interviews with stakeholders between 2013 and 2021, this chapter shows that despite a formally strong and binding regulatory language, French food waste policies largely depended on voluntary commitments. Nonetheless, they have generated significant impacts. Not only have businesses donated more food, but this increase has prompted a discussion about the quality and appropriateness of charitable donations supported by tax reductions. In addition, more businesses have begun to sell products at a discount before donating them. But these evolutions, while optimizing the management of existing surplus, have not challenged the underlying problems of overproduction and devaluation of food. Only recent extensions of the French policies may tackle these issues and lead to a shift towards more prevention of food waste. As France becomes a model for other states, such as California which implemented a food redistribution law in 2020, policy makers can learn from the experience and re-value, rather than just redistribute or re-sell, food.

Pig in the Middle: Environment, Health and Development Dimensions of the Pork Sector in China

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Social Emotions and Good Provider Norms in Tackling Household Food Waste: An Extension of the Theory of Planned Behavior

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2022

Many studies have explored the antecedents of food waste in the framework of the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Scholars have also made efforts to add explaining variables to the original TPB, with mixed results; they often fail to demonstrate the incremental validity of the extended models. In the current study, we sought to assess whether an extended TPB model including social emotions and Good Provider norms could predict intention to reduce food waste. We also measured two behaviors which may be predicted by intentions to reduce food waste: (1) reducing servings and (2) using leftovers. The results show that social emotions help explain leftovers utilization, whereas the Good Provider norms are inversely correlated to the reduction of servings. Compared to the traditional TPB model, the extended version has more predictive power, especially as regards reducing servings.

Fighting Food Waste by Law: Making Sense of the Chinese Approach

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2022
J Consum Pol

The Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress adopted the Anti-food Waste Law of the People’s Republic of China in April 2021 to guarantee grain security, conserve resources, and protect the environment. We pursue three research questions: Why has China implemented a law with sanctions to reduce food waste, and why now? Why does the law target the catering industry? To answer these questions, we collected primary data through semi-structured interviews with government officials, as well as secondary data through recorded interviews available online with officials of the Legislative Affairs Commission of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress (NPCSC) and food waste activists, as well as NPCSC conference reports. We find a legal approach with sanctions was necessary since cultural aspects, specifically conventional Chinese dining habits and pop culture, are difficult to regulate through instruments without sanctions. In addition, we find the Chinese law focuses on the catering industry for a few reasons: (1) More waste is generated by the catering industry than households, (2) waste from the catering industry is easier to monitor than household waste, and (3) this was a response to citizen requests collected during the Anti-food Waste Law public consultation process.

Environmental impacts of different food waste resource technologies and the effects of energy mix

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2014

The environmental impacts of food waste management strategies and the effects of energy mix were evaluated using a life cycle assessment model, EASEWASTE. Three different strategies involving landfill , composting and combined digestion and composting as core technologies were investigated. The results indicate that the landfilling of food waste has an obvious impact on global warming, although the power recovery from landfill gas counteracts some of this. Food waste composting causes serious acidification (68.0 PE) and nutrient enrichment (76.9 PE) because of NH 3 and SO 2 emissions during decomposition. Using compost on farmland, which can marginally reduce global warming (−1.7 PE), acidification (−0.8 PE), and ecotoxicity and human toxicity through fertilizer substitution, also leads to nutrient enrichment as neutralization of emissions from N loss (27.6 PE) and substitution (−12.8 PE). A combined digestion and composting technology lessens the effects of acidification (−12.2 PE), nutrient enrichment (−5.7 PE), and global warming (−7.9 PE) mainly because energy is recovered efficiently, which decreases emissions including SO 2 , Hg, NO x , and fossil CO 2 during normal energy production. The change of energy mix by introducing more clean energy, which has marginal effects on the performance of com-posting strategy, results in apparently more loading to acidification and nutrient enrichment in the other two strategies. These are mainly because the recovered energy can avoid fewer emissions than before due to the lower background values in power generation. These results provide quantitative evidence for technical selection and pollution control in food waste management.

The climate impact of excess food intake - An avoidable environmental burden

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2021
RESOUR CONSERV RECY

The environmental impacts of food systems and the health consequences of excess food intake are well-acknowledged global issues. However, the climate impact of excess food intake, or metabolic food waste, has received less attention. This study estimated the amount of metabolic food waste and its climate impact in Sweden. Excess food intake was estimated based on the adult overweight and obesity prevalence in Sweden, by applying two alternative calculation methods, one based on the energy content of excess body fat, and the other based on the excess energy intake due to excess body fat. These caloric values were translated to food consumption patterns according to three dietary scenarios and their climate impact estimated based on carbon footprint data. The results showed that the annual amount of metabolic food waste represented 480–710 kt of food in Sweden and, regardless of dietary scenario, exceeded the annual amount of avoidable household food waste. The estimated greenhouse gas emissions from the metabolic food waste amounted up to 1.2 Mt CO2e annually, accounting for approximately 2% of the total and 10% of the food-related climate impact in Sweden. This study confirms the magnitude of the hidden climate cost of excess food intake on a national level and emphasizes the importance of taking this aspect into consideration in actions to improve both planetary and human health. Although applied to the Swedish context, the methodology used in the present study could also be used to assess the environmental impact of excess food intake in other countries globally.

Dynamics and innovative technologies affecting diets: implications on global food and nutrition security

Chapter

Jan 2021

Consumers are increasingly aware of the influence of diet on their health and require products that contribute to their well-being. The food security concept requires increased knowledge about minor components in the diet as micronutrients, vitamins, bioactive compounds together with fatty acids, which are naturally present in food and exert biological effects to improve human health. This chapter provides an insight into the physiological function of the body and the biochemical function of the fatty acids and polar lipids. It discusses the significance of health-related fatty acids, their presence in food and consumption, and how all these factors help in achieving food and nutrition security. In addition, an approach to some food processing and preservation technologies is presented.

Farm-to-fork… and beyond? A call to incorporate food waste into food systems research

Article

Jan 2020

Although food waste is gaining attention as an issue of environmental, social, and economic concern, this topic has only been taken up minimally by food scholars, despite its apparent relevance to food systems scholarship. Through a literature scan of nine food systems journals, we identify and characterize all instances of “food waste” and “food loss” mentions. We find that reference to this important topic is growing within food studies but is still a marginal concept. To help advance the discourse on food wastage, we suggest three potential areas of food systems research that could extend the scholarship, particularly drawing from analytical developments in discard studies. We encourage food studies scholars to consider waste as an intrinsic element of the food systems they study and as a fruitful boundary topic for future research.

Disclosure and assessment of unrecorded food waste at retail stores

Article

Jan 2020
J Retailing Consum Serv

Reducing food waste at stores is a huge challenge for retailers, that are called to improve the efficiency of their operations in order to reduce the quantity of food that goes discarded. Some studies suggest that part of the food products removed from sale are not recorded as waste, but the quantity and features of this unrecorded food waste is largely unknown. The underestimation of retail food waste data hinders the effectiveness of actions against food waste at the store level, as managers may build their decisions on unreliable information. In this study we directly measure the waste of 9 food categories in a panel of 13 supermarkets in Italy. An improved recording practice was applied during the 12 months of the study, allowing to detect all the food wasted, including what usually remains unrecorded. By comparing the data gathered during the study with those recorded at the same stores prior the application of the improved recording routine, meaningful quantities of unrecorded food waste emerge for many food categories, especially fruits and vegetables, packed cold cuts and groceries. The rate of food waste in value raises from 1.00% to 1.35% on comparable periods, as a result of the implementation of the improved recording routine. However, the rate of food waste in value decreases during the study period, suggesting that a more accurate recording procedure may sensitize the staff over the issue of food waste, thus preventing to some extent its generation. A new model of food waste recording is therefore proposed, with a meaningful potential to improve the quality of the data available to store managers and, at the same time, to reduce the economic losses due to in-store food waste.

