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Gender Role Portrayal and the Disney Princesses
Sex Roles
Abstract
The popular Disney Princess line includes nine films (e.g., Snow White, Beauty and the Beast) and over 25,000 marketable products. Gender role depictions of the prince and princess characters were examined with a focus
on their behavioral characteristics and climactic outcomes in the films. Results suggest that the prince and princess characters
differ in their portrayal of traditionally masculine and feminine characteristics, these gender role portrayals are complex,
and trends towards egalitarian gender roles are not linear over time. Content coding analyses demonstrate that all of the
movies portray some stereotypical representations of gender, including the most recent film, The Princess and the Frog. Although both the male and female roles have changed over time in the Disney Princess line, the male characters exhibit
more androgyny throughout and less change in their gender role portrayals.
KeywordsChildren–Disney–Film–Gender–Gender role
... For this reason, it is important to be aware of the media children consume during this critical period. Children who see the same gender roles portrayed in media may interpret these behaviors as normal and may unite these ideas with interpretations of what is socially acceptable, thus altering their behavior (Bandura, 2001;England et al., 2011). ...
... Jung and Kim (2020) analyzed the gestures, behaviors, and personality traits of characters in Mulan, Tangled, Moana, and Frozen 2, and found that female protagonists often exhibit stereotypical gestures and behaviors that align with traditional gender norms. Meanwhile, other studies show that the recent characters seem to have more complex personality traits mixed with both masculinity and femininity (England et al., 2011;Hine et al., 2018;Itmeizeh & Ma'ayeh, 2017). For instance, Elsa from Frozen is portrayed as a self-sufficient queen who leads her kingdom without needing to get married. ...
... Overall, it would seem that characters in the Disney Princesses, though still adhering to traditional stereotypes of femininity (Azmi et al., 2018), have reflected changes in American society regarding gender expectations (Azmi et al., 2016;England et al., 2011;Hine et al., 2018;Hughes, 2016;Itmeizeh & Ma'ayeh, 2017). The different eras of Disney Princess movies are said to exist by some "in relation to women's movements" (Barber, 2015, p. 24;Garabedian, 2014;Hughes, 2016;Stover, 2013, p. 1). ...
Many of Disney movies have been criticized for perpetuating traditional gender stereotypes which constrain opportunities for children at large. Its recent characters have also incurred heated discussions on gender portrayal. Moreover, stereotypes of gender roles, developed early on, can exert an immediate impact on individuals’ behaviors and utterances and a long-term impact on individuals’ perceived options academically, professionally, personally, and socially. Recognizing the significance of this matter, this paper employed a meta-narrative review to collect and conceptually and empirically synthesize previous literature on the impact of Disney movies on young children’s gender awareness. Through an academic database search, 49 articles were collected using combinations of the keywords Disney character , Disney movie , young children , early childhood education , classroom practices , and gender . Furthermore, this review, in the pedagogical implication section, highlights the authors’ call for teachers to develop critical mindfulness of gender and shares hands-on activities for children to play with Disney characters in a reconstructive and agentic way.
... Several previous studies exploring the behavior of protagonists in Disney animated feature length films have suggested that there are numerous gender stereotypical messages present (Dundes, 2001;Towbin et al., 2004;Giroux and Pollock, 2010;England et al., 2011;Dundes and Streiff, 2016;Streiff and Dundes, 2017a,b;Hine et al., 2018a;Primo, 2018). Problematic messages around race (both independently and in relation to gender) have also been consistently identified in Disney's animated feature films by academics (Towbin et al., 2004;Giroux and Pollock, 2010;England et al., 2011;Streiff and Dundes, 2017a,b;Hine et al., 2018a;Primo, 2018). ...
... Several previous studies exploring the behavior of protagonists in Disney animated feature length films have suggested that there are numerous gender stereotypical messages present (Dundes, 2001;Towbin et al., 2004;Giroux and Pollock, 2010;England et al., 2011;Dundes and Streiff, 2016;Streiff and Dundes, 2017a,b;Hine et al., 2018a;Primo, 2018). Problematic messages around race (both independently and in relation to gender) have also been consistently identified in Disney's animated feature films by academics (Towbin et al., 2004;Giroux and Pollock, 2010;England et al., 2011;Streiff and Dundes, 2017a,b;Hine et al., 2018a;Primo, 2018). The proposed impact of such messages is supported by several theoretical perspectives which suggest that problematic gender representations can affect children's understanding of gender, for example, Social Cognitive Theory of Gender Development (Bussey and Bandura, 1999), and Gender Schema Theory (Bem, 1981). ...
