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A Comparison of Law Enforcement Divorce Rates with Those of Other Occupations
Abstract
It is a common belief that the divorce rate for police officers is higher than that of the general population. This belief
is commonly held in spite of the fact that there is no empirical research supporting such a belief. To compare the divorce
rate of law enforcement personnel with the rates for other occupations, we analyzed data from the 2000 U.S. Census. The results
of this analysis indicate that the divorce rate for law enforcement personnel is lower than that of the general population,
even after controlling for demographic and other job-related variables.
KeywordsLaw enforcement divorce
... In the only recent study to examine divorce rates by occupation, MacCoy and Aamodt (2010) used the 2000 U.S. Census to estimate the percentage of workers within occupational groups who were currently divorced or separated . Based on their analysis, firefighters had a lower rate of current divorce/ separation than most other occupations (14.08% for firefighters vs. 16.35% for average across occupations). ...
... Second, MacCoy and Aamodt (2010) did not provide standardized comparisons of the rates of divorce among firefighters and the general population (Hennekens & Buring, 1987). Standardized comparisons, which adjust for demographic differences between firefighters and the general public, are needed to validate claims of an epidemic of divorce in the fire service. ...
It is a common belief in the fire service that the divorce rate for firefighters is higher than that in the general population. However, no data exists to substantiate this concern. We conducted surveys in 31 U.S. fire departments to assess relationship status, history of divorce, and key health outcomes. Prevalence of divorce among male firefighters was similar to the general population. In contrast, age-standardized prevalence of current divorce among female fighters (32.1%) was more than three times that for females in the general population (10.4%). Prevalence of ever divorce was substantially higher among female (40.0%) compared with male firefighters (24.4%). Married firefighters were less likely to report heavy alcohol use or depression, whereas single firefighters had more favorable body composition. These findings suggest that the rate of divorce among male firefighters is similar to that found in the general public. In contrast, female firefighters report high rates of divorce.
... Physical health problems are also more common among COs, with previous studies identifying increased levels of cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, obesity, and diabetes (Brower, 2013;Denhof & Spinaris, 2016). In addition to health problems, COs are also more likely to experience difficulties in developing and maintaining interpersonal relationships (McCoy & Aamodt, 2010) and increased levels of family conflict (Obidoa et al., 2011), resulting in lower overall life satisfaction (Lambert et al., 2015). ...
This paper provides a detailed summary and discussion of the concept of stress and how it relates to the health, wellbeing, and performance of corrections officers. In line with these objectives, we focus on three areas: (1) providing a more detailed definition of the concept of stress; (2) a discussion of the ways that increased exposure to stress may impact corrections officers' physical and mental health; and (3) a summary of prevention and intervention strategies that are relevant for corrections officers and have shown promise in dampening the consequences of increased stress exposure. More in-depth knowledge of the concept of stress and the underlying processes that link stress to negative outcomes will provide policy makers and corrections departments with an understanding of the characteristics of prevention and intervention strategies that are expected to be most effective in limiting the consequences of stress.
... Curiously, police officer divorce rates (15.01%) were below the national average. 24 In the current sample, relationship status may be different for those seeking treatment because of stressors related to mental health or stress impacting their relationship, whereas, in the NTS sample, the divorce rate was higher. Researchers found that officers' self-report and that of their significant other's attachment increased their constructive communication, whereas the significant other's self-report of their attachment increased their own constructive communication, which is adaptive. ...
Objective:
Law enforcement officers (LEOs) are exposed to high levels of occupational trauma and face added stress from heightened public scrutiny and COVID-19, which may result in suicide. It is crucial to understand differences between LEOs who seek treatment and those who do not.
Method:
We compared LEOs from the same greater metropolitan area who sought treatment with those who did not. Participants completed validated measures assessing posttraumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety, depression, and suicidality.
Results:
The treatment-seeking sample scores were higher on all standardized assessments. Bivariate logistic regression results indicated that the non-treatment-seeking sample's odds of experiencing suicidality were 1.76 times the odds for the treatment seeking sample. Conclusions: This suggests that many LEOs experiencing suicidality may not be seeking treatment and highlights the role that posttraumatic stress disorder may play in determining whether LEOs seek treatment or not.
... A US study of police families from 2000 Census data found that divorce/separation rates were lower than the US national average (14.47% v 16.96%), as well as lower than the rate expected given the demographic and income characteristics of the law enforcement workers (14.47% v 16.35%) [39]. A US study of firefighters that asked about previous divorce, found that male firefighters had a higher age standardised prevalence of being currently married, compared to general public census data (77.0% ...