Sustainable food waste management towards circular bioeconomy: Policy review, limitations and opportunities

Article

Nov 2019
BIORESOURCE TECHNOL

Research attention is increasingly drawn on constructing a circular bioeconomy and enhancing the value of material flows. Circular bioeconomy aims to achieve sustainable consumption and production with reduction of greenhouse gas emission. This study identifies research gaps on how circular bioeconomy can be achieved through sustainable food waste management by comparing the similarities and differences in concepts of bioeconomy and circular economy, reviewing the benefits and limitations of the existing policies, and evaluating the global situations of food waste and its management on household and commercial basis to promote circular bioeconomy. Future development on food waste management is expected to capitalise on the multi-functionality of products, boundary and allocation in a circular system, and trade-off between food waste and resources. With future technological advances, food waste management in circular bioeconomy policy can facilitate the accomplishment of sustainable development goals.

Improving supply chains to prevent food losses and waste: an overview

Chapter

Nov 2019

Hamid El Bilali

Wasting food is unsustainable from environmental, economic, social and ethical points of view. Curbing food losses and waste (FLW) amount would improve food chain sustainability and contribute to food security. For that, reducing FLW is one of the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This chapter highlights the causes of FLW and identifies possible prevention/reduction ways in agricultural production, harvesting, storage, processing, transport, distribution, marketing and consumption. The chapter outlines strategies to prevent/reduce FLW along the supply chain, including investments, good practices, behavioural changes and coordination within the food chain. The chapter makes the case for adopting a ‘systems approach’ to realise the full benefits of FLW reduction. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.

Food poverty, food waste and the consensus frame on charitable food redistribution in Italy

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2019
AGR HUM VALUES

Sabrina Arcuri

Food poverty and food waste are two major contemporary food system problems, which have (re)gained prominence amongst both scholars and policy-makers, due to recent economic and environmental concerns. In this context, the culturally dominant perspective portrays charitable food redistribution as a “win–win solution” to confront food poverty and food waste in affluent societies, although this view is contested by many scholars. This paper applies the notions of framings and flat/sharp keyings to unpack the different narratives entailed by public discourses on food waste and food poverty in Italy. The aim is to problematize the representation of the recent anti-waste/pro-donations law as the optimal policy measure to effectively rectify both food poverty and food waste. The paper argues that the widespread public support for the law reflects the interpretation of charitable food redistribution as a consensus frame, standing for the convergence between flat positions and is reinforced by confusion on terms and responsibilities. Indeed, the strength of the law lies in the capacity to reconcile different positions and bring actors together around a short-term objective, whose foundations have deep roots in the common ethics. However, if the debate is to be moved forward, trade-offs between different framings of problems at stake should be explicitly navigated when designing policy instruments. Agriculture and Human Values (2019) 36:263–275

Measuring household food waste at national level: A systematic review on methods and results

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2019

The majority of food waste is generated at the consumption stage. Research on consumer food waste is increasing very fast, as well as the effort in the quantification of the amount of food waste generated at home. This review analyses the most relevant studies in this regard with the aim of (i) reporting the main findings on the amount of food waste generated at the household level, and (ii) comparing estimates from studies conducted with different methodological approaches, to highlight possible influences of methods over the findings. Despite the growing interest over the topic, the number of studies providing a quantitative estimation of household food waste is not very high, with 16 studies conducted in Europe and 3 in other countries. The main methods used are inference on national statistics about food and waste flows, and direct measurement, e.g. questionnaires, food diaries and waste compositional analysis. Results of household food waste vary from only 5 to over 100 kg per person per year. Such variety is due to the definitions of food waste adopted (limiting or not the focus on edible food waste), as well as to the different methodological approaches. While inferential studies' findings are somewhat comparable with results of food diaries and waste compositional analyses, the amount of food waste self-reported by respondents in questionnaires is always much lower, probably due to self-indulgency of respondents or to cognitive bias. These pieces of evidence suggest that further research on the quantification of food waste at the consumer level should adopt more reliable methods and use a consistent definition of food waste.

Meat Consumption and Green Gas Emissions: a Chemometrics Analysis

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2019
FOOD ANAL METHOD

The aim of this study was to relate greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) from both livestock production (enteric) and agriculture emissions with the consumption of meat from meat producer and importer countries. Data for meat consumption and emission levels of agriculture and livestock production were sourced from the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) database statistics (1961 to 2013). This data is freely available to the public and research community from the FAO webpage. Statistical data was analysed using principal component analysis (PCA), and regression models between GHGE and meat consumption were developed using partial least squares regression (PLS) and validated using cross-validation. Results of this study confirmed observations and anecdotal evidence that enteric and green gas emissions contribute to the perception of meat consumption. Although the results presented in this study are based on the data collected by an international organisation, the authors believe that results from this study can be utilised and incorporated to climate change modelling systems, in order to better understand and define the effect of GHGE on the environmental and economical sustainabilities of the meat production.

Alternative pathways to food security and nutrition - Water predicaments and human behavior

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2018

Remarkable successes and new challenges to cope with requirements for food and water are analyzed. Trends in demography, food preferences and consumer habits are scrutinized together with their implications for human well-being and natural resources. Making best use of variable and limited water resources presumes proper management and efficient technologies, but also a worthwhile use of goods and services produced, for example, food. Reduction of food losses and waste, and reversing trends in overweight and obesity promise significant water savings. Transformations of food systems in this direction provide opportunities to meet human nutrient and food requirements in a resource-effective manner. In line with the principle of the Sustainable Development Goals, 'no-one should be left behind', governments, producers and consumers must be involved in efforts to ensure food security and nutrition. Naturally, farmers are major actors in food systems. The business community is showing a commitment to contribute to food security and nutrition and to reduce water risks. Consumers are dynamic drivers as well as beneficiaries, victims and culprits in water and food systems and need to internalize resource-use efficiency in their behavior, for example, by reducing food waste and aiming for better nutrition and sustainable diets.

An assessment of individual foodprints attributed to diets and food waste in the United States

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2017
ENVIRON RES LETT

This paper assesses the environmental impacts of the average American's diet and food loss and waste (FLW) habits through an analysis of energy, water, land, and fertilizer requirements (inputs) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (outputs). We synthesized existing datasets to determine the ramifications of the typical American adult's food habits, as well as the environmental impact associated with shifting diets to meet the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) dietary guideline recommendations. In 2010, FLW accounted for 35% of energy use, 34% of blue water use, 34% of GHG emissions, 31% of land use, and 35% of fertilizer use related to an individual's food-related resource consumption, i.e. their foodprint. A shift in consumption towards a healthier diet, combined with meeting the USDA and Environmental Protection Agency's 2030 food loss and waste reduction goal could increase per capita food related energy use 12%, decrease blue water consumption 4%, decrease green water use 23%, decrease GHG emissions from food production 11%, decrease GHG emissions from landfills 20%, decrease land use 32%, and increase fertilizer use 12%.