... The current study, therefore, aims to extend previous work to consider and overcome some of the limitations identified within the previous quantitative content coding studies conducted by England et al. (2011) and Hine et al. (2018a). A quantitative content analysis of 39 Disney protagonists spanning films released from 1937 to 2021 for their levels of stereotypically masculine, feminine and gender-neutral behavior was thus conducted. ...
Previous research suggests that the portrayal of male and female protagonists in Disney animations may be changing over time. The current study examined the portrayal of gendered behaviors displayed within some of Disney's most successful animated feature length films, including those beyond the Disney princess franchise. Extending the scope of the Disney animated films analyzed was important because both young girls and young boys report little personal interest in male characters within the Disney princess animations. This suggests that it is important to look beyond the Disney princess franchise to understand the gendered behaviors displayed by potentially influential male Disney protagonists. The current study also considered a greater number of masculine and feminine behaviors as well as some gender-neutral traits which had yet to be incorporated. A quantitative content analysis of 39 Disney protagonists from films released between 1937 and 2021 was conducted. The results revealed that male and female protagonists were statistically higher in feminine than masculine traits. Female protagonists from the earliest animations were the most feminine. However, there was no statistical difference in the gendered portrayals of females in the animations released in the 1990s and those released from 2009 to 2021 suggesting some continued stereotyping in females' profiles. Alternatively, male characters were more feminine relatively consistently across time-points. This study concludes that Disney is persistently portraying stereotyped female protagonists, and this could have implications on young females' behavioral profiles. However, the extent to which feminine traits are being celebrated when displayed by male protagonists needs to be examined, as well as the potential relationship between such messages and boys' behaviors and children's conceptualizations of gender more broadly.
... The results contribute to the literature in several ways. First, Study 1 empirically demonstrates that gender-casted children's media contain stereotypical, gendered word associations that are only alluded to in content and qualitative studies (England et al., 2011;Schiele et al., 2020). Study 1′s text analysis of a robust, varied dataset provides the scientific backing for these associations. ...
... Male characters often exude the tropes of hegemonic masculinity, such as aggression, physical power, and competitiveness (Harriger et al., 2021). Meanwhile, female characters are depicted as affectionate and emotional (England et al., 2011), and often perform domestic tasks (Ghilzai et al., 2017;Magotra and Kaur, 2018). Moreover, these stereotypes are often "gender-casted," meaning that they are directed to girls in girl-directed media and boys in boy-directed media (Rajecki et al., 1993). ...
... Within the literature, there is an opportunity for scholars to empirically validate the associations between language and gender, and specifically, to examine the emotional tones in language. Existing studies that examine words and gender in children's media are drawn from word count analyses (England et al., 2011), or thematic analyses of storylines as opposed to words (Schiele et al., 2020). These studies allude to associations between words and gender, but stop short of scientifically verifying these associations. ...
This research examines the differences in emotional tones and drives in gender-casted (e.g. boy-directed vs. girl-directed) children's media and how this has changed over time. This topic is important given that children spend copious amounts of time watching media. Two studies utilizing Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) text analysis on a diverse body of over 1000 h of media transcripts from 78 franchises demonstrate that girl-directed children's media has a more positive emotional tone overall than boy-directed media, but that this difference is narrowing over time. Additionally, boy-directed media features a greater prevalence of words expressing the emotion of anger and the drives of power and risk. In contrast, girl-directed media features a greater prevalence of words expressing the emotion of sadness and the drive of affiliation. The results proffer insights into how emotional tones and drives represented in children's media may impact young consumers' understanding of gender.
... A Disney animált karakterei, a mesékben elhangzó dalok, a történetek témája több generáció közös kulturális értékei szerte a világon (Faherty, 2001). A Disney-hercegnős mesék nőképével foglalkozó korai elemzések szerint a Disney-hercegnők élete a ház köré szorul, a cselekmény szempontjából paszszívak, nem "megmentőek" és korlátozottak a romantikus lehetőségeik (Davis, 2006;England et al., 2011;Towbin et al., 2004). Az újabb kutatási eredmények azonban már elismerik, hogy a régi hercegnőkhöz képest az újabb hercegnők androgünebbek, aktívabbak, "megmentőbbek" és a szerelmi választásaikban is szabadabbak (Davis, 2006;England et al., 2011). ...
