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Ecology of Indian desert. III. Survival adaptations of vegetation in dry environment
Abstract
A preliminary investigation was made on the survival adaptations of 45 plant species growing in Indian arid zone. A number
of species sprang up soon after rains in July when they grew fast and many of them disappeared by December because of dry
soil conditions and desiccating atmosphere. An account is presented here on the ecophysiological and morpho-physiological
adaptations for survival in drought escaping, evading, enduring and resisting species. The stomatal behaviour during the day,
water loss, leaf water deficit, leaf water content and relative water content have been examined for each species during late
October till early December 1970. An account of their survival qualities with particular reference to the long dry period
following after monsoons in relation to drought resisting species was considered. The significance of adaptive features for
each and every species was correlated with its drought tolerance under the prevailing conditions. On the basis of their water
loss, the species have been grouped into six categories.
... The region's vegetation is adapted to its arid climate and saline conditions, characterized by sparse and hardy plant life. The flora primarily consists of salt-tolerant plants such as saltbush, which can thrive in saline soils, and various grasses and shrubs (Sen, 1973). In addition, the region supports mangroves and other halophytic (salt-loving) vegetation in its coastal areas, which play a crucial role in protecting the shoreline and providing habitat for wildlife (Gupta & Ansari, 2014). ...
In a country like India with domineering rural population, it is imperative for the developmental policies of the nation to be inclusive of the socio-economic priorities of the same. These rural areas in India predominantly depend on agriculture or allied activities for their livelihood and economy. Few regions, however, are solely dependent on tourism by virtue of their unique geographical locations. The vast salt marsh region of ‘Rann of Kutch’ on the extreme Western Coast of India is inhabited by culturally vibrant ethnic groups, each with specialized handicraft skills. Despite making a significant mark on the tourist map of India, the geographical and climatological extremities allow tourism to last for merely four months (November to February). The pandemic took a toll on tourist footfall, jeopardizing the principal economic activity of the region. The communities suffered a socio-economic setback, manifesting pre-existing socio-economic vulnerabilities. This study attempts to identify the essential socio-economic vulnerability parameters, and empirically examines them in two tourism-dependent villages in the Rann of Kutch region. RIDIT scoring and ranking method was applied to rank the vulnerability parameters, which help us in comparing the conditional aspects of the same both within and between the two villages.
... Transpiration is eliminated by shedding of leaves. Leaflessness is a characteristic physiognomic feature of the Indian arid zone vegetation (Sen, 1973). There was a distinct seasonal behavior pattern among the ungulates and carnivore species in the landscape. ...
Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India - An edited volume based on the contributions made by several authors from different parts of India.
... For example, Williams et al. (2015) concluded through a literature review that certain plant traits such as woodiness, seed mass, and height were already consistently affected by urbanization. Since plant species in harsh environments are already more accustomed to greater and more frequent disturbances (Sen, 1973;Teeri, 1973;Lausi and Nimis, 1986), urban vegetation in the less productive biomes might be able to undertake more urban stresses because of their resistant or resilient abilities. The earlier turning points in more productive tropical biomes are also in accordance with the fact that tropical forests are more vulnerable to perturbations (Verbesselt et al., 2016). ...
... Transpiration is eliminated by shedding of leaves. Leaflessness is a characteristic physiognomic feature of the Indian arid zone vegetation (Sen, 1973). There was a distinct seasonal behavior pattern among the ungulates and carnivore species in the landscape. ...
As part of global experiments on Savanna vegetation, we examined the ecological characteristics of an important semiarid savanna in the Indian sub-continent i.e Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, Western India during April 2009 to May 2011. 149 plots across five line transects were sampled for phyto-sociological interpretation in the Sariska-Kalighati valley which is the largest savanna valley habitat in the study area. Plots were segregated on the presence/absence of native invasive species Adhatoda vasica and community analysis revealed a total of eleven communities (five from infested plots and six from non-infested plots) and communities having similar composition were compared. Tree density, seedling density, species richness of shrubs and herbs and diversity and evenness of herbs was higher in non-infested plots. Sapling density did not follow a trend. Evenness of shrubs was lower in non-infested plots. Furthermore, 2 mapping of Adhatoda vasica in the study area revealed that 5.22 km (26.1%) of the Sariska-Kalighati valley was under infestation and three sites were compared following removal of this species which resulted in increased sapling density, shrub density and grass cover and decreased seedling density and herb density.