Emergency responders (ERs), often termed First Responders, such as police, fire and paramedic roles are exposed to occupational stressors including high workload, and exposure to trauma from critical incidents, both of which can affect their mental health and wellbeing. Little is known about the impact of the ER occupation on the mental health and wellbeing of their families. The aim of the current study was to investigate what mental health and wellbeing outcomes and experiences have been researched internationally in ER families, and to examine the prevalence and associated risk and protective factors of these outcomes. We conducted a systematic review in accordance with an a priori PROSPERO approved protocol (PROSPERO 2019 CRD42019134974). Forty-three studies were identified for inclusion. The majority of studies used a quantitative, cross-sectional design and were conducted in the United States; just over half assessed police/law enforcement families. Themes of topics investigated included: 1) Spousal/partner mental health and wellbeing; 2) Couple relationships; 3) Child mental health and wellbeing; 4) Family support and coping strategies; and 5) Positive outcomes. The review identified limited evidence regarding the prevalence of mental health and wellbeing outcomes. Family experiences and risk factors described were ER work-stress spillover negatively impacting spousal/partner wellbeing, couple relationships, and domestic violence. Traumatic exposure risk factors included concerns family had for the safety of their ER partner, the negative impact of an ER partners’ mental health problem on the couples’ communication and on family mental health outcomes. Protective factors included social support; however, a lack of organisational support for families was reported in some studies. Study limitations and future research needs are discussed. Progressing this area of research is important to improve knowledge of baseline needs of ER families to be able to target interventions, improve public health, and support ER’s operational effectiveness.
... In a large-scale survey conducted by the Department of Justice, 30% of officers reported being seriously injured at work while 85% reported seeing someone seriously injured or killed (Public Affairs, UC Berkeley, 2018). Research has also reported that domestic violence rates are 40% higher among COs, and, although difficult to estimate, COs are believed to have higher divorce and substance abuse rates than the general population (Bedore, 2012;McCoy & Aamodt, 2010;Summerlin et al., 2010). ...
Correctional officers (COs) in the United States have one of the highest rates of injury and illness among all other occupations. This hidden workforce faces increased rates of suicide, divorce, and posttraumatic stress disorder due to the nature of their work. Internationally recognized and applied resources such as the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) are designed to assist officers with challenges they may face inside and outside of work, but research has noted low rates of use for this program. We take a communicative approach to investigate the challenges that may keep COs from taking advantage of the EAP. Based on interviews with 26 federal COs in the Midwest United States, we explore how officers construct barriers to EAP use by drawing a clear boundary between use of the program for ‘personal,’ but not ‘professional’ reasons. We conclude with a discussion of how practitioners can modify communication around the program to deconstruct barriers to its use.
... 11,17,18 The body of research on CO well-being has consistently linked correctional work to psychosocial problems including marital hardship and divorce, alcoholism, and substance misuse. 19,20 Adverse physical outcomes include cardiovascular events, gastrointestinal and digestive disease, diabetes, high cholesterol, and hypertension. 3,13,19,[21][22][23] Most ominous are suicide and premature death. ...
Objective:
To examine National Corrections Collaborative (NCC) activities, as an outreach initiative, to advance corrections workplace health and safety research, practice, and policy through a series of applied Research to Practice (r2p) meetings informed by the Total Worker Health (TWH) strategy.
Methods:
We mapped the coalescence of correctional worker health concerns, federal and national professional organization initiatives, and research activities that formed the NCC in 2014.
Results:
During the NCC's 5-years of TWH activities, attendance increased, partner composition expanded, and themes of concern evolved. Partners were motivated to participate and work together towards building evidence for health and safety r2p.
Conclusions:
A unified plea to the academic and federal research communities for assistance with better evaluation instruments, data linkages, and for adopting an integrated TWH approach to workforce health and wellbeing continue to drive NCC r2p activities.
... For example, the roles of police officer and correctional officer, respectively, have shown to be rife with issues that impact both their professional and personal lives. Most notably, these roles have been shown to suffer from substantial stress, which can lead to poor health, high divorce rates, job burnout, and other significant professional and personal issues (McCoy & Aamodt, 2010;Mumford, Taylor, & Kubu, 2015). These role issues ultimately tend to impact general recruitment and retention of these positions, placing further burdens upon criminal justice agencies and administrators in attempting to recruit and retain personnel (McCarty, Zhao, & Garland, 2007). ...
Probation and parole research in the late 1980s and early 1990s explored the negative health and wellness effects that officers may experience. However, little current research exists on health and wellness outcomes for probation and parole officers. Furthermore, little research has been conducted on the factors that may predict health and wellness for probation and parole officers. This study provides survey results of 342 probation and parole officers working for one probation and parole department in a southern U.S. state. Binary logistic regression results reveal officer age and tobacco use are significant predictors of officer injury. Moreover, sex, alcohol use, fast food consumption, sleep, and feeling in control of one’s job are significant predictors of self-reported officer depression. Policy implications for the above-mentioned findings and future directions for research are also discussed.