... A Disney-hercegnős mesék nőképével foglalkozó korai elemzések szerint a Disney-hercegnők élete a ház köré szorul, a cselekmény szempontjából paszszívak, nem "megmentőek" és korlátozottak a romantikus lehetőségeik (Davis, 2006;England et al., 2011;Towbin et al., 2004). Az újabb kutatási eredmények azonban már elismerik, hogy a régi hercegnőkhöz képest az újabb hercegnők androgünebbek, aktívabbak, "megmentőbbek" és a szerelmi választásaikban is szabadabbak (Davis, 2006;England et al., 2011). A régi és az új Disney-hercegnők külön-külön talán nem tökéletesek, de összességében jól illeszkednek a modern kor nőképéhez, amiben a hagyományos értékek szerint élő, azokat elfogadó és szerető nők mellett a világmentő, harcos amazonok is büszkén vállalhatják saját magukat (Hine et al., 2018a). ...
... Az animációs filmekből csodált karakterek modellezése folyamán a gyerekek a nemi alapú viselkedésformákat, kifejezéseket, gesztusokat és attitűdöket is képesek elsajátítani (Baker-Sperry, 2007;Coyne et al., 2014). Ez azért vet fel a pedagógia számára is érdekes kérdést, mert kutatások sora igazolja, hogy a média által közvetíttet üzenetek sztereotip módon ábrázolják a nemeket, fajokat, életkori csoportokat és szexuális irányultságokat (England et al., 2011;Junn, 1997). A nemi sztereotípiák megjelenése a médiában, és ezen médiatartalmak fogyasztása befolyásolja mind a nők, mind a férfiak viselkedését a nemekkel szemben (Coyne et al., 2014), ugyanakkor a történetekben szereplő csoportok megnövekedett képviselete vagy a szerepek eltérő tartalma megváltoztathatja a társadalom tagjainak nézeteit, viselkedését és gondolkodásmódját az adott csoportokkal, például a nemekkel kapcsolatosan (Towbin et al., 2004). ...
A média hatásának erősségéről és irányáról megoszlanak a vélemények, azonban a kutatók abban egyetértenek, hogy a gyermekek nemekkel kapcsolatos gondolkodá-sát a média is befolyásolja. Kérdőíves vizsgálatunkban arra kerestük a választ, hogy hogyan látják a szülők gyermekeik kedvenc Disney hercegnőit, van-e összefüggés a gyermekek személyiségvonásai, a szülők értékpreferenciái és a kedvenc hercegnők jelleme között. A válaszadó 1310 szülő véleménye alapján úgy találtuk, hogy a Dis-ney-hercegnős mesét fogyasztó gyerekek többsége a mesék főhősein keresztül a nők társadalmi szerepének változatos reprezentációját ismeri, ugyanakkor fiúk és lányok eltérő női főhősöket preferálnak. Vizsgálatunk szerint a szülők saját karakter-preferenciája, gyermekükről adott jellemzésük és a gyermekek felé támasztott értékalapú elvárások a gyermek neme által is meghatározottan összefüggenek azzal, hogy melyik Disney-karaktert látják gyermekeik kedvencének.
... This male hero is shown as taking initiative, being brave and identifying an opportunity to better the situation. Research on this by England et al. (2011) examined Disney movies in three chronological categories ranging from Snow White as the earliest to the Princess and the Frog as the latest. Their work indicates that especially in earlier, but still widely watched movies like Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty and Snow White, gender roles are portrayed quite explicitly by the main characters. ...
... Over time, with newer Disney movies, the characters become less gender stereotypical although England et al. (2011) conclude that female characters never show more masculine than feminine traits. The authors also suggest that across all (also newer) movies, princesses usually were not shown in promotion-oriented situations such as gaining power or being a leader, while princes were usually not shown in promotion 'failure' situations like losing power or being hopeless. ...
... The authors also suggest that across all (also newer) movies, princesses usually were not shown in promotion-oriented situations such as gaining power or being a leader, while princes were usually not shown in promotion 'failure' situations like losing power or being hopeless. England et al. (2011) also make interesting observations about later Disney princesses. While their behaviour appeared to become more masculine, their femininity did not decrease and so their behaviour incorporates elements of both. ...
The purpose of this research is to examine gender differences in promotion/prevention self‐regulatory focus, a dispositional motivational orientation with major implications for human functioning. First, a review of literature using social cognitive theory as a framework suggests that, driven by socialization processes, (1) women may on average be more prevention focused than men – meaning more vigilant to maintain a secure status quo, whereas (2) men may on average be more promotion focused than women – meaning more eager to advance to a better situation than their status quo. Second, we provide data to examine these possible gender differences in self‐regulatory focus with secondary analyses of (a) our own existing data on dispositional regulatory focus and of (b) a large scale, representative panel study (LISS Survey). The data suggest a highly consistent difference with women being more prevention focused than men, while the difference in promotion focus is much smaller and is only found in European samples. Auxiliary data suggest promotion‐focused women hold less traditional gender role beliefs as well as showing that regulatory focus partially explains examples of behavioural differences between men and women. The analysis of gender difference in regulatory focus sheds new light on gender differences and biases already known, and on regulatory focus, and as such opens up many new and important areas of future inquiry.