... Ephemerals appear suddenly soon after the first shower and complete their life cycle within very short time. Thus they avoid rather than with stand the shocks of dry season and usually do not possess xerophytic features (Sen, 1973). ...
ABSTRACT: The prime grazing impact seems to be reduction in the cover of most palatable species at the grazed and less grazed sites. At the third site (non grazed site) the most dominant plant species are Cenchrus ciliaris and Cymbopogon jwarancusa followed by Calligonum polygonoides.
The IVI (importance value index) values in fact depict the importance of a particular plant species and its role controlling the plant community. Among annuals Tribulus longipetalus show relatively higher IVI values from January to March at the grazed and non-grazed sites but values for the same months at the non- grazed site remained markedly low.
Maximum plant species 56.25% belong to the frequency class B at the grazed site while on the less-grazed site both A and B classes consist of maximum (28.57%) species. On the basis of highest lVI, three plant communities viz: 1st. Aristida mutabills-Community at the grazed site, 2nd. Aristida-Lasiurus-Community at the less-grazed site and 3rd. Cenchrus ciliaris-Community at the non-grazed site, were recognized respectively. At the 2nd community the dominant plant specie is the same as for the 1st community but the second dominant plant specie is Lasiurus scindicus with IVI 37.27. High grazing pressure at the grazed site has disturbed the overall ecosystem and has changed the species diversity and composition of the community when compared with non-grazed site.
Vegetables are short duration crops and provide more returns per unit area and time besides, they play a major role in balancing human diet, thus, helping in alleviating hunger and malnutrition (Annon., 2009). In the previous few years, India has attained quantum jump in vegetable production and present estimated vegetable production is around 162.9 mt in an area of about 9.4 mha (NHB, 2014), and holds second position at global level. But this level of vegetable production is insufficient to meet the recommended daily intake (~300 g per capita per day) for a huge population of the country. This is mainly due to lower average productivity (17.5 t/ha) of the nation. There are several crop diminishing factors such as soil borne- and foliar- diseases, insect-pests and nematodes as biotic factors, and soil or water salinity, alkalinity, metal toxicity and heat and moisture stress as abiotic factors, which greatly affect vegetable crops yield in almost all growing areas, especially in fragile arid and semi arid regions.
Salvadora oleoides is a keystone and economically important species in the desert biome of the Indian subcontinent. However, species decline has been observed during field surveys (2016–2019) conducted in the Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat. For species distribution mapping, geospatial data of 683 trees were recorded, out of which 70.28% were used for training and the rest to validate the MaxEnt model. The statistically significant AUC value ranged from 0.92 ± 0.02 (LGM) to 0.93 ± 0.01 (RCP 2.6_70) with an average of 0.92 ± 0.00. The bioclimatic variables, namely precipitation of warmest quarter (Bio 18), annual precipitation (Bio 12), altitude (Alt), precipitation of wettest month (Bio 13), precipitation of coldest quarter (Bio 19) and maximum temperature of warmest month (Bio 5), contributed significantly for predicting the species distribution, which ranged from 60.3% (Last Glacial Maximum, LGM) to 85.5% (Current) with an average of 75.82%. For the climate change scenario (2050s and 2070s), a sharp decline in the species distribution area was observed for all RCPs (when compared with the current estimate of 8638.01 km2), which ranged from 2102.90 (RCP 2.6_70) to 5494.23 km2 (RCP 8.5_70). The model output revealed that the distribution is in accordance with the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system and the geological map of northwestern India. In relation to the geological variables, distribution of S. oleoides occurrence is conditioned to the presence of calcium-rich bedrock, which is used as a mechanism of compensation for the high salinity of desert soils. Overall, the study provides an eco-geo-distribution map and the potential use of MaxEnt in prediction modelling of the species. Furthermore, the research led to insights for suitable conservation and management plans for S. oleoides in arid zones of south Asian sub-continental climatic conditions.