... The current marital status and not the past relationships were evaluated. The causes of this phenomenon were not analysed, however, McCoy's research [8] confirms that divorce is not common in this occupational group. Results of marital status show that there are no statistically significant differences. ...
Aim of the study
To evaluate the causes of incapacity for further service in the Police of women and men due to health issues and show any differences related to gender.
Subject or material and methods
Analysis of certification and medical records of 130 patients with documented mental disorders, who require more than 5 years of psychiatric treatment. This research uses a structured sociodemographic and medical questionnaire designed specifically for this project.
Results
The mean age of the studied group was 48 for women and 44 for men. Seniority of woman was mostly 21 to 25 years and more than 25 years, whereas seniority of men between 21 and 25 years. The period of treatment in psychiatric health clinics was longer for women. The most common cause for incapacity for work were chronic neurotic disorders amounting to 87.69% of women and 98.41% of men.
Discussion
Difficulties in the professional functioning of members of uniformed services, which suffered from neurotic disorders causing incapacity for further service was documented in the literature.
Conclusions
The results of this research indicate, that in the analyzed population of police officers the main cause of incapacity for work were chronic neurotic neurasthenic disorders. Seniority as well as age of the police officers retiring from the Police force was higher in women. Neurotic disorders often coexisted with somatic disorders, among which were hypertension and degenerative disorders of the spine. Neurotic and neurasthenic disorders qualified the examined individuals to the third invalidity group due to serving in the Police.
... Advanced planning is necessary in this area, since many marriages end in divorce and all marriages eventually end in death. 11 Thus, planning for the inevitable is critical. There is a significant likelihood that one's spouse will be awarded 50% of the assets accumulated prior to-and during-marriage in divorce proceedings. ...
This article discusses six types of financial and healthcare documents that every entertainer should have in place to protect his or her wealth and healthcare needs. These documents accommodate the following: property transfers at death; business interest transfers during life and at death; distribution of assets following a divorce; financial decision empowerment; healthcare decision empowerment; and end-of-life planning. We discuss the necessary documents in each of these categories. Examples of entertainers who failed to heed such advice are provided.
... The association between married/ common-law relationships and mental health in the general population is well established 59,67 ; however, the association appears less consistent among PSP, with some research finding a relationship 68 and other research not. 9 Despite potentially intuitive notions that PSP have more difficulties maintaining relationships because of work-related stressors, the divorce rates for correctional workers, police, and firefighters are comparable to or lower than the general population 69 ; accordingly, being married may be an important resiliency factor, suggesting benefits for investing in PSP family supports. In contrast, PSP marital status may depend on positive mental health, in which case individual PSP mental health supports may also serve as family supports. ...
Background:
Canadian public safety personnel (PSP; e.g., correctional workers, dispatchers, firefighters, paramedics, police officers) are exposed to potentially traumatic events as a function of their work. Such exposures contribute to the risk of developing clinically significant symptoms related to mental disorders. The current study was designed to provide estimates of mental disorder symptom frequencies and severities for Canadian PSP.
Methods:
An online survey was made available in English or French from September 2016 to January 2017. The survey assessed current symptoms, and participation was solicited from national PSP agencies and advocacy groups. Estimates were derived using well-validated screening measures.
Results:
There were 5813 participants (32.5% women) who were grouped into 6 categories (i.e., call center operators/dispatchers, correctional workers, firefighters, municipal/provincial police, paramedics, Royal Canadian Mounted Police). Substantial proportions of participants reported current symptoms consistent with 1 (i.e., 15.1%) or more (i.e., 26.7%) mental disorders based on the screening measures. There were significant differences across PSP categories with respect to proportions screening positive based on each measure.
Interpretation:
The estimated proportion of PSP reporting current symptom clusters consistent with 1 or more mental disorders appears higher than previously published estimates for the general population; however, direct comparisons are impossible because of methodological differences. The available data suggest that Canadian PSP experience substantial and heterogeneous difficulties with mental health and underscore the need for a rigorous epidemiologic study and category-specific solutions.
... It was based on an analysis of the 2000 national census data for the United States and determined the divorce rates for 449 different occupations. 33 This data found that 14.08% of fire fighters were divorced compared to average divorce rate of 16.35% for the total U.S. employed population. This finding was not divided by gender, but the vast majority of fire fighters were male. ...