... Social role theory (e.g., Eagly et al., 2000) proposes that distinct gender roles, largely in line with traditional definitions of masculinity and femininity, are often imposed on men and women. Within the arts, gender has frequently been portrayed in accordance with traditional gender roles, reflecting the dominant gender system (e.g., Aley & Hahn, 2020;England et al., 2011;Ridgeway & Correll, 2004). Investigations of how gender is presented in the arts have tended to cite consumer impact as their rationale for study, and for good reason. ...
... Consistent with their rationale, such studies have generally taken an observational approach to assess the characters presented from the standpoint of the consumer. Typically, this has involved raters using standardized measures to assess characters' gender role conformity (e.g., Diekman & Murnen, 2004) and coding the observable behaviors and attributes of characters across television, film, and literature (e.g., Daalmans et al., 2017;England et al., 2011;Steinke & Tavarez, 2018). There has been little consideration of the characters from the point of view of those whose job it is to portray them: the actors. ...
... In addition, whereas female superhero characters are likely to be portrayed as more emotional, concerned about their appearance, likely to ask questions and less likely to express anger, they are equally likely to demonstrate bravery, dominance, and leadership, compared to male superheroes (Baker & Raney, 2007). Similarly, in considering the Disney princes and princesses, England et al. (2011) found some evidence of movement away from traditional gender themes over time including women undertaking housework, though certain stereotypical themes such as traits of fearfulness and nurturing remained. ...
Studies have found that audiences are often presented with characters that conform with traditional gender roles but there to date has been no empirical investigation into these characters from the actors’ perspective. We investigated the extent to which actors (n = 318) were required to conform to traditional gender roles in the course of their work and the disparity between their acted and ideal characters. We found that both male and female actors were required to portray traditional gender roles but that men were required to conform with these traditional notions of gender to a greater extent, resulting in the broadcast of a masculinized ideal. Both male and female actors indicated they would prefer to portray characters that conform less with traditional gender roles than their most recent character. Our findings support calls from audience-driven research for a movement away from the portrayal of traditional gender roles within the arts.
... Since Disney animated films began sweeping the world, media have been playing an important role in children' lives. In the socialization ecological system (Bronfenbrenner, 1992), media came to be an essential agent because of its unique features, including easy accessibility, entertaining function, and fast dissemination (Ahmed & Wahab, 2014;England et al., 2011;Holtzman & Sharpe, 2014;Silverstein, 1985). In modern societies, children are taught about social norms through their exposure to media. ...
... Women were often associated with in-home labor, less employment, and had little familial or societal power (Wiserma, 2000). Besides, prince and princess characters embody traditionally masculine and feminine characteristics, such as men are brave and fearless while women are beautiful and naive (England et al., 2011). The powerlessness of Disney females is usually rendered through cliché storylines. ...
... They are frequently being verbally described according to appearance, cooking skill, and artistic talents. This finding is in agreement with what has been discovered in Disney animated films, in which the stereotypical gender roles are reinforced through male and female characters' characterizations and plots (England et al., 2011;Maity, 2014;Wiserma, 2000). ...
This dissertation seeks to deepen understanding of language-mediated gender socialization of Chinese children by answering three questions. In the family setting, how do parent-child interactions convey gender norms and gender-related expectations? In the school setting, how do teacher-child interaction embody gender norms? What role is cartoon playing in socializing Chinese children with gender? I analyze linguistic data collected from two Chinese families, two Chinese kindergartens, and one household name Chinese cartoon. The results provide novel answers to the three questions. First, parent-child verbal interactions differ in terms of the child’s gender. While the father-son pair focus more on rules in the physical world and skill development, the mother-daughter pair care more about social relations, emotions, and joyful life experience. Second, though aware of gender-egalitarian principles, Chinese kindergarten teachers subconsciously treat boys and girls in inconsistent manners. Children of different gender receive diverse interaction frequency, speech length, and speech acts from their teacher. Third, through artistic creation, Chinese cartoon embraces overt gender stereotypes through its language and plots. Male characters produce statistically significantly more utterances and visit a wider range of out-home locations than female characters. Male characters are portrayed through lexemes that embody adventurous and heroic masculine gender norms, while female characters are primarily associated with lexemes that related to home-based and appearance-related feminine gender stereotypes. All three case studies associate gender socialization with contemporary Chinese zeitgeist. I thus advocate an approach to gender socialization that considers layers of factors in a target society, as it allows us to develop a more comprehensive understanding of gender in dynamic social practices.