The role of meat in strategies to achieve a sustainable diet lower in greenhouse gas emissions: A review

Article

Apr 2017
MEAT SCI

Food consumption is responsible for a considerable proportion of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE). Thus, individual food choices have the potential to substantially influence both public health and the environment. Meat and animal products are relatively high in GHGE and therefore targeted in efforts to reduce dietary emissions. This review first highlights the complexities regarding sustainability in terms of meat consumption and thereafter discusses possible strategies that could be implemented to mitigate its climatic impact. It outlines how sustainable diets are possible without the elimination of meat. For instance, overconsumption of food in general, beyond our nutritional requirements was found to be a significant contributor of emissions. Non-voluntary and voluntary mitigation strategies offer potential to reduce dietary GHGE. All mitigation strategies require careful consideration but on-farm sustainable intensification perhaps offers the most promise. However, a balance between supply and demand approaches is encouraged. Health should remain the overarching principle for policies and strategies concerned with shifting consumer behaviour towards sustainable diets.

Biofuel Impacts on World Food Supply: Use of Fossil Fuel, Land and Water Resources

Article

Sep 2008

David Pimentel

The social value of rescuing food, nourishing communities

Article

Dec 2016
BRIT FOOD J

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the social value food rescue enterprises can create for both their stakeholders and the wider community “in the meantime” whilst longer term solutions to the problems of insecurity and waste are sought. Design/methodology/approach FoodShare, a New Zealand urban-based social enterprise specialising in food redistribution, served as a case study for this research. Semi-structured interviews (n=13) were conducted with FoodShare staff and key stakeholder groups (food donors, financial donors, recipient agencies and volunteers). In addition, an anonymous online survey (n=40) was completed by the wider organisational volunteer network. The interview guides were structured around a new social value evaluation tool, Social Return on Investment, which is increasingly used to demonstrate the impact of such programmes. Deductive methods were used to code the resulting transcripts to identify key outcomes experienced by FoodShare’s stakeholders. Findings The outcomes of FoodShare’s work differed for the various stakeholders. For food donors, outcomes included “more involved relationships with community”, and “improved perceptions of corporate social responsibility”. Identified key outcomes for the financial donors included “key promotional opportunity” and “do something good”. For recipient agencies, important outcomes were “greater volume of food” and “increased reach”. Volunteers reported “meeting new people”, “a sense of accomplishment in helping others” and “learning new skills”. There were also a number of nutritional and environmental outcomes for the wider community. Originality/value Given the dearth of evidence on the societal value that is created in redistributing unsold food to people in need, this novel perspective makes a significant contribution to the literature in this area.

Quantifying metabolic food waste and associated global warming potential attributable to overweight and obese adults in a temperate high-income region

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2025
FOOD RES INT

Traditional discussions on food waste often excludes metabolic food waste (MFW), which occurs when individuals consume food beyond their caloric needs. This study is the first to quantify MFW among adults with excess body weight (overweight and obese) in the Republic of Ireland (ROI) and globally the first to explore its socioeconomic and health-related predictors. Using an online food frequency questionnaire, MFW was estimated via the excess energy intake method, and Generalized Linear Model (GLM) was applied to identify significant predictors of MFW volumes. Median per capita MFW was 121.84 kg/year, with potatoes being the most wasted food item (23.4 kg/year). Significant predictors of higher MFW included higher body weight (B = 0.024, p < 0.001), male gender (B = -0.812, p < 0.001), younger age (25–34 years) (B = 0.151, p = 0.035), omnivorous diets (B = 0.277, p < 0.001), and higher grocery shopping frequency (B = 0.032, p < 0.001). Conversely, individuals who prioritized price over taste in food purchases exhibited significantly lower MFW volumes (B = -0.137, p = 0.025). The annual total volumes of MFW (0.3 Mt/yr) generated by excess body weight adults in ROI is also responsible for 1.5 Mt CO₂e/yr emissions nationally. These findings position MFW as a critical yet underexplored dimension of food waste with profound implications for public health and environmental policies, aligning with SDGs 2 (Zero Hunger), 3 (Good Health and Well-being), and 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production).

Cooking, Food Consumption, and Globalization: Ethical Considerations

Chapter

Jun 2019

Greg de St. Maurice

ANTECEDENTS AND BARRIERS TO SUSTAINABLE FOOD WASTE PRACTICES AMONG LOWER-MIDDLE INCOME HOUSEHOLDS IN MALAYSIA

Article

May 2023

Given the significant amount of food waste generated by households, reducing household food waste is critical to mitigating overall food waste and providing multifaceted benefits for humans and the environment. This study attempts to identify antecedents of food waste among lower-middle-class families in the Malaysian household setting and their barriers to sustainable food waste practices. Fifteen individuals from lower-middleclass Malaysian households were selected by convenience and snowball sampling and were interviewed using semi-structured questions. Four categories of food waste antecedents were identified (over-preparing, over-buying, dietary transition, and improper storage). The findings also led to the development of four themes that defined the barriers participants faced to minimising food waste (inadequate regulations and policy, lack of time, lack of education and awareness on food wastage, and lack of appropriate facilities). The findings from this study have important sociocultural implications for future studies, and they also add to our current understanding and application of how to reduce food waste in Malaysian households. More study is needed to find ways to test new ideas and interventions that could reduce household food waste, especially in Malaysia.

Społeczeństwo marnotrawców? Funkcje i status normy niemarnowania żywności

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2019

Ariel Modrzyk

Wersja elektroniczna książki poświęconej marnotrawstwu żywności i normie niemarnowania

Evaluation of personal water footprint components in Turkey: factors associated with obesity and food consumption

Article

Dec 2022
INT J ENVIRON HEAL R

This study aimed to evaluate the personal water footprint individuals, and was conducted with 3431 individuals İbetween 18–95 years. A questionnaire form included questions about demographic characteristics, anthropometric measurements, and food consumption was applied. The “Extended Water Footprint Calculator” was used to evaluate the personal water footprint, and various questions were asked to determine the components of food consumption, domestic water, and industrial water use. The average age of the participants was 34.6 ± 13.93 years. The total water footprint of the male was significantly higher than the female. The total water footprint of individuals between the ages of 41–64 was higher than other age groups, and also obese individuals had the highest total water footprint (p < 0.05). Meat and meat products contributed the most to the total water footprint. Having a normal body weight and adopting more sustainable dietary patterns should be emphasized because of their impacts on the environment and health.

The degree and influencing factors of household food waste in China from the perspective of food conversion: An empirical analysis based on CHNS database

Article

Jan 2021

Food waste at the consumer segment: Impact and action

Article

Jan 2019

Food losses and waste in the context of sustainable food and nutrition security

Chapter

Oct 2020

Food wastage (i.e. food losses and waste - FLW) refers to a decrease in the quantity/mass of food intended for consumption along the food chain (from production to consumption). FLW is recognized as a global issue, is over 1/3 of the global food production lost or wasted, with impacts on both food and nutrition security and on food systems sustainability. This chapter analyses the issue of FLW in the context of food and nutrition security. It also explores the causes of FLW as well as their environmental and economic implications. Moreover, the chapter relates FLW to food systems (un)sustainability. Food wastage represents a loss of valuable nutrients; thus, the chapter goes beyond food security (cf. caloric energy) and looks to the nutritional value of food wasted (cf. nutrients, minerals, vitamins). The reduction of FLW is essential to achieve sustainable food and nutrition security for present and future generations within the safe operating space for humanity.