EAPs may be able to better support fire fighters and their families if more is known
about the marital and occupational stressors of this at-risk population. We conducted a review of
literature to answer several questions. First, what is the actual rate of divorce among people working
in fire service? Second, what factors relate to marital stability among fire fighters and is marital
relationship predictive of job satisfaction, job safety, and overall job success in fire service? Lastly, are
marital enrichment or relationship support programs in place in fire service families, and, if so,
are they effective? Over 20 scholarly research works were examined that addressed marriage
among fire fighters. Surprisingly, we could find empirical data on only the first question with the
other questions largely missing as topics in the literature. Both U.S. census data and a large survey
found rates of divorce for male fire fighters in the range of 12-14%, which was similar to national
averages at the time. Other data was found on fire fighter family challenges, the spouses of fire
fighters, and the marriages of volunteer fire fighters. Advances in counseling and other
behavioral health services for fire fighters are also identified. Suggestions for EAP practice and future
research are provided.
... Considerable research has been conducted to establish which problems are occurring in police officers at higher rates than the general population, and which are at a level of increased risk for police. Those problems that have been documented as being more prevalent in police than the general population include: alcohol abuse (Ballenger et al., 2011;Davey, Obst, & Sheehan, 2001;Lindsay, 2008;Ménard & Arter, 2013), depression (Hartley, Burchfiel, Fekedulegn, Andrew, & Violanti, 2011;Violanti, 2010), cardiovascular disease (Hartley et al., 2011), cancer (Gu, Charles, Burchfiel, Andrew, & Violanti, 2011), posttraumatic stress disorder (Ménard & Arter, 2013), relationship problems, such as marital discord and domestic violence (Kirschman, Kamena, & Fay, 2014;McCoy & Aamodt, 2010;Neidig, Russell, & Seng, 1992;Zavala, 2013), and suicide (Aamodt & Stalnaker, 2001;Chae & Boyle, 2013;Milner, Spittal, Pirkis, & LaMontagne, 2013;Violanti, Robinson, & Shen, 2013). ...
Law enforcement officers are a high-risk population for the development of several debilitating mental and physical health problems, increasing the need for effective psychological interventions. This article reviews: (a) mental health problems that police officers are at risk of developing, (b) factors in the law enforcement profession that increase the need for mental health services for officers, (c) the current state of psychological interventions with law enforcement personnel, and (d) how the empirically supported technique of motivational interviewing (MI) may improve the overall success of the psychological treatments most widely used with this population. MI is an interview delivery style that has been shown to be highly successful with treatment-resistant populations. We propose that the incorporation of MI into current mental health services for law enforcement officers may help to reduce their resistance to change, particularly in those mandated for treatment, thus increasing the benefits of the intervention. We also suggest that future research examining the value of MI specifically for law enforcement professionals is warranted.
... However, others have reported different findings. McCoy and Aamodt (2010) reported the divorce rate of police officers to be lower than the general population. The results of research examining police suicide are also mixed. ...
Police officers have often been reported to experience high rates of suicide compared to the general population. Suicidal ideation (SI) is considered a strong predictor of suicidal acts. However, few studies have examined SI in U.S. law enforcement officers. This study investigated the prevalence of SI and the association between SI and amount of subjective work-related traumatic stress, personal relationship stress, work-related but non-traumatic stress, age, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, alcohol use, and posttraumatic growth among law enforcement officers (N = 193) from a Midwestern state. Multiple regression analysis demonstrated that greater depression symptoms significantly predicted greater SI among officers.
... Our simulation is dedicated to two topics, " divorce " and " alcohol abuse " . Its assumptions are grounded on the previous research [25, 26, 27] and government reports 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 . These references cover the attitudes toward the two topics based on three social background attributes, geography, occupation and education. ...
Wiki systems, such as Wikipedia, provide a multitude of opportunities for large-scale online knowledge collaboration. Despite Wikipedia’s successes with the open editing model, dissenting voices give rise to unreliable content due to conflicts amongst contributors. Frequently modified controversial articles by dissent editors hardly present reliable knowledge. Some overheated controversial articles may be locked by Wikipedia administrators who might leave their own bias in the topic. It could undermine both the neutrality and freedom policies of Wikipedia. As Richard Rorty suggested “Take Care of Freedom and Truth Will Take Care of Itself”, we present a new open Wiki model in this paper, called TrustWiki, which bridge readers closer to the reliable information while allowing editors to freely contribute. From our perspective, the conflict issue results from presenting the same knowledge to all readers, without regard for the difference of readers and the revealing of the underlying social context, which both causes the bias of contributors and affects the knowledge perception of readers. TrustWiki differentiates two types of readers, “value adherents” who prefer compatible viewpoints and “truth diggers” who crave for the truth. It provides two different knowledge representation models to cater for both types of readers. Social context, including social background and relationship information, is embedded in both knowledge representations to present readers with personalized and credible knowledge. To our knowledge, this is the first paper on knowledge representation combining both psychological acceptance and truth reveal to meet the needs of different readers. Although this new Wiki model focuses on reducing conflicts and reinforcing the neutrality policy of Wikipedia, it also casts light on the other content reliability problems in Wiki systems, such as vandalism and minority opinion suppression.