... Harriger et al. (2021) then focused specifically on male representation and masculinity in children's animations. They studied the top 30 movies from IMDb's 2019 list of the top US grossing animations, using the codes for masculinity from previous studies, such as England et al. (2011). Results showed that the most common masculinity themes were "violence, inspires fear, and risk-taking" (p. ...
... Despite these advancements, however, negative stereotypes persist, as evidenced by Dundes's (2017a, 2017b) and Primo's (2018)'s examinations of individual Disney films. England et al. (2011) investigated nine princess films, starting from Snow White and the Seven Dwarves (1937) to The Princess and the Frog (2009). They found that while portrayals have become more egalitarian over the films, strongly gendered messages in the resolutions of the movies, such as climatic rescues and the classic happilyever-after, point towards a more traditional view of gender roles. ...
... Streiff and Dundes (2017b) conclude that the male protagonist, Maui, exemplifies hypermasculinity through his physical strength and his phallic symbol of a fishhook. Maui's characterization contradicts the trends observed in England et al. (2011) and Hine et al. (2018)'s studies; namely, the increasing androgyny and femininity of male protagonists. Streiff and Dundes also analyzed Te Fiti, the "Mother Island" for gender stereotypes. ...
Gender role portrayal in children’s media, especially in animated films, have been studied considerably to understand its possible effects on children’s perceptions of gender. Previous studies have shown that characters in these films are usually depicted in traditional and sometimes negative representations of gender roles. However, while Western children’s animations have been frequently discussed, little research has been done on gender role portrayal in Studio Ghibli films, despite their popularity both in Japan and internationally. To address this gap in research, the current study analyzed the behaviors of male and female protagonists from five Studio Ghibli films (e.g., Castle in the Sky, Spirited Away). The study used a coded content analysis method first developed by England, Descartes, and Collier-Meek in a 2011 study on gender role portrayal in Disney princess movies. During the research process, the frequency of gendered characteristics exhibited by the male and female protagonists of each film was tracked and recorded. Results indicated that while male protagonists exhibited more traditionally masculine characteristics, female protagonists portrayed close to equal levels of masculine and feminine characteristics, suggesting that they were more androgynous than their male counterparts. Examination of the protagonists’ most frequently exhibited characteristics as well as their rescuing actions also supported this conclusion. These findings add to the existing discussion on gender portrayal in children’s media and to the limited research on Studio Ghibli films in hopes of providing the groundwork for future exploration.
... In recent films, the gender message did not consistently deviate from traditional themes. While certain films depicted non-stereotypical gender attributes, all of them included some form of stereotypical gender depiction (England et al., 2011). Women (Wiersma, n.d.) are depicted in media as conforming to traditional gender stereotypes, with characteristics such as being affectionate, emotional, and sensitive, while men are portrayed as forceful, athletic, and independent. ...
... In contrast, Mulan's prince was characterised by physical strength and aggression. On average, the princesses displayed more masculine traits than feminine traits as their most prominent personality characteristics (England et al., 2011). In the 2011 Disney film Tangled, the protagonist is rescued by a male character and faces similar obstacles as modern girls, including the conflict between conforming to traditional gender roles and pursuing an independent, self-driven life of individual achievement (Saladino, n.d.). ...
The intricate and multifaceted notion of cultural inclusion exerts a considerable influence on the social structure of a community owing to its deep impact. Colombia is characterised by its extensive ethnic diversity and multicultural heritage, resulting in a prominent presence of cultural inclusion within the country. The acclaimed Disney film "Encanto" offers a glimpse into the diverse and vibrant Colombian culture by highlighting its cultural richness. Analysing the play "Encanto" from the perspective of its central theme of inclusivity is a way to gain a more profound comprehension of the cultural variety present in Colombia. An analysis of the portrayal of Colombian customs, folklore, and social dynamics in the movie might provide insight into the essence of Colombian identity. The Colombian identity is defined by the intricate network of cultural inclusivity present in the country. In summary, the objective of this study is to elucidate the methods through which Colombia has successfully fostered cultural tolerance with the purpose of uniting and fortifying its highly diverse society. Encanto" serves as a captivating reflection of Colombia's rich and diverse heritage. Through the fictional Madrigal family and their enchanted home, the film celebrates Colombian culture in a vibrant and authentic manner. The portrayal of magical realism, a quintessential element of Latin American literature, adds an enchanting layer to the narrative, blending fantasy with cultural traditions. The visually stunning landscapes, colourful costumes, and lively music pay homage to Colombia's distinct regions and indigenous communities. This paper critically analyses the Disney film 'Encanto' and examines the underlying messages within the animated visuals. This paper discusses how animation as a medium can effectively convey cultural inclusivity. This uses insights from film theory, art, and cultural studies to understand wider connotations of animation.