Most of the Socotra Archipelago is occupied by desert or semi-desert vegetation types, and deserts impose severe restrictions on plant growth. Few detailed studies have been carried out on adaptive features of Socotran plants to their environment, and the information that is forthcoming mainly relates to plants of the desert plains in both the north and south of the island. In this chapter, some key adaptations to arid desert environments are discussed, followed by a brief overview of the adaptations to saline and high montane ecosystems. The Raunkiaer life-form classification system is of limited use for predominantly desert ecosystems, because it is rather restricted in its structure–function relationships relevant to desert life. The five main types are briefly discussed, followed by a more detailed overview of the major growth-forms. Other classification systems place greater emphasis on the role of physiological adaptations, and “plant functional types”, which reduce the complexity of species diversity in biological systems to a limited number of key types, can facilitate a better understanding of important ecosystem processes. Several of the more common functional classification systems are outlined, and their application to the flora of Socotra is indicated. Short accounts of topics such as pollination ecology, including the potential significance of bird-pollination, seed dispersal and germination are given.
Eco-physiology of Evolvulus alsinoides (Shankhpushpi) in terms of leaf pigments, chlorophyll stability index, crude protein, sugar, proline and osmotic potential has been studied. Results reveal that maximum values of above measurements except for osmotic potential were observed during flowering phase followed by vegetative and minimum during seedling stage. Proline was maximum during flowering phase with minimum osmotic potential and vice versa. This is due to osmoregulation during stress conditions.
General interest in the different aspects of water relations in plants has recently increased greatly. For this review, treating the period of the last three years (1972–1974) 2,700 titles on this matter were checked. Supposing that this number covers not more than three fourths of the existing relevant literature, it is realistic to assume that at least three new publications on water relations of plants have been appearing every day (see STANHILL). It is impossible to summarize this immense bulk of information. An attempt is made, however, to point out the main trends of activity and to report on major findings and their implications.
Capparis decidua is a dominant species on gravel and compact sandy soil and forms scattered groups of bushes on the sand dunes of the Indian arid zone. It produces minute, short-lived leaves with a maximum life tenure of 30-45 d when available soil moisture is at its minimum during the year. Intensity of water loss was directly related with the degree of stomatal opening: being maximum in the evening followed by morning, and minimum in the noon which also coincides with the water contents of leafy branch and old leafless branch. CAM was also observed. Neutral red uptake pattern revealed that the larger opening of the foliar stomata and as a consequence prompt uptake of this vital dye with visible protoplasmic streaming in guard cells is an indication of their higher metabolic activity. -from Authors
The survival strategies ofCyperus rotundus L. have been studied in relation to osmotic potential, desiccation rate, bound water and dry matter content. Critical moisture level of the perennating organ, the tubers, is 43% and minimum soil moisture is about 0.4%, for its survival.
Three species ofEuphorbia (E. granulata, E. prostrata andE. hirta) exhibited both morphological and physiological adaptations in dry environmental conditions. High bound water, thick cuticle, dense hair covering and low stomatal index are some of the survival adaptations they developed under water stress conditions of the Indian arid zone.
Natural distributions of the 44 species of Prosopis (Leguminosae) reflect the occurrence of arid zones in N. and S. America, N. Africa, S.W. Asia and the Indian sub-continent. In colonizing these often alkaline environments they can provide man with firewood, timber, food, animal fodder, gums and possibly tannins, yet relatively little use has been made of them. Studies of their biology and genetic variation indicate exploitable potential for tree improvement as a multi-purpose crop plant, especially if allied to improved silvicultural methods. They could also contribute to revegetation and conservation programmes, tolerating many extreme environments. P. cineraria in particular, may be worthy of consideration for detailed study, genetic selection and more widespread use.
The relationship of water deficit, actual water content, area, water loss and stomatal behaviour in leaves of different insertion
levels of three members of Indian arid zoneConvolvulaceae—Merremia aegyptia, M. dissecta andIpomoea pes-caprae were measured simultaneously in the month of May, 1974, when field conditions were extremely adverse for growth. The two
former species loose far more water than the latter. The values measured varied considerably with the leaf insertion levels
and they reversed inI. pes-caprae when compared withMerremia species.
Attempts have been made to reveal the survival strategies of the two forms ofTrianthema portulacastrum. These morphs, vizrubra andflava, do not show any remarkable difference in their morphology, phenology and water relations. Metabolically,rubra form is more hardy thanflava form, because of lesser water loss, higher water retention capacity, high protein content and higher levels of proline accumulation
at different stages of plant growth. Seed germination studies revealed the presence of hard seed coatedness in both morphs,
being more in theflava form.
Exposure of arid zone vegetation to repeated moisture stress during the course of life cycle is a common phenomenon. In order to tide over the stress phase, plants make suitable morphological and physiological adaptations. Accumulation of free proline under water deficit is one such physiological response in majority of the add zone plants. Studies on fourteen grasses, eleven annuals and three perennials, reveal a multifold increase in free proline content from stress free to moisture stress conditions, whereas some well adapted grasses show insignificant amount of proline under similar conditions.