... divorce, suicide) among officers than the population in general may also warrant discussion (Aamodt, 2008). For example, McCoy and Aamodt (2010) found divorce rates among law enforcement personnel to be lower than the general population. ...
This study investigated the relation between posttraumatic distress symptoms, relational and spiritual health, and different types of potentially traumatic incidents common among active-duty police officers (N = 183). Multiple regression analyses showed that greater hyperarousal trauma symptoms were predicted by less effort toward personal relationships and more on-duty assaults resulting in serious injury. Greater avoidance trauma symptoms were predicted by less effort put toward personal relationships and more on-duty assaults resulting in serious injury. Heightened intrusion trauma symptoms were correlated with more on-duty assaults resulting in serious injury. Implications of these findings are discussed.
... It is also noteworthy that 18% of the sample was either separated or divorced. Correctional officers in this sample had a divorce rate that was slightly less than the 21.54% national average for correctional officers (McCoy & Aamodt, 2010). ...
While most correctional officers adhere to the highest level of professionalism, some engage in institutional deviance during the course of their eight-hour shifts. In the present study, we administered 501 self-report questionnaires to correctional officers within the Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Respondents who reported that their supervisors were not supportive tended to admit to higher levels of institutional deviance than their peers, though peer support did not contribute to correctional officer deviance. Additionally, respondents who perceived their jobs to be less dangerous than other officers were more likely to have attitudes that were conducive to institutional deviance. Moreover, a perception of deviance among others also helped ‘normalize’ these acts in the prison setting and contributed to more favorable attitudes toward institutional deviance by correctional officers. Theory X and Theory Y is used to explain the lack of supervisory support that leads to institutional deviance among correctional officers. These findings have important policy implications toward reducing deviance among correctional officers, thereby making prison facilities safer and more secure.
Due to the nature and requirements of their career, first responders (FR; i.e., law enforcement officers, firefighters, emergency medical personnel, and communication personnel) experience a higher risk of physical and mental health concerns. Further, researchers concluded this population has one of the most deleterious jobs for their overall health (Mona et al., 2019). These health concerns are reinforced over the course of their career as they experience repeated exposure to critical incidents, shift work, disrupted sleep, and command difficulties (McCoy & Aamodt, 2010). Additionally, FR may be given little to no recovery time after witnessing a particularly difficult scene or call; therefore, these issues compound and often lead to higher rates of unidentified mental health difficulties within the population (Cleveland Clinic, 2021; Van Hasselt et al., 2020). To help FR better understand the physical and mental impact of their careers, Behavioral Health Training (BHT) and Peer Support Programs (PSP) have become an imperative part of the training process. Researchers suggest that BHT should begin at the academy level to proactively provide incoming FR with resources and increased awareness should mental health issues arise (Van Hasselt et al., 2020). While PSP have become an effective method for FR to discuss mental health concerns or debrief with a colleague. Therefore, this chapter begins in addressing the purpose of BHT, provides essential modules curriculum, and discusses the effectiveness of BHTs in emergency services. It concludes with an overview of PSPs, the advantages/disadvantages, and the program structure within various branches of first responders.
Much research has discussed the “police personality.” Yet, it is still unclear what particular traits make up the police personality—or whether it exists at all. This can be partially attributed to the limited availability of data collected within individual police departments. Using a nationally representative sample of adults (Add Health), the current study examines whether the Big Five personality traits, temperamental characteristics, and empirically informed covariates are related to being a police officer. Results indicate that, compared to the general population, individuals in law enforcement score significantly lower on openness to experience. Police officers are also more likely than non-officers to have experienced divorce, served in the military, lean politically conservative, and be male. These findings provide partial support for the notion that there are distinct factors that define the police personality.
z: Polislik, birey üzerinde önemli fizyolojik ve psikolojik sorunlara yol açacak boyutta bir stres yükü yaratan mesleklerin ilk sıralarında yer al-maktadır. Bununla birlikte polis uygulamalarının toplumun temel güvenlik, sosyal adalet ve insan hakları alanlarındaki algılarını etkiliyor olması; polis psikolojisini yalnız bireysel değil, toplum psikolojisi ve kamu güvenliği açısından da önemli bir olgu haline getirmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı gü-nümüze kadar dünyada polis psikolojisi konusunda gerçekleştirilen bilim-sel araştırmaları gözden geçirip ortak bulgulardan yola çıkarak yapılan de-ğerlendirme ile konunun emniyet teşkilatı, kolluk personeli ve iç güvenlik açısından önemine dikkat çekmek ve Türkiye'de bir uzmanlık alanı olarak polis psikolojisinin gelişmesine öncülük etmektir. Bu amaçla ve geniş bir alan olması nedeniyle çalışmanın çerçevesi polislerde iş stresi, iş doyumu ve tükenmişlik, çalışma saatleri ve uyku sorunu, aile ve ilişki sorunları ve polis intiharları konuları ile sınırlandırılmıştır. Bu çalışma, Türkiye'de bir uzmanlık alanı olarak polis psikolojisi konusunda yapılmış ilk araştırma olması açısından önem taşımaktadır.