... They became one of the most common means of entertainment for children by the mid-20th century. They proved to be children's primary source of information, they contributed to create children's personalities, shaping their attitudes along with affecting their behaviour (England, Descartes, and Collier-Meek 2011). Children consequently started to relate each gender with their proper roles based on the wrong image communicated through the medium of animated movies (England, Descartes, and Collier-Meek 2011). ...
... They proved to be children's primary source of information, they contributed to create children's personalities, shaping their attitudes along with affecting their behaviour (England, Descartes, and Collier-Meek 2011). Children consequently started to relate each gender with their proper roles based on the wrong image communicated through the medium of animated movies (England, Descartes, and Collier-Meek 2011). Accordingly, a range of studies have been conducted on decoding the messages that animated movies include regarding gender stereotyping. ...
Despite the global orientation towards gender equality as described in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, the mainstream representation of the question of gender and male privilege still persist on the global and cultural arena of motion pictures industry. This study engages with the problematic of gender codification in motion picture industry. It particularly tackles the question of gender stereotyping in the Disney movie Mulan (1998), and how language codifies power relations and male privilege in Patriarchal Discourse. Adopting a feminist stylistic approach, the study examines the Disney Production Mulan (1998) to investigate the patriarchal discourse assignment of fixed constructs of male/female identities and social roles embedded in gender representation. The study utilizes Conversation Analysis tools to showcase how the conversation exchanges between Mulan and other characters represent and construct the development of Disney viewpoint towards the question of gender. The study argues for the significance of merging feminist stylistic model of analysis with the Conversation Analysis tools on the theoretical level in highlighting the power relation embedded in Mulan movie (1998) and Disney's vision towards the question of gender. Second, as the findings manifest, despite Disney's movement towards feminist representation of female characters of the Third Wave of Feminism, the question of gender stereotyping and maintenance of male privilege still persist in gender representation: The male share in articulating patriarchal mindset and order exceeds female share.
... Disney has stirred nostalgia with the release of the Live Action films, a collection which has reimagined some of Disney's most classic animations. The Disney Princess Line, one of the highest grossing and longest running collections of animated Disney films (England et al., 2011;Xu, 2021), has been the showcase for these new takes on classic narratives. The Live Action releases have prompted scholastic inquiry on the motivations of Disney's branding with the deliberate choices through the consistencies and alterations displayed in the Live Action films (Houwers, 2017;Kunze, 2021;Kusumajanti et al., 2020;Olson, 2013;Sculos, 2017;Zirger, 2020). ...
... Disney has considerable ownership and influence as one of the Big 6 media companies that control over 90% of media output in the United States (McChesney, 2000). With their long running history and profit through children's animation films (England et al., 2011;Xu, 2021), their impact is amplified through the release of Disney+ (Sturgill, 2019). Disney has had their fair share of critiques regarding beauty standards (Sultan, 2016;Tan, 2022), ethnic diversity (Benhamou, 2014;Blankestijn, 2015;Matyas, 2010), and the negative impacts on young audiences (Arnold et. ...
The economic market today has offered large opportunities to women. There is no doubt that the number of female entrepreneurs and women-owned businesses is increasing. In Asia, there has been an emphasis on crucial prerequisites to change and encourage gender integrative entrepreneurship for maintainable economic advance. This study aims to recognize the international gender integrative
entrepreneurship in the digital era and discusses the role of entrepreneurship education for better releasing the global transformative power of innovative entrepreneurship. The evolving features of the entrepreneurship ecosystem such as academics becoming entrepreneurs and digital entrepreneurship are discussed to emphasize the possible trends of international entrepreneurship. Statistics analysis of field data collected by surveys investigates the awareness of entrepreneurship determinants and gender equity among people who study abroad or have international work experience in digital entrepreneurship. We highlight the importance of entrepreneurship education and knowledge of the entrepreneurial competency framework for women's access to relational support in the entrepreneurial field. In addition, the role of entrepreneurship education and knowledge of the entrepreneurial competency framework in terms of entrepreneurial intentions is also highlighted through path analysis and finally we also discuss the role of knowing that women are at a disadvantage in the entrepreneurial market in facilitating perceived entrepreneurial behavior.
... Perceptive awareness/knowledgeability toward issues and emotions (England et al., 2011) "I mean, that's what inspires people, being real." ...
... Brave, daring, no fear [O'Neil, 2016] Stands alone in the middle of the train tracks in pitch black. Strong exerting power/toughness physically onto or towards another or an object (England et al., 2011). ...