Quantification of Household Food Waste in Hungary: A Replication Study Using the FUSIONS Methodology

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2020

Household food waste accounts for the most significant part of total food waste in economically developed countries. In recent times, this issue has gained recognition in the international research community and policy making. In light of the Sustainable Development Goals of FAO, mandatory reporting on food waste has been integrated into European legislation, as a basis of preventive programs. The paper presents the results of research that aimed to quantify the food waste generated by Hungarian households. Research methodology was based on the EU compliant FUSIONS recommendations. In total, 165 households provided reliable data with detailed waste logs. Households were supported by kitchen scales, measuring glasses, and a manual. Based on the extrapolation of the week-long measurement, the average food waste was estimated to be 65.49 kg per capita annually, of which the avoidable part represented 48.81%. Within the avoidable part, meals, bakery products, fresh fruits and vegetables, and dairy products are accountable for 88% of the mass. This study was a replication of the first Hungarian household food waste measurement conducted in 2016 with the same methodology. Between the two periods, a 4% decrease was observed. The findings, for instance the dominant share of meals in food waste, should be put in focus during preventive campaigns. National level food waste measurement studies using the FUSIONS methodology should be fostered by policy makers to establish the foundations of effective governmental interventions and allow for the international benchmarking of preventive actions.

The Importance of a Holistic Approach to Sustainability in Dietary Guidance

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2020
J NUTR EDUC BEHAV

Effects of Certain Personal Attributes on Food Waste

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2019

With the increase of food supply and the improvement of production processes, the real value of certain food products has been steadily declining over the past decades, which is certainly a trend that has seriously transformed the moral value of food, its role in society and its associated personal attitudes. According to UN and FAO estimates, in 2016, 30-35% of our food was wasted. Food waste in households is also a special area of research in terms of their high wasting rate. While exploring the causes of high amounts of consumer waste, a research group has also correlated (with mathematical models) the gradual growth rate of food waste, the US obesity epidemic and the growing supply of cheaper food products (Hall et al. 2009). In our research, we examine certain personal aspects in case of specific (e.g. functional) foods as well. A significant decrease in food waste coming from households could be attained by controlling our attitudes. Food waste, consumption awareness, eating habits, food mileage, water footprint, sustainable eating, energy efficiency: these are all terms which have to have their meaning and importance taught to people, as they contain important – affecting the level of wasting – information. Therefore, we can see that food waste itself is one of the most serious, paradoxical and global modern issues which the developed world has identified, and is trying to decrease by using national and international interventions in order to limit food supply anomalies and environmental loads as much as possible. Understanding personal attributes more precisely might be a good practice for providing future solutions, as well.

Position of the Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior: The Importance of Including Environmental Sustainability in Dietary Guidance

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2019
J NUTR EDUC BEHAV

It is the position of the Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior that environmental sustainability should be inherent in dietary guidance, whether working with individuals or groups about their dietary choices or in setting national dietary guidance. Improving the nutritional health of a population is a long-term goal that requires ensuring the long-term sustainability of the food system. Current environmental trends, including those related to climate change, biodiversity loss, land degradation, water shortages, and water pollution, threaten long-term food security and are caused in part by current diets and agricultural practices. Addressing these problems while producing more food for a growing population will require changes to current food systems. Dietary choices have a significant role in contributing to environmental impacts, which could be lessened by consuming fewer overconsumed animal products and more plant-based foods while reducing excess energy intake and the amount of food wasted. Discussion of sustainability within governmental dietary guidance is common in many countries, is consistent with previous US guidelines, and is within the scope of authorizing legislation. Dietary choices are a personal matter, but many American consumers are motivated by a concern for the environment and would welcome sound advice from credentialed nutrition professionals. More opportunities are needed for developing such interdisciplinary knowledge among nutritionists.

Food waste due to over-nutrition in the Italians' dietary habits

Article

Jul 2018

Food waste and obesity are both undesirable consequences of unsustainable food consumption styles. They represent urgent priorities to be addressed as well as hot topics for public debate. In this paper we argue that over-nutrition – the consumption of food beyond that which is necessary – can be regarded as a form of food waste. As such, it deserves attention as it generates the same economic, social and environmental impact as does food waste along the different stages of the food chain. In this study, the quantity of food waste hidden in over-nutrition to create overweight and obese Italians is estimated. By calculating the total excess calories consumed by overweight and obese people, it is possible to calculate the total quantity of excess food consumed by the Italian populace, corresponding to 2.67 trillion kcal per year. By converting this value into food quantity on the basis of a typical Italian diet, it was possible to estimate that 2.28 million tons of food is wasted annually. This figure is comparable to the quantity of food waste generated at the household level, as estimated by previous research quantifying food waste, thus confirming that policies focused on the promotion of sustainable consumption styles are crucial to address both the challenges of food waste and unhealthy food styles.

Food Waste Paradox: Antecedents of Food Disposal in Low Income Households that Cook from Scratch

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2015

Using Intake Biomarkers to Evaluate the Extent of Dietary Misreporting in a Large Sample of Adults: The OPEN Study

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2003
AM J EPIDEMIOL

This paper describes the Observing Protein and Energy Nutrition (OPEN) Study, conducted from September 1999 to March 2000. The purpose of the study was to assess dietary measurement error using two self-reported dietary instruments-the food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and the 24-hour dietary recall (24HR)-and unbiased biomarkers of energy and protein intakes: doubly labeled water and urinary nitrogen. Participants were 484 men and women aged 40-69 years from Montgomery County, Maryland. Nine percent of men and 7% of women were defined as underreporters of both energy and protein intake on 24HRs; for FFQs, the comparable values were 35% for men and 23% for women. On average, men underreported energy intake compared with total energy expenditure by 12-14% on 24HRs and 31-36% on FFQs and underreported protein intake compared with a protein biomarker by 11-12% on 24HRs and 30-34% on FFQs. Women underreported energy intake on 24HRs by 16-20% and on FFQs by 34-38% and underreported protein intake by 11-15% on 24HRs and 27-32% on FFQs. There was little underreporting of the percentage of energy from protein for men or women. These findings have important implications for nutritional epidemiology and dietary surveillance.

Nutrition and Physical Activity

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2000

Consuming the Earth: Eating Disorders and Ecopsychology

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2001

Linda Riebel

Eating disorders, which involve the misuse of vast quantities of food by millions of people, are described as a direct threat to the environment. Eating disorders are also suggested as a metaphor for the psychopathology underlying our environmental crisis. In this article, the scope of the problem, its psychological and economic roots, its similarity to the environmental crisis in general, and possible solutions are described.

The continuing epidemics of obesity and diabetes in the United States. Mokdad AH, Bowman BA, Ford ES, Vinicor F, Marks JS, Koplan JP

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2001

Context Recent reports show that obesity and diabetes have increased in the United States in the past decade.Objective To estimate the prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and use of weight control strategies among US adults in 2000.Design, Setting, and Participants The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, a random-digit telephone survey conducted in all states in 2000, with 184 450 adults aged 18 years or older.Main Outcome Measures Body mass index (BMI), calculated from self-reported weight and height; self-reported diabetes; prevalence of weight loss or maintenance attempts; and weight control strategies used.Results In 2000, the prevalence of obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m2) was 19.8%, the prevalence of diabetes was 7.3%, and the prevalence of both combined was 2.9%. Mississippi had the highest rates of obesity (24.3%) and of diabetes (8.8%); Colorado had the lowest rate of obesity (13.8%); and Alaska had the lowest rate of diabetes (4.4%). Twenty-seven percent of US adults did not engage in any physical activity, and another 28.2% were not regularly active. Only 24.4% of US adults consumed fruits and vegetables 5 or more times daily. Among obese participants who had had a routine checkup during the past year, 42.8% had been advised by a health care professional to lose weight. Among participants trying to lose or maintain weight, 17.5% were following recommendations to eat fewer calories and increase physical activity to more than 150 min/wk.Conclusions The prevalence of obesity and diabetes continues to increase among US adults. Interventions are needed to improve physical activity and diet in communities nationwide.