The rates of water use and leaf surface conductance of Citrullus colocynthis (Cucurbitacea) were evaluated from measurements of the surface temperature and microenvironment of leaves. At desert sites in Saudi Arabia the transpiration rates reached 0.13–0.17 g m-2 s-1 and the leaf temperatures were always close to air temperature. Leaf models (dry) placed in the canopy were considerably warmer than the air. To investigate responses over a wider range of conditions, plants were grown in a controlled environment room. It was found that when conditions were made hotter than those that occurred in the desert, the stomatal conductance increased greatly. Transpiration rate attained 0.6 g m-2 s-1 and the leaves were up to seven degrees cooler than the air. The results suggest a finely-tuned control mechanism working like a switch when the leaves experience extreme conditions, and enabling the plant to avoid lethal temperatures.
The seeds ofMerremia aegyptia are indifferent to light conditions for germination, which becomes 100% in the first 24 hrs. On the contrary, inM. dissecta the highest percentage was found in red light within the first 24 hrs. This difference was lost later on except in far-red.
The seedling growth of the two species was least in blue and red lights, respectively. However, the growth of hypocotyl in
the former species was faster than the latter.
In the present study, the effect of different photoperiods: 3, 6, 9, 12 and 18 hr followed by a dark period in a 24 hr cycle, as well as total darkness, continuous light and diffuse light in relation to growth behaviour was observed in Solanum surattense. The influence on the pattern of root and shoot development, stomata, chlorophyll content, green weight, dry weight, fresh weight, monosaccharides, total nitrogen have been analysed. It appeared that a photoperiod of 12 hr brought about optimum growth in this species.
Investigations have been carried out on the ecophysiological adaptations for survival of the two important desert trees: Salvadora persica Linn, and S. oleoides Decne., in arid regions of Indian desert. The water loss and stomatal mechanism, water content of leaves, their absorption capacity and water deficit were examined during different hours of the day with reference to the effect of long dry summer. These species have been shown to loose very much water as their stomata remain open at the time of excessive heat thus enabling the plants to have leaf temperatures fairly close to ambient levels. Features like vertical position of leaves and deep roots are additional ecophysiological adaptations. Such studies on the importance of various ecophysiological adaptations in arid zone are useful for foresters as well who may be concerned with the water and photosynthetic relations of different types of trees in relation to reafforestation.
Investigations have been made on the autecology of Rhagodia baccata (Labill.) Moq. which grows in arid and semi-arid regions of Western Australia. This species has been shown to exert marked control over water loss, and to have a higher net assimilation rate than other native plants of Western Australia investigated so far. It has also been found to have high heat resistance. These drought-resistant properties, together with its capacity to grow on a wide range of soil types, its ease of propagation, and its palatability for sheep, make R. baccata potentially useful as a pasture plant for the arid and semi-arid regions of Western Australia.
Stomatal density and length were analyzed in 32 species of indigenous and acclimatized tree species grown under different ecological conditions. Mean leaf was calculated in 14 of them. Stomatal density was significantly higher in nonirrigated than in irrigated trees, whereas no significant differences were found in leaf area in 11 species. Stomata are present in the upper and lower epidermis of the leaf in most of the successfully acclimatized species and in some indigenous ones. These species, as compared to others in which stomata are present only in the lower epidermis, are distinguished by xerophytic properties. Many of them are able to grow without irrigation in an arid climate, in semidesert and water-depleted soil, surviving even during years of drought.
Two species, A and B, interact when their niches α and β intersect in space and time. The composite element AB may be either more, less, or equally effective in regulation. It is suggested that the first condition exists when the overlap
between α and β is small; this leads, on a large scale, to complex biocenotic phenomena in which components of a tremendously
diversified biota may coexist. The coupling AB is likely, on the other hand, to be antagonistic to optimization of regulation by the whole community; in this case, it is
postulated, one of the components (the less effective regulator acting alone) is purged. This is competitive exclusion, and
it develops when α and β intersect greatly. Between these extremes of cooperation and competition lies an area of niche intersection
in which AB is not much better or worse than A or B alone. This case gives rise to passive coexistence of A and B. These are the extremes; even a cursory consideration of the permutational possibilities for niche intersection gives an
immediate concept of the overwhelming variety of possible interspecific interactions and a glimpse of the dangers inherent
in overemphasizing a single aspect. It is therefore advocated that the principle of competitive exclusion be regarded as only
a small segment of a broad class of interspecific phenomena (9).