Many studies have established the prevalence of the underrepresentation and stereotypical representation of female characters in film and its negative implications on viewers. However, other literature suggests that these issues can be ameliorated with the presence of female filmmakers. For instance, studies have compared male and female directors in their representation of female characters in high-grossing films and found stronger representation in female-directed films. However, no study has directly compared male and female directors in the context of independent film. Thus, this study looks to answer “How Do Male And Female Directors Compare In Their Portrayals of Females in Independent Films From 2021?” using the Bechdel Test and a directed content analysis of female stereotypes/non-stereotypes to compare female representation within three male-directed films and three female-directed films. It finds that while female-directed films are less likely to underrepresent, stereotype, and monolithically represent females, the difference is not substantial. Moreover, female and male directors portrayed their female characters in very similar ways.
... Disney media is extremely popular and accessible (Spangler, 2020), and carries gendered patterns (England et al., 2011;Hine et al., 2018;. Specifically, Disney princess culture is often thought of as hyper-feminine (Arnold et al., 2015), with princesses displaying traditional feminine characteristics such as tending to their physical appearance and being highly affectionate (England et al., 2011). ...
... Disney media is extremely popular and accessible (Spangler, 2020), and carries gendered patterns (England et al., 2011;Hine et al., 2018;. Specifically, Disney princess culture is often thought of as hyper-feminine (Arnold et al., 2015), with princesses displaying traditional feminine characteristics such as tending to their physical appearance and being highly affectionate (England et al., 2011). The effects of engagement with Disney princess culture on young children, however, are heavily nuanced. ...
... Research rarely distinguishes between the different princesses children might pretend to be, dress up as, or watch. As the Disney princesses differ in their gendered behaviors (England et al., 2011), and body sizes (Brubaker et al., 2023), there is a strong likelihood that children may experience differential effects based on which princess they engage with the most. For example, Pocahontas is depicted as more emotionally stoic and athletic than other princesses such as Aurora, who collapses crying at several points throughout the film and is rarely depicted as engaging in any physical or athletic activity. ...
... Many content analyses have examined the highly gendered nature of Disney princess media, although these portrayals have shifted over time (Arnold et al., 2015;England et al., 2011). Within the framework of social cognitive theory, it is possible that children may internalize these gender stereotypes as they are framed as desirable or "good" within Disney princess media. ...
This study explores the longitudinal effect of princess body size of children’s favorite Disney princesses on young children’s body esteem and gendered play over a 1-year period using a sample of 320 children, age 3½ at Time 1 and age 4½ at Time 2. Girls whose favorite princess had an average body size engaged in more masculine-type play a year later, but there were no associations between princesses’ body size and developmental outcomes for boys. Children whose favorite princess had an average body size showed a positive relationship between playing pretend princess and body esteem, masculine-type play, and feminine-type play. Children whose favorite princess was thin did not show a relationship between playing pretend princess and body esteem, masculine-type play, or feminine-type play. Our findings suggest that princesses with average body sizes create a protective context for children’s body esteem and may encourage both masculine- and feminine-type play by modeling both masculine and feminine activities and behaviors.
... Disney is one of the leading media industries worldwide. Although Disney's series and film are produced in the United States, it affects strongly around the world (England et al., 2011). With this powerful effect, it will be easy for Disney to construct and shape the audience's beliefs. ...
... The Disney Princesses' influence was getting enormous because of the powerful marketing franchise supporting them. Over 26.000 products rose from 300 million in annual sales in 2001 to 4 billion in 2008 (England et al., 2011). ...
As the role of mass media has increased, people have become more obsessed with the ideal portrayal of “ideal beauty and body”. With Disney Princess, the media’s perception of “ideal beauty and body” even spread to younger audiences. This study aims to analyze the comparison of beauty standards and body image between Disney Princesses and Female Villains. A quantitative content analysis method consists of two categories; videlicet Beauty Standards and Body Image are used to analyze the visualization of the characters. Six indicators for Beauty Standards and three for the Body Images category. This research found no differences in Beauty Standards and Body Images between Disney Princesses and Female Villains. Still, two indicators in Beauty Standards are declared significant, namely Hair Color and Physical Appearance. Eventually, this study declared no significant indicators difference between subjects; still, there are two indicators declared significant, which can lead to audiences’ misperception
... These critical scholars align themselves with researchers who for a long time has criticized Disney films for repackaging and representing heteropatriarchal family values (Dundes and Dundes, 2005;Garlen and Sandlin, 2017;Streiff and Dundes, 2017;Zurcher, Webb, and Robinson, 2018) and for promoting stereotypical gender roles (Coyne, Linder, Rasmussen, Nelson, and Birkbeck, 2016;Dundes and Streiff, 2016;England, Descartes, and Collier-Meek, 2011;Rudloff, 2016). Wiersma in a study of sixteen Disney films found that the gender representations were not up to date (Wiersma, 2000). ...