Wolf AM, Colditz GA. Current estimates of the economic costs of obesity in the United States. Obes Res 6, 97-106

Article

Full-text available

Mar 1998

This study was undertaken to update and revise the estimate of the economic impact of obesity in the United States. A prevalence-based approach to the cost of illness was used to estimate the economic costs in 1995 dollars attributable to obesity for type 2 diabetes mellitus, coronary heart disease (CHD), hypertension, gallbladder disease, breast, endometrial and colon cancer, and osteoarthritis. Additionally and independently, excess physician visits, work-lost days, restricted activity, and bed-days attributable to obesity were analyzed cross-sectionally using the 1988 and 1994 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). Direct (personal health care, hospital care, physician services, allied health services, and medications) and indirect costs (lost output as a result of a reduction or cessation of productivity due to morbidity or mortality) are from published reports and inflated to 1995 dollars using the medical component of the consumer price index (CPI) for direct cost and the all-items CPI for indirect cost. Population-attributable risk percents (PAR%) are estimated from large prospective studies. Excess work-lost days, restricted activity, bed-days, and physician visits are estimated from 88,262 U.S. citizens who participated in the 1988 NHIS and 80,261 who participated in the 1994 NHIS. Sample weights have been incorporated into the NHIS analyses, making these data generalizable to the U.S. population. The total cost attributable to obesity amounted to

99.2 billion dollars in 1995. Approximately

51.64 billion of those dollars were direct medical costs. Using the 1994 NHIS data, cost of lost productivity attributed to obesity (BMI> or =30) was $3.9 billion and reflected 39.2 million days of lost work. In addition, 239 million restricted-activity days, 89.5 million bed-days, and 62.6 million physician visits were attributable to obesity in 1994. Compared with 1988 NHIS data, in 1994 the number of restricted-activity days (36%), bed-days (28%), and work-lost days (50%) increased substantially. The number of physician visits attributed to obesity increased 88% from 1988 to 1994. The economic and personal health costs of overweight and obesity are enormous and compromise the health of the United States. The direct costs associated with obesity represent 5.7% of our National Health Expenditure in the United States.

Agri-Culture : Reconnecting People, Land and Nature / J. Pretty.

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2002

Jules N Pretty

Obra que propone una nueva relación entre la producción de alimentos y su consumo desde una perspectiva ambiental, basado en la cultura, el conocimiento y la capacidad productiva de cada región, con la finalidad de reducir la gran distancia entre la producción en grandes cantidades que alimenta a muy pocas personas y, en casos opuestos, genera hambre en unas zonas y personas con malos hábitos alimenticios en otras.

Trends in food and nutrient intakes by adults: NFCS 1977-78, CSFII 1989-91, and CSFII 1994-95

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1997

Evaluations of diet quality and tracking changes in the diet over time have many useful applications, including policy formation, program planning, and targeting appropriate nutrition education messages. CSFII 1994-95 data on food and nutrient intakes by adults were used to examine diet quality in 1994-95 and changes since 1977-78. The largest changes were decreased consumption of whole milk and increased consumption of grain products, especially grain mixtures; bananas; meat, poultry, and fish mixtures; beer and ale; fruit drinks and ades; and soft drinks. In general, the nutrients that were below the RDA in 1994-95 are the same nutrients that were below the RDA in 1977-78. In 1994-95, intakes of magnesium and zinc were below the RDA for both women and men. Women's intakes were also below the RDA in vitamin B6, vitamin E, and calcium. Future increases in whole grains, fruits, dark green vegetables, legumes, nonfat or lowfat dairy products, and lean meats and decreases in fats and sugars are desirable.

Overweight and obesity in the United States: Prevalence and trends, 1960-1994

Article

Full-text available

Feb 1998

To describe the prevalence of, and trends in, overweight and obesity in the US population using standardized international definitions. Successive cross-sectional nationally representative surveys, including the National Health Examination Survey (NHES I; 1960-62) and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES I: 1971-1974; NHANES II: 1976-1980; NHANES III: 1988-94). Body mass index (BMI:kg/m2) was calculated from measured weight and height. Overweight and obesity were defined as follows: Overweight (BMI > or = 25.0); pre-obese (BMI 25.0-29.9), class I obesity (BMI 30.0-34.9), class II obesity (BMI 35.0-39.9), and class III obesity (BMI > or = 40.0). For men and women aged 20-74 y, the age-adjusted prevalence of BMI 25.0-29.9 showed little or no increase over time (NHES I: 30.5%, NHANES I: 32.0%, NHANES II: 31.5% and NHANES III: 32.0%) but the prevalence of obesity (BMI > or = 30.0) showed a large increase between NHANES II and NHANES III (NHES I: 12.8%; NHANES I, 14.1%; NHANES II, 14.5% and NHANES III, 22.5%). Trends were generally similar for all age, gender and race-ethnic groups. The crude prevalence of overweight and obesity (BMI > 25.0) for age > or = 20 y was 59.4% for men, 50.7% for women and 54.9% overall. The prevalence of class III obesity (BMI > or = 40.0) exceeded 10% for non-Hispanic black women aged 40-59 y. Between 1976-80 and 1988-94, the prevalence of obesity (BMI > or= 30.0) increased markedly in the US. These findings are in agreement with trends seen elsewhere in the world. Use of standardized definitions facilitates international comparisons.

The Disease Burden Associated With Overweight and Obesity

Article

Full-text available

Oct 1999

Overweight and obesity are increasing dramatically in the United States and most likely contribute substantially to the burden of chronic health conditions. To describe the relationship between weight status and prevalence of health conditions by severity of overweight and obesity in the US population. Nationally representative cross-sectional survey using data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), which was conducted in 2 phases from 1988 to 1994. A total of 16884 adults, 25 years and older, classified as overweight and obese (body mass index [BMI] > or =25 kg/m2) based on National Institutes of Health recommended guidelines. Prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus, gallbladder disease, coronary heart disease, high blood cholesterol level, high blood pressure, or osteoarthritis. Sixty-three percent of men and 55% of women had a body mass index of 25 kg/m2 or greater. A graded increase in the prevalence ratio (PR) was observed with increasing severity of overweight and obesity for all of the health outcomes except for coronary heart disease in men and high blood cholesterol level in both men and women. With normal-weight individuals as the reference, for individuals with BMIs of at least 40 kg/m2 and who were younger than 55 years, PRs were highest for type 2 diabetes for men (PR, 18.1; 95% confidence interval [CI], 6.7-46.8) and women (PR, 12.9; 95% CI, 5.7-28.1) and gallbladder disease for men (PR, 21.1; 95% CI, 4.1-84.2) and women (PR, 5.2; 95% CI, 2.9-8.9). Prevalence ratios generally were greater in younger than in older adults. The prevalence of having 2 or more health conditions increased with weight status category across all racial and ethnic subgroups. Based on these results, more than half of all US adults are considered overweight or obese. The prevalence of obesity-related comorbidities emphasizes the need for concerted efforts to prevent and treat obesity rather than just its associated comorbidities.

