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The Ethics of Nudge

  • November 2009
DOI:10.1007/978-90-481-2593-7_10
Authors:
Luc Bovens at The London School of Economics and Political Science
Luc Bovens
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Abstract

In their recently published book Nudge (2008) Richard H. Thaler and Cass R. Sunstein (T&S) defend a position labelled as ‘libertarian paternalism’. Their thinking appeals to both the right and the left of the political spectrum, as evidenced by the bedfellows they keep on either side of the Atlantic. In the US, they have advised Barack Obama, while, in the UK, they were welcomed with open arms by the David Cameron's camp (Chakrabortty 2008). I will consider the following questions. What is Nudge? How is it different from social advertisement? Does Nudge induce genuine preference change? Does Nudge build moral character? Is there a moral difference between the use of Nudge as opposed to subliminal images to reach policy objectives? And what are the moral constraints on Nudge?
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The Ethics of Nudge
Luc Bovens
Preference Change Conference
May 30, 2009
Paradigm Cases
Cafeteria
Save More Tomorrow
What is Nudge?
To Nudge is to
Change the choice architecture so that people
are prone to make better choices;
Without affecting the range of available
choices;
By appealing to “the science of choice”, i.e.
research that “has raised serious questions
about the rationality of the many judgments
and decisions that people make.”
Better?
Private and Government Nudges
Company’s interest
Cash discount rather than credit card surcharge
Interest of Nudgees *
Save More Tomorrow
Societal interest
Give More Tomorrow
* = Libertarian Paternalism
Nudge or Libertarian Paternalism
Change in choice architecture
No restriction on range of choices
Exploits mechanisms of less than fully
rational choice
In the interest of the Nudgee
Paradigm Cases
Cafeteria
Mindless choosing
large plates
buckets of popcorn
Save More Tomorrow
Loss aversion or
Endowment effect
Augustine’s prayer
Choice Architecture
No Restriction on
Choice
Mechanism of LFRC
Interest of Nudgee
Endowment Effect
‘Men generally fix their affections more on
what they are possess’d of, than on what they
never enjoyed (...)’ (Hume, Treatise, Bk III,
Part II, Sect. I; 482)
‘To be deprived of that which we are
possessed of, is a greater evil than to be
disappointed of what we only have an
expectation.’ (Smith, Theory of Moral
Sentiments, Part II, Sect. II, Ch. II; 94)
Nudge?
Choice Architecture
No Restriction on
Choice
Mechanism of LFRC
Interest of Nudgee
Nudge?
Choice Architecture
No Restriction on
Choice
Mechanism of LFRC
Interest of Nudgee
Nudge Social Advertisement?
Are you part of the
community?
87% of adults in Illinois
feel that registering as
an organ donor is the
right thing to do.
60% of adults in Illinois
are registered organ
and tissue donors.
Contrast: “I wish to be
an organ donor: Yes;
No.”
Choice Architecture
No Restriction on
Choice
Mechanism of LFRC
Interest of Nudgee
No Nudge Social Advertisement
Choice Architecture
No Restriction on
Choice
Mechanism of LFRC
Interest of Nudgee
No Nudge Social Advertisement
Choice Architecture
No Restriction on
Choice
Mechanism of LFRC
Interest of Nudgee
No Nudge Reminder
Choice Architecture
No Restriction on
Choice
Mechanism of LFRC
Interest of Nudgee
No Nudge Prohibition
Choice Architecture
No Restriction on
Choice
Mechanism of LFRC
Interest of Nudgee
What is Essential?
Essential
No Restriction on
Choice
Mechanism of LFRC
Non-Essential
Choice Architecture
Interest of Nudgee
Subliminal Images
(mirrors, trick mirrors,…)
Essential
No Restriction on
Choice
Mechanism of LFRC
Non-essential
Choice Architecture
Interest of Nudgee
T&S respond:
Violation of Transparency/Publicity
“The publicity principle bans government from selecting a policy that it
would not be able to defend publicly.”
Violation of Respect
“…if [the government] adopts policies that it could not defend in public,
it fails to manifest that respect.”
“…it treats its citizens as tools for its own manipulation.”
“…the publicity principle is connected with the prohibition on lying.
Someone who lies treats people as means, not as ends.”
Respect
Non-manipulation
Irrelevant: In Nudge, you are made to do
something without being aware of this
happening
Truth-telling
Irrelevant: Where is the lie in subliminal
images and mirrors?
Publicity
Non-Disclosure
Subliminal images
“people are influenced without being informed”
“manipulation of this kind is objectionable
because it is invisible and impossible to
monitor”
Disclosure
Save More Tomorrow: “…people are explicitly
informed of the nature of the proposal, and
specifically asked whether they would like to
accept it.”
Organ donation: “If government officials use
cleverly worded signs … to encourage people
to register as organ donors, they should be
happy to reveal their methods and their
motives.”
Rationality and Reflective Stability
…research that “has raised serious questions
about the rationality of the many judgments
and decisions that people make.”
Savage’s car radio
Thaler’s early ski passes
Healthy Meal Arrangement
“Research shows that people are more prone
to take food items displayed earlier rather
than later. Many of our customers are trying
to lose weight but find it difficult to do so. To
help them, we have arranged the snacks in
the food line with healthier items displayed
earlier so that they are more likely to choose
these items.”
Earlier Deadline
to Increase Savings
“We are asking you to fill out your forms for
pension savings earlier this year. We have
noticed that many employees are not saving
enough for retirement. Research has shown
that it is easier to commit money that you do
not have in hand yet and to commit yourself
to make future sacrifices rather than
sacrifices here and now. For this reason, we
believe that an earlier deadline will induce
you to commit more money to your pension
fund.”
Transparency?
Is the method by means of which we are
trying to change behaviour fully transparent?
Type-interference transparency
=>No Diff
In principle token-interference transparency
⇒Diff:
⇒Present in Nudge
⇒Absent in subliminal images
Tension
Respect requires in-principle token-
interference transparency
Effectiveness: Opaqueness due to reflective
instability of psychological mechanisms that
Nudge invokes
1. What’s being Nudged?
Ignorance => medical info
Inertia => default options
Akrasia => Cafeteria
Queasiness => post-mortem organ don
Exception => abortion, teenage sex, sex
changes etc
Social Benefit => charity, tragedy of the
commons
SB < Exc < In ~ Akr ~ Qu < Ign
2. Who’s Nudging
Sophisticated choice >
Choice of nudging partner >
Choice of nudging employer >
Democratic choice of nudging government
3. Costs and Benefits of the Nudge
Expected Costs and Benefits
Urgency
Long-term effects on character
Opportunity costs on responsible agents
(Scanlon)
Urgency?
Long-term effect on character?
Karen Dalton
Capital punishment:
Short-term deterrence (Gittings and Mocan)
Long-term brutalisation?
Nudge
Short-term weight-loss, increase in savings,…
Long-term infantilisation?
Opportunity Costs on
Responsible Agents?
Budget permits
Non-illustrated
pamphlets informing all
=> Harm to 2
curious walkers
Illustrated pamphlets
informing most
=> Harm to 1 non-
informed walker
Budget permits
Inform-option
=> harm comes to 2
irresponsible agents
Nudge
=> Harm comes to 1
non-informed agents
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