During the first half of 1965 an unprecedented drought caused widespread wilting
of native trees from southern Queensland to the New South Wales-Victorian border.
The reaction of some of the native vegetation in parts of the Australian Capital Territory
and Monaro Region has been studied.
Rainfall from January 1 to June 30 was less than one-quarter of the normal, and by
the end of March signs of water stress were apparent over a wide area. The communities
most severely affected were dry sclerophyll forests, especially on shallow, stony soils on
northerly and westerly aspects.
The ability of Eucalyptus spp. to withstand sustained severe dehydration is shown
by the fact that the relative moisture content of living leaves could be reduced to 40-45 %,
and maintained at these levels for long periods.
The prolonged period of dehydration caused general drying out of the trees,
rather than leaf and twig desiccation only. In the most severe cases, shrinkage and
fissuring of the bark of E. rossii, with ultimate separation at the cambium, was observed.
It is suggested that so-called ineffective summer rain in south-eastern Australia is
both effective and essential for the native communities on soils of low water-holding
capacity.
The role of drought in the distribution of native communities is discussed.
The ecological life-history of “leafless” spurge,Euphorbia caducifolia
Haines, which serves as an indicator of rocky and gravelly habitat in Rajasthan (India) is dealt with here. There appear to be two
forms in existence: one with red and the other with green inflorescence, which interbreed freely in nature resulting in different
shades of red coloured inflorescence. The plant is suitably adapted to xerophytic conditions, but surprisingly the leaves
are borne only in summer when there is acute shortage of water. Flowering starts in January–February and the seeds are dispered
by March–April. The seeds do not indicate any dormancy but the percentage of germination from different plants vary remarkably.
The optimum germination is achieved between 25°–30°C, beyond which it is retarded. Continuous light hastens germination. The
seeds are washed down by rains from the rocky slopes where the plants grow and are buried in mud to a depth where germination
does not take place, and hence regeneration of the plant is poor.
In the present study, the effect of different photoperiods: 3, 6, 9, 12 and 18 hr followed by a dark period in a 24 hr cycle, as well as total darkness, continuous light and diffuse light in relation to growth behaviour was observed in Solanum surattense. The influence on the pattern of root and shoot development, stomata, chlorophyll content, green weight, dry weight, fresh weight, monosaccharides, total nitrogen have been analysed. It appeared that a photoperiod of 12 hr brought about optimum growth in this species.
S ummary
Studies of attached and detached leaves of Euphorbia caducifolia , the latter collected from morphologically different plants, suggested that this species exhibited typical crassulacean features of acid metabolism. Fluctuations in acidity were found to be due mostly to the appearance and disappearance of malic acid in dark and light respectively. Deacidification also took place when leaves were kept in dark for a longer period. The TAN showed a fall when the leaves aged and were about to fall. A remarkable feature found in this species was the high percentage of total acids which ranged up to 8240 mg/100 g fresh weight of leaves, together with great differences in the constituents analysed. This suggests that morphological diversity is correlated with physiological diversity.
Two species, A and B, interact when their niches α and β intersect in space and time. The composite element AB may be either more, less, or equally effective in regulation. It is suggested that the first condition exists when the overlap
between α and β is small; this leads, on a large scale, to complex biocenotic phenomena in which components of a tremendously
diversified biota may coexist. The coupling AB is likely, on the other hand, to be antagonistic to optimization of regulation by the whole community; in this case, it is
postulated, one of the components (the less effective regulator acting alone) is purged. This is competitive exclusion, and
it develops when α and β intersect greatly. Between these extremes of cooperation and competition lies an area of niche intersection
in which AB is not much better or worse than A or B alone. This case gives rise to passive coexistence of A and B. These are the extremes; even a cursory consideration of the permutational possibilities for niche intersection gives an
immediate concept of the overwhelming variety of possible interspecific interactions and a glimpse of the dangers inherent
in overemphasizing a single aspect. It is therefore advocated that the principle of competitive exclusion be regarded as only
a small segment of a broad class of interspecific phenomena (9).
Ecology of Indian desert. VII. On the water relations ofSalvadora species
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Eco-physiological studies of western Australian plants
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