The Spread of the Obesity Epidemic in the United States, 1991-1998

Article

Full-text available

Oct 1999

The increasing prevalence of obesity is a major public health concern, since obesity is associated with several chronic diseases. To monitor trends in state-specific data and to examine changes in the prevalence of obesity among adults. Cross-sectional random-digit telephone survey (Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System) of noninstitutionalized adults aged 18 years or older conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and state health departments from 1991 to 1998. States that participated in the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Body mass index calculated from self-reported weight and height. The prevalence of obesity (defined as a body mass index > or =30 kg/m2) increased from 12.0% in 1991 to 17.9% in 1998. A steady increase was observed in all states; in both sexes; across age groups, races, educational levels; and occurred regardless of smoking status. The greatest magnitude of increase was found in the following groups: 18- to 29-year-olds (7.1% to 12.1%), those with some college education (10.6% to 17.8%), and those of Hispanic ethnicity (11.6% to 20.8%). The magnitude of the increased prevalence varied by region (ranging from 31.9% for mid Atlantic to 67.2% for South Atlantic, the area with the greatest increases) and by state (ranging from 11.3% for Delaware to 101.8% for Georgia, the state with the greatest increases). Obesity continues to increase rapidly in the United States. To alter this trend, strategies and programs for weight maintenance as well as weight reduction must become a higher public health priority.

The Contribution of Expanding Portion Sizes to the US Obesity Epidemic

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2002

Because larger food portions could be contributing to the increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity, this study was designed to weigh samples of marketplace foods, identify historical changes in the sizes of those foods, and compare current portions with federal standards. We obtained information about current portions from manufacturers or from direct weighing; we obtained information about past portions from manufacturers or contemporary publications. Marketplace food portions have increased in size and now exceed federal standards. Portion sizes began to grow in the 1970s, rose sharply in the 1980s, and have continued in parallel with increasing body weights. Because energy content increases with portion size, educational and other public health efforts to address obesity should focus on the need for people to consume smaller portions.

Fructose, weight gain, and the insulin resistance syndrome

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2002

This review explores whether fructose consumption might be a contributing factor to the development of obesity and the accompanying metabolic abnormalities observed in the insulin resistance syndrome. The per capita disappearance data for fructose from the combined consumption of sucrose and high-fructose corn syrup have increased by 26%, from 64 g/d in 1970 to 81 g/d in 1997. Both plasma insulin and leptin act in the central nervous system in the long-term regulation of energy homeostasis. Because fructose does not stimulate insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells, the consumption of foods and beverages containing fructose produces smaller postprandial insulin excursions than does consumption of glucose-containing carbohydrate. Because leptin production is regulated by insulin responses to meals, fructose consumption also reduces circulating leptin concentrations. The combined effects of lowered circulating leptin and insulin in individuals who consume diets that are high in dietary fructose could therefore increase the likelihood of weight gain and its associated metabolic sequelae. In addition, fructose, compared with glucose, is preferentially metabolized to lipid in the liver. Fructose consumption induces insulin resistance, impaired glucose tolerance, hyperinsulinemia, hypertriacylglycerolemia, and hypertension in animal models. The data in humans are less clear. Although there are existing data on the metabolic and endocrine effects of dietary fructose that suggest that increased consumption of fructose may be detrimental in terms of body weight and adiposity and the metabolic indexes associated with the insulin resistance syndrome, much more research is needed to fully understand the metabolic effect of dietary fructose in humans.

Prevalence of Obesity, Diabetes, and Obesity-Related Health Risk Factors, 2001

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2003

Obesity and diabetes are increasing in the United States. To estimate the prevalence of obesity and diabetes among US adults in 2001. Random-digit telephone survey of 195 005 adults aged 18 years or older residing in all states participating in the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System in 2001. Body mass index, based on self-reported weight and height and self-reported diabetes. In 2001 the prevalence of obesity (BMI > or =30) was 20.9% vs 19.8% in 2000, an increase of 5.6%. The prevalence of diabetes increased to 7.9% vs 7.3% in 2000, an increase of 8.2%. The prevalence of BMI of 40 or higher in 2001 was 2.3%. Overweight and obesity were significantly associated with diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, asthma, arthritis, and poor health status. Compared with adults with normal weight, adults with a BMI of 40 or higher had an odds ratio (OR) of 7.37 (95% confidence interval [CI], 6.39-8.50) for diagnosed diabetes, 6.38 (95% CI, 5.67-7.17) for high blood pressure, 1.88 (95% CI,1.67-2.13) for high cholesterol levels, 2.72 (95% CI, 2.38-3.12) for asthma, 4.41 (95% CI, 3.91-4.97) for arthritis, and 4.19 (95% CI, 3.68-4.76) for fair or poor health. Increases in obesity and diabetes among US adults continue in both sexes, all ages, all races, all educational levels, and all smoking levels. Obesity is strongly associated with several major health risk factors.

The Sweetening of the World's Diet

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2003

Using data from many countries in the world combined with in-depth U.S. dietary data, we explored trends in caloric sweetener intake, the role of urbanization and income changes in explaining these trends, and the contribution of specific foods to these changes. Food disappearance data from 103 countries in 1962 and 127 in 2000 were coupled with urbanization and gross national income per capita data in pooled regression analysis to examine associations between these factors and caloric sweetener intake. Three nationally representative surveys from 1977 to 1978, 1989 to 1991, and 1994 to 1996 plus 1998 are used to examine caloric sweetener intake trends in the United States and the foods responsible for these changes. Increased consumption of caloric sweetener is one element in the world's dietary changes, represented by a 74-kcal/d increase between 1962 and 2000. Urbanization and income growth represent 82% of the change. U.S. data show an 83-kcal/d increase of caloric sweetener consumed-a 22% increase in the proportion of energy from caloric sweetener. Of this increase, 80% comes from sugared beverages; restaurant and fast food sources are represented in greater proportions. Caloric sweetener use has increased considerably around the world. Beverage intake seems to be a major contributor.

Estimating and addressing America's food losses

Article

Jan 1997

Using intake biomarkers to evaluate the extent of dietary misreporting in a large sample of adults: The observing protein and energy nutrition study

Article

Mar 2002

Sharing the world: sustainable living and global equity in the 21st century

Book

Jan 1998

In this book, the authors set out to create an equitable and ecologically sound framework which encompasses the diverse needs of North and South. An innovative philosophy and measurement system is proposed which is based on the concept of environmental space. Drawing on original research in 38 countries, and funded by the EU, the book attempts to establish an agenda for sustainable production by the year 2020. Readers are given an explanation of the opportunities of the global market economy as a tool of development, and it is suggested that this be altered in ways which would lead to the achievement of genuine quality of life rather than just economic growth. The book challenges all countries and peoples to join in a pro-active movement towards sustainable development in the 21st century.

Consumer food waste in the United States

Article

Jan 1980

A.E. Gallo

U.S. food supply providing more food and calories

Article

Jan 1999

J. Putnam

Seasonal and Local Diets: Consumers' Role in Achieving a Sustainable Food System

Article

Jan 1995
Res Rural Sociol Dev

Jennifer L Wilkins

The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.

Environmentalization: Origins, Processes, and Implications for Rural Social Change

Article

Jan 1992

F.H. Buttel

The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.

Using Intake Biomarkers to Evaluate the Extent of Dietary Misreporting in a Large Sample of Adults: The OPEN Study

Article

Jul 2003
AM J EPIDEMIOL

Amy F Subar

Defects, Uses, and Abuses of National Food Supply and Consumption Data.