Abstract
This qualitative study investigated turnover intention and its influence on the public service motivation of U.S. police officers. The study was completed using a phenomenological design to elicit the lived experience of 21 retired and active police officers using face-to-face and telephonic interviews. The theoretical frameworks of turnover intention and public service motivation supported the research. Deductive thematic analysis was utilized to examine the results using NVivo 12. Furthermore, the findings supported the theoretical frameworks of turnover intention and public service motivation. The results revealed that each participant had different turnover intentions influencing distinct public service motivation characteristics. The turnover intentions that were most common amongst the participants were a lack of perceived organizational support (90%, 19 of 21) and increased stress (90%, 19 of 21). The characteristics of public service motivation that were most influenced were self-sacrifice (33%, 7 of 21), attraction to policy making (90%, 19 of 21), and compassion (33%, 7 of 21). Increased turnover intention did not always change the characteristics of public service motivation. Further research is needed to evaluate police participants, such as examining non-retired individuals who self-terminated and did not return to the profession, different genders to identify variations, longitudinal studies to explore police officers' public service motivation, and mixed research designs to provide a quantitative descriptive dimension with qualitative evidence that offers a holistic perspective.
Police officers face a variety of occupational (e.g., job dissatisfaction) and operational (e.g., exposure to suffering) stressors because of their work, making them vulnerable to challenges with psychological well-being (Johnson et al. in J Manag Psycho 20(2):178–196, 2005). Social support is known to offset repercussions resulting from high stress (Hansson et al. in J Police Crim Psycho 32(2):128–137, 2017); however, limited research has documented use of social support experienced by police officers. Thus, the current study examined the nature, quality, and potential benefits of social support on officer psychological wellness, including its benefits beyond use of cognitive-emotion coping strategies. Participants included 88 Canadian police (73.9% male, Mage = 41.72, SD = 9.64) who completed measures of occupational stressors (OSI-R, Osipow and Spokane 1–15 1998), social support (OSI-R and author constructed), mental health symptoms (DSM-5 CC, APA 170(1)71–82 2013; PCL-5, Weathers et al. 2013), and cognitive-emotion coping strategies (CERQ, Garnefski et al. in J Youth Adolesc 32:401–408, 2001). Officers relied on a variety of supports in and outside of the workplace, but most frequently relied on intimate partners (85.9%) and coworkers (84.9%). Higher social support quality was significantly related to lower endorsement of depression, anxiety, anger, and PTSD symptoms. Hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated that social support predicted lower PTSD symptom severity over and above cognitive-emotion coping strategies. Results are discussed in terms of psychological wellness initiatives and psychoeducational opportunities for police organizations to improve access to, and quality of, social supports for employees.
There is a common belief, but little empirical evidence, that firefighters are uniquely vulnerable to divorce. The present study aimed to examine key demographic and occupational factors related to divorce among firefighters. Online survey data (relationship status, relationship history, demographics, and occupational history) were collected from 163 firefighters in an urban city of the Southern United States. Divorced firefighters were older, in fire service longer, and younger at the age of their first marriage compared to non-divorced firefighters. Firefighters who married before joining fire service were more likely to experience divorce than firefighters who married after joining fire service; however, after controlling for age and age at first marriage, this effect became nonsignificant. Divorce was reported by firefighters at greater rates than the general population, and most divorces occurred after entry into fire service. However, non-occupational factors may better explain this trend.
Investigating cases of child pornography requires daily exposure to sexually explicit material involving children and may have negative implications on the mental well-being of those in this line of work. This study aimed to identify whether secondary traumatic stress symptoms were associated with participants’ parenting behaviors and concerns about their own children’s use of the internet. Internet Crimes Against Children Task Force workers (n = 212) completed online questionnaires measuring work exposure to sexually explicit material, secondary traumatic stress symptoms, and parenting behaviors. Professionals in this field reported a wide range of secondary trauma symptoms, and their parenting behaviors were both directly and indirectly (via secondary trauma) affected by prolonged exposure to sexually explicit material involving children. Internet monitoring behaviors were more prevalent for parents of younger children, and mothers’ parenting behaviors were more strongly associated with secondary trauma symptoms than were fathers. Results have implications for mental health and parenting services for professionals in this field.