Article

Jan 1963
J Roy Stat Soc

Anorexia and Bulimia: Anatomy of a Social Epidemic.

Article

Jan 1992

The spread of the obesity epidemic in the United States

Article

Nov 1998

Context: The increasing prevalence of obesity is a major public health concern, since obesity is associated with several chronic diseases. Objective: To monitor trends in state-specific data and to examine changes in the prevalence of obesity among adults. Design: Cross-sectional random-digit telephone survey (Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System) of noninstitutionalized adults aged 18 years or older conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and state health departments from 1991 to 1998. Setting: States that participated in the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Main outcome measures: Body mass index calculated from self-reported weight and height. Results: The prevalence of obesity (defined as a body mass index > or =30 kg/m2) increased from 12.0% in 1991 to 17.9% in 1998. A steady increase was observed in all states; in both sexes; across age groups, races, educational levels; and occurred regardless of smoking status. The greatest magnitude of increase was found in the following groups: 18- to 29-year-olds (7.1% to 12.1%), those with some college education (10.6% to 17.8%), and those of Hispanic ethnicity (11.6% to 20.8%). The magnitude of the increased prevalence varied by region (ranging from 31.9% for mid Atlantic to 67.2% for South Atlantic, the area with the greatest increases) and by state (ranging from 11.3% for Delaware to 101.8% for Georgia, the state with the greatest increases). Conclusions: Obesity continues to increase rapidly in the United States. To alter this trend, strategies and programs for weight maintenance as well as weight reduction must become a higher public health priority.

Agriculture: Reconnecting People, Land and Nature

Article

Jan 2004

Molly Scott Cato

Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia: Anatomy of a Social Epidemic

Article

Feb 1992

Jeffery Sobal

Breadlines Knee-Deep in Wheat: Food Assistance in the Great Depression

Article

Apr 1987

Foreword by Marion Nestle Acknowledgments xiii Introduction: The Paradox of Want amid Plenty List of Abbreviations 1. The Plight of the Farmer 2. Depression: Deprivation and Despair 3. The Politics of Wheat and Drought 4. Government Grain for the Needy 5. The End of the Hoover Era 6. The Promise of the New Deal 7. The Little Pigs: The Genesis of Relief Distribution 8. The Federal Surplus Relief Corporation 9. The Corporation in Conflict: Competition with Private Enterprise 10. Transfer to the Department of Agriculture 11. Accommodation to Agricultural Priorities 12. Food Assistance: The Legacy of New Deal Policy Choices Acknowledgments to the 2014 Edition Sources Notes Index

Overweight and obesity in the United States: Prevalence and trends

Article

Nov 1997

How Current Diets Stack Up Comparison With Dietary Guidelines

Article

Jan 1999

Principles of Nutritional Assessment. Second Edition

Article

Sep 2006
NUTR DIET

Ingrid Rutishauser

Dietary Guidelines for Sustainability: Twelve Years Later

Article

Jul 1999
J Nutr Educ

J.D. Gussow

Sharing the World: Sustainable Living and Global Equity in the 21st Century

Article

Jan 2000
APPL GEOGR

Chasca Twyman

Bowes & Church's Food Values of Portions Commonly Used

Article

Feb 1990

Jean T. Pennington

Environmentalization: Origins, Processes, and Implications for Rural Social Change1

Article

Feb 2010
RURAL SOCIOL

Frederick H. Buttel

Abstract This paper seeks to go beyond the sui eneris conception of the increased role of “green” forces and the concomitant environmentalization of institutional practices in the United States and elsewhere across the world. It is argued that these forces must be located in the transition from social-democratic to neo-conservative regimes of social regulation of economy and society that has occurred during the past 15 or so years of global economic stagnation. This transition and its reflection in greening and environmentalization may be seen to have contradictory implications for rural societies. These implications are explored briefly with respect to sustainable development programs in the developing countries, sustainable agricultural research and outreach in the United States, and the possible growth of environmental symbolization of rural spaces.

Social and Cultural Influences on Obesity

Article

Jan 2002

Jeffery Sobal

Obesity is a biopsychosocial phenomenon. Cultural contexts shape values and norms about body weight and change weight through modernization, migration and acculturation, and historical contexts change weights and attitudes about weight over time. Social characteristics of individuals are also associated with body weight as seen in the social epidemiology of obesity. People who are female, middle-aged, ethnic minority, unemployed or in unskilled jobs, lower income, less educated, living with others, married, parents, rural, and/or living in particular regions are more likely to be obese. Larger societal mechanisms influencing body weight include food system transformations that supply high amounts of food energy, and built environment efficiencies that reduce caloric expenditure in the populations of contemporary societies. Obesity needs to be interpreted within its cultural, historical and social contexts.

The Assumptions Underlying Eco-Footprinting

Article

Jan 2002

Andrew R. B. Ferguson

In essence, the concept of a person's ecological footprint is simple: it is the area of land needed to support permanently a specified lifestyle. But in practice eco-footprinting is more complex. It is the purpose of this paper to investigate the most important aspects of that complexity. We avoid discussion of a recent elaboration of eco-footprinting, namely including the sea as a component of the ecological footprint and the use of equivalence factors. The reason is that we see those changes as being less fundamental, and intend to cover them in a separate paper. The current paper—concentrating on the fundamentals—concludes that eco-footprinting is the best method available for making a quantitative assessment of the extent to which consumption, by a specified human population, is exceeding biocapacity.

Footprints for Sustainability: The Next Steps

Article

Mar 2000

The concept of an ecological footprint is based on the understanding that every individual human appropriates a share of the productive and assimilative capacity of the biosphere. An ecological footprint corresponds to this exclusive biologically productive area that a defined population uses for all its resource requirements and wastes, and is expressed in terms of bioproductive space, with world-average productivity. Humanity's footprint or its aggregate ecological demand can only temporarily exceed the productive and assimilative capacity of the biosphere without liquidating and weakening the natural capital on which humanity depends fundamentally. Therefore, accounting tools for quantifying humanity's use of nature are essential for overall assessments of human impact as well as for planning specific steps towards a sustainable future. This paper discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the ecological footprint as an ecological accounting method, points out research needs for improvement of the analysis, and suggests potential new applications. The paper identifies ten new applications of the tool to make it applicable at various geographic scales and for a number of analytical and didactic purposes. Then nine methodological improvements are suggested that could refine the currently applied method, making assessments more sensitive to a larger number of ecological impacts. It concludes that many crucial questions pertinent to building a sustainable society can be addressed by current ecological footprint research. By making the method more complete, this tool could evolve from being largely of pedagogical use to become a strategic tool for policy analysis.

Are Intensive Agricultural Practices Environmentally and Ethically Sound?

Article

Sep 1988

Soil is fragile and nonrenewable but the most basic of natural resources. It has a capacity to tolerate continuous use but only with proper management. Improper soil management and indiscriminate use of chemicals have contributed to some severe global environmental issues, e.g., volatilization losses and contamination of natural waters by sediments and agricultural fertilizers and pesticides. The increasing substitution of energy for labor and other cultural inputs in agriculture is another issue. Fertilizers and chemicals account for about 25% of the production energy investment in agriculture. An additional 60% is accounted for by machinery, gasoline, electricity, and power-related inputs. Fertilizer additions to cropland are not utilized fully and significant amounts, depending on conditions, are either lost in surface runoff or leached into the ground water. The annual discharge of dissolved solids from agricultural lands to the waterways in the USA is substantial. The increasing use of herbicides in agriculture is a threat to the quality of surface and ground water, although this threat is dependent upon both the chemistry of the compound and the ecosystem in which it is used. Especially within the Third World, development of an environmental ethic and environmental laws have not kept pace with the increase in pesticide use. Above all is the severe and global problem of soil degradation currently occurring at the rate of five to seven million hectares per year. The policy and moral aspects of these issues are discussed.