First responders maintain strong marriages in spite of the potential negative impact of multiple stressors including schedule conflicts, financial strain, and the threat of illness, disability, and death. Patterns of thought and behavior that are beneficial at work, such as vigilance, rapidly establishing control, and shutting off emotional responding cause problems at home, particularly when intensified by trauma. Excessive belief in a partner's heroism and the choice by some responders of dependent romantic partners cause other problems, as does the sometimes culturally sanctioned practice of coping through alcohol use or sexual encounters. Shifts in perspective that reframe common concerns more positively are offered. Departments are encouraged to increase efforts to support spouses and marriages, given the importance of close relationships to health.
Employees in security-related occupations are expected to be alert and on guard at work in order to stay safe and complete their work tasks (e.g., police, military, corrections). This study introduces the concept of work-related hypervigilance (WHV) as an experience at work that sustains cognitive and physiological activation among employees and is associated with strain outcomes and lower well-being. It was hypothesized that WHV would be associated with greater strain outcomes (i.e., exhaustion and p hysical health symptoms), work-to-family conflict, and impaired sleep. Data were collected from 1317 security staff working in 14 state correctional facilities in the Northwestern United States. Results indicated that WHV was positively related to exhaustion, physical health symptoms, and work-to-family conflict. Further, WHV was negatively related to sleep quantity and quality. Overall, the results support the proposition that WHV is an important employee experience that warrants further examination. Practical and theoretical implications and future research directions are discussed.
This study provides an in-depth analysis of the resilience of crime scene investigators (CSIs) in the Netherlands and how they perceive and cope with daily work stressors. Observational studies within five CSI teams and 35 semistructured interviews with investigators revealed that administrative accumulation, long and irregular working hours, confrontations with human suffering, decision making, and dirty and physically demanding circumstances at the crime scene can be very stressful. By employing strict management of thoughts, visualization, focus on sensemaking, sharing of emotions and responsibilities, and avoiding potentially distressing working situations, CSIs overcome the strain of forensic investigations. However, successful implementation of these resilience-enhancing strategies depends on the availability of several individual, team, and organizational resources. To reduce the risk of health problems and to stimulate positive functioning, these resources require permanent investment by police management and CSIs themselves. © 2017, © 2017 International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology.
The role of the psychologist is unique within a law enforcement agency. This role is often misunderstood by those designing job descriptions and hiring the psychologist. The psychologist is often called on to serve law enforcement needs through such techniques as a psychological autopsy, or consultant with anSWAT Unit and at the same time serve as the pre-employment/fit-for-duty screening psychologist. One role serves the needs of the department as a fellow law enforcement practitioner and the other serves the department's managers in selection and retention issues. A psychologist can fill many, sometimes multiple roles within a law enforcement agency. This chapter helps to define those roles. It will help define each of the many roles the psychologist can fill and will also identify and examine potential ethical conflicts, including problems with dual relationships and conflicts of interest within these roles.
Although much research has been carried out on traditional police officers, little has been directed toward the study of game wardens or conservation law enforcement officers. The main responsibility of game wardens is the enforcement of wildlife laws. This research took a qualitative approach to data collection and examined job satisfaction of state game wardens in Montana. Data were obtained on the extent to which game wardens found the job satisfying, what were considered the best and worst parts of the job, if game wardens would choose the occupation again and stress of the job. The findings contribute to our understanding of the game warden occupation.
The purpose of this dissertation is to test general strain theory as an explanation for the effects of violent crime exposure on police officers from large urban areas. Data were collected through the Police Work Experience Survey (PWES) on officers from three of the largest metropolitan areas in Texas: Dallas, Austin, and El Paso. Additionally, the findings were examined through the lens of the police subcultural perspective. Ideas for future research are also presented.
The mental health and wellbeing of personnel is a major concern for police occupational health departments. This article explains the work of a UK police force in educating officers about the risks of burnout and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Key elements of that work include the Trauma Risk Management (TRiM) tool (developed in the British Army) to assess the risk of PTSD and the use of Visual-Kinesthetic Disassociation (Rewind) therapy for officers who have been identified as badly affected by traumatic work experiences. The force provides a series of workshops on burnout for officers in order to support their mental health and wellbeing. These workshops utilize an innovative multimedia virtual community educational tool (Stilwell) developed by the local university to explore burnout, the use of TRiM, and Rewind. This article explains the use of these techniques and presents evaluative research data showing a positive response to this approach from officers.