The continuing epidemics of obesity and diabetes in the United States

Article

Sep 2001

Recent reports show that obesity and diabetes have increased in the United States in the past decade. To estimate the prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and use of weight control strategies among US adults in 2000. The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, a random-digit telephone survey conducted in all states in 2000, with 184 450 adults aged 18 years or older. Body mass index (BMI), calculated from self-reported weight and height; self-reported diabetes; prevalence of weight loss or maintenance attempts; and weight control strategies used. In 2000, the prevalence of obesity (BMI >/=30 kg/m(2)) was 19.8%, the prevalence of diabetes was 7.3%, and the prevalence of both combined was 2.9%. Mississippi had the highest rates of obesity (24.3%) and of diabetes (8.8%); Colorado had the lowest rate of obesity (13.8%); and Alaska had the lowest rate of diabetes (4.4%). Twenty-seven percent of US adults did not engage in any physical activity, and another 28.2% were not regularly active. Only 24.4% of US adults consumed fruits and vegetables 5 or more times daily. Among obese participants who had had a routine checkup during the past year, 42.8% had been advised by a health care professional to lose weight. Among participants trying to lose or maintain weight, 17.5% were following recommendations to eat fewer calories and increase physical activity to more than 150 min/wk. The prevalence of obesity and diabetes continues to increase among US adults. Interventions are needed to improve physical activity and diet in communities nationwide.

Sharing Nature's Interest: Ecological Footprints As an Indicator of Sustainability

Book

Jan 2000

Principle of Nutritional Assessment

Article

Jan 2005

Rosalind Susan Gibson

Economic Costs of Obesity

Article

Mar 1992

Graham A Colditz

Approximately 34 million US adults were obese in 1980. Obesity is associated with increased risk of noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), hypertension, cardiovascular disease, gallbladder disease and cholecystectomy, and colon and postmenopausal breast cancer. Using a prevalence-based approach to cost of illness, we estimated the economic costs in 1986 attributable to obesity for these medical conditions. Indirect costs due to morbidity and mortality were discounted at 4%. Overall, the costs attributable to obesity were

11.3 billion for NIDDM,

22.2 billion for cardiovascular disease,

2.4 billion for gall bladder disease,

1.5 billion for hypertension, and

1.9 billion for breast and colon cancer. Thus a conservative estimate of the economic costs of obesity was

39.3 billion, or 5.5% of the costs of illness in 1986. Addition of costs due to musculoskeletal disorders could raise this estimate to 7.8%. The costs of treatment for severe obesity must be weighed against the improved health status and quality of life.

Self-Reported Weight and Height

Article

Jan 1991

Michael L. Rowland

The error in self-reported weight and height compared with measured weight and height was evaluated in a nationally representative sample of 11,284 adults aged 20-74 y from the second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 1976-1980. Although weight and height were reported, on the average, with small errors, self-reported weight and height are unreliable in important population subgroups. Errors in self-reporting weight were directly related to a person's overweight status--bias and unreliability in self-report increased directly with the magnitude of overweight. Errors in self-reported weight were greater in overweight females than in overweight males. Race, age, and end-digit preference were ancillary predictors of reporting error in weight. Errors in self-reporting height were related to a person's age--bias and unreliability in self-reporting increased directly with age after age 45 y. Overweight status was also a predictor of reporting error in height.

Health Implications of Obesity

Article

Jan 1985

R A Warren

Obesity, the excessive storage of energy in the form of fat, is clearly associated with hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes (Type II), certain cancers, and other medical problems.

Medical Hazards of Obesity

Article

Nov 1993

Xavier Pi-Sunyer

The medical hazards of obesity are discussed. Risks include insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, hypertriglyceridemia, decreased levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and increased levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Obesity is also associated with gallbladder disease and some forms of cancer as well as sleep apnea, chronic hypoxia and hypercapnia, and degenerative joint disease. Obesity is an independent risk factor for death from coronary heart disease. A central distribution of body fat enhances the risk for most of these conditions.

The relationship between body weight and mortality: A quantitative analysis of combined information from existing studies

Article

Feb 1996

To estimate the relationship between body mass index (BMI, kg/m2) and all-cause mortality with information from the published scientific literature. Meta-analysis using a hierarchical, mixed model. The analysis included random effects for information sources and fixed effects for factors that may modify the BMI-mortality relationship such as smoking, control for disease, and country of origin, which allowed combining information from diverse studies. Predicted probability of death over a given duration of follow-up plotted by BMI for sex-age cohorts of white race. An extensive search identified nineteen prospective cohort studies that met inclusion criteria. A U-shaped relationship between BMI and mortality was demonstrated for 50-year-old men followed for 30 years. Mortality risk increased with low and high BMI (< 23 or > 28) in groups of non-smokers without evidence of disease upon study entry. Limited information from studies of women indicated that, with 10 year follow-up, there was little relationship between BMI and mortality for (1) non-smokers and for (2) mixtures of smokers and non-smokers. This quantitative analysis of existing studies revealed increased mortality at moderately low BMI for white men comparable to that observed at extreme overweight, which does not appear to be due to smoking or existing disease. Attention to the health risks of underweight is needed, and body weight recommendations for optimum longevity need to be considered in light of these risks.

The Obesity Epidemic Is a Worldwide Phenomenon

Article

May 1998

Obesity is not just a disease of developed nations. Obesity levels in some lower-income and transitional countries are as high as or higher than those reported for the United States and other developed countries, and those levels are increasing rapidly. Shifts in diet and activity are consistent with these changes, but little systematic work has been done to understand all the factors contributing to these high levels. The goal of this review is to provide an understanding of the patterns and trends of obesity around the world and some of the major forces affecting these trends. Several nationally representative and nationwide surveys are discussed.

Self-reported weight and height: Implications for obesity research

Article

Jun 2001
AM J PREV MED

Self-reported weight and height are under- and over-reported, respectively, in epidemiologic studies. This tendency, which may adversely affect study operations, has not been evaluated among subjects being enrolled into a weight-loss program. Self-reported weight, height, and body mass index (BMI) were compared to measured values in 97 overweight or obese (BMI>27.3) women being enrolled into a randomized, controlled trial of two behavioral interventions for weight loss. The effects of demographic factors, baseline weight, baseline height, and baseline BMI on weight and height reporting were assessed. There was a significant difference between measured and reported weight (mean difference=-3.75 lb, p=0.0001) and height (mean difference=+0.35 in., p=0.0007). The mean difference between measured and reported BMI was -1.14 kg/m(2) (p=0.0001). Unemployed, retired, or disabled women were more likely to under-report their BMI than employed women (p=0.001). Six percent of subjects who were initially considered eligible for the study on the basis of the self-report were eventually excluded from the study because they did not meet the inclusion criterion for BMI. Obese women who seek weight-loss assistance tend to under-report their weight and over-report their height, suggesting that self-reported data are likely to be inaccurate. Misreporting is apparently influenced by employment and disability and has the potential to complicate recruitment of subjects for research studies.

Commentary: Globalization and the epidemiology of obesity

Article

Nov 2001

Jeffery Sobal

Luxus Consumption: Wasting Food Resources Through Overeating

Abstract

No full-text available

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