This talk will look at the task of pursuing a PhD with both a humorous and a serious eye -- while checking Facebook with yet another one. The goal is threefold: to give practical advice, to take a step back and look at the meaning at it all, and to entertain in doing so. We will give tips on how to choose an advisor and a thesis topic. We will look at different successful approaches to doing research and to publishing. In all of this the "human angle" is not lost and we will analyze common psychological hurdles. The practical advice will be based on a mix of personal experience, books on the topic and a multitude of web resources. Zooming out, we will look at whether education can contribute to personal happiness, and at financial incentives from the job market. Also "from a distance", we will look at studies of PhD attrition rates to better understand potential obstacles. Finally, there will be plenty of infotainment including the scientifically proven benefits of chocolate, per-occupation divorce rates and the affect of too much time spent on Facebook on your GPA. And, for the case that none of the advice is helpful for you, we will close with productive ways to procrastinate.
When a suicide is completed, police officers are often among the first responders. Little attention has been paid to the emotional
and psychological impact on the police officer in this specific situation. This study examines the effects encounters with
completed suicides have on the emotional and psychological well-being of the police officer. This is a qualitative study,
which intends to bring alive the feelings, thoughts, actions, choices, and challenges of police officers who have encountered
completed suicides as imparted through participants' stories. Interviews were done with eight police officers. In addition,
interviews were done with a coroner, a police chaplain, and a police psychologist to add some unique perspectives to the police
officers’ experiences of encountering completed suicides. Interviews were done in a semi-structured, focused format involving
an ongoing fine-tuning of questions. The overarching finding reveals the central role played by police culture in shaping
how police officers come to perceive this experience, and how they subsequently choose to mediate it. This study identifies
ten strategies police officers use to mediate this experience, and discusses the possible psychological consequences of employing
each strategy.
KeywordsPolice-Suicide-First responders-Police trauma-Police culture-Police stress
It is often said that a woman must do a job twice as well as a man in order to get half the credit. This is particularly true of women in law enforcement. Women have been involved in various forms of policing for the last 100 years, but it wasn’t until the Equal Employment Act of 1970 that women could move from the job of meter maids to patrol and detective work. Yet less than 1% of all top-level cops are women, and there remain significant obstacles in the career paths of women in the force. This book looks at the history of women police officers and provides first-hand accounts of women at every level, including those who drop out. It addresses discrimination, competition, lack of mentoring, differential treatment and sexual harrassment, examining what issues play into the decision to stick it out or leave that many policewomen face. It also considers the family issues these women return home to at the end of the day.
It is often said that a woman must do a job twice as well as a man in order to get half the credit. This is particularly true of women in law enforcement. Women have been involved in various forms of policing for the last 100 years, but it wasn’t until the Equal Employment Act of 1970 that women could move from the job of meter maids to patrol and detective work. Yet less than 1% of all top-level cops are women, and there remain significant obstacles in the career paths of women in the force. This book looks at the history of women police officers and provides first-hand accounts of women at every level, including those who drop out. It addresses discrimination, competition, lack of mentoring, differential treatment, and sexual harrassment. It looks at what plays into the decision to stick it out or leave that many policewomen face. It also considers the family issues these women return home to at the end of the day.
Unlike other treatments of the subject, Alt and Wells show how women have changed police work into a more community-oriented model of policing, reduced police violence, served as a strong force to promote a more effective response to domestic violence within police departments, and helped with community-police relations. With a combination of first-hand accounts, careful research, and lively analysis, the authors are able to convey the actual experiences of women who have made their careers behind the shield.
A critical assessment of available evidence on police stress featuring a detailed discussion of stress experiences of women, homosexual and ethnic minority officers. Examines the role of routine stressors and highlights stress problems associated with major trauma incidents. Documents treatment for post traumatic stress disorder and pinpoints risk factors. Includes a review of the latest research in Britain, North America and Australia.
Although certainly not alone, the field of police and criminal psychology seems to be an area that is highly susceptible to myths and misinformation. Whether it is the notion that police have higher suicide and divorce rates or that crime rates greatly increase during a full moon, there are many commonly held beliefs that are not supported by scientific evidence. This article discusses research conducted by the author and his students over the past several years to investigate the accuracy of some common beliefs in police and criminal psychology. Four principles are proposed that, if considered, might reduce the level of misinformation in police and criminal psychology. These principles include using primary sources, comparing apples with apples, avoiding the oversimplification of what is being studied, and understanding that in general, human judgment is not a good predictor of behavior.
Studied the factors in occupational stress experienced by policemen. Interviews were conducted with 100 male members of the Cincinnati police department involved with car patrol. Data collected included background information, perceptions of job stress, and health status. Replies to interview questions show that the most important stressors were (a) problems with administration (e.g., work assignments); (b) problems with the courts (excessive leniency); (c) community relations (e.g., negative public reactions); and (d) inadequate or defective equipment. Direct life-threatening stressors were less frequently mentioned. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Published also as Thesis (Ph. D.) Columbia University.
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house to ranch house. Lexington Books, Lexington, MA