... Towbin et al. analysed twenty-six Disney films and found many instances of stereotypes, including gender-related ones, although to a lesser extent in later films (Towbin, Haddock, Zimmerman, Lund, and Tanner, 2003). In a similar vein, a more recent study by England, Descartes and Collier-Meek (2011) of nine films belonging to the Disney Princess line concluded that all of these films contain at least some stereotypical representations of gender. Here we should note that all of these studies were made on Disney films being produced before Frozen. ...
This article focuses on the reception of Frozen by young Turkish women, posing three major questions: (1) How did young women in Turkey describe Elsa? (2) What are the differences between Frozen and other princess movies? (3) Do young Turkish women think Frozen is a feminist movie? The most interesting findings of this research have to do with the third question. Here a superficial view of the responses would suggest that the research participants agree with those critics of Frozen who claim that it is not a feminist film. However, once one takes a closer look at their responses, one can see that this agreement holds only in form, and not in content, as the research participants recognize feminist qualities in the film but without being willing to label them as feminist. The reason for this has to do with the negative connotations of the terms “feminism” and “feminist” in Turkish mainstream language. Here, a feminist viewpoint has to be expressed in terms of “women – men equality” instead. This particular finding points to the more general need in any cross-cultural research to ascertain the translatability of central terms having evaluative connotations, like “feminism” and “feminist” in this case.
... The results of content analyses of the female image of Disney Princess tales increasingly report a change in the representation of women (Hine et al., 2018/b). According to previous analyses, the female protagonists of these tales are limited, their lives are confined around the house, they are passive in terms of the plot, they are not "saviour" and their romantic options are limited (Davis, 2006;England et al., 2011;Towbin et al., 2004). ...
... However, researchers also acknowledge that newer princesses are more androgynous, more active, more "saviour"-like and freer in their love choices than traditional ones (Davis, 2006;England et al., 2011). The new Disney Princesses are not perfect, but they are more in line with the image of women in the modern age, as they show a diverse representation of female quality in which world-saving, warrior amazons can proudly assume themselves in addition to women who accept and love as well as live according to traditional values (Hine et al., 2018/a). ...
Content analyses of the female image of Disney Princess (DP) tales increasingly report a change in the representation of women. While classic DPs are found to be passive in terms of the plot, they are not “saviour” and their romantic options are limited, newer princesses are more androgynous, more active, more “saviour”-like and freer in their decisions and choices than traditional ones. Media can influence gender stereotypes and gender-related behaviour in childhood, and women who identify themselves as “princesses” in adulthood typically think in gender stereotype patterns, are less motivated in self-actualisation, and are more likely to run away from hard tasks. All this draws attention to the possibility of the early socialisation effect of princess tales and raises the importance of examining individual characters. Quantitative study was conducted to examine how parents see their children’s favorite DPs, whether there is a correlation between parents’ value preferences for their kids and the character of favorite DPs perceived by the parents. Our self-developed questionnaire contained items from Schwartz Value Profile and previous studies about DPs. Participant (N=1310) were Hungarian parents of pre-school girls and boys, from various social background and residence. Our study found that parents’ own character preferences, their characterisation of their child and the value-based expectations placed on children are related to which Disney character they consider as their children’s favorite. Results can be discussed from different approaches: media effect, gender stereotypes, national characteristics of parenting and values.
... The Feminist Film Theory, further explored by Smelik (2016), analyzes media representations of gender and sexuality, notably through the concept of the "male gaze" pioneered by Laura Mulvey in her 1975 essay "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema." Mulvey's seminal work sheds light on the pervasive gender biases in film, exemplified by the objectification and vilification of female characters in Disney films, as noted by England and Collier-Meek (2011), where princesses' narratives often hinge on conforming to restrictive gender stereotypes. ...
... One powerful way gender is reaffirmed is through the media people expose children to. In Disney media, for example, stereotypical portrayals of gender are common, wherein male-coded characters are often depicted as more adventurous, assertive, powerful, braver, and generally more accomplished (Streiff & Dundes, 2017a, 2017b; female-coded characters, on the other hand, are typically depicted as affectionate and helpful (Aley & Hahn, 2020;Baker & Raney, 2007;England et al., 2011;Leaper et al., 2002). Among all Disney movies, Mulan atypically constructs and performs a non-stereotypical female image of Mulan as a war hero. ...
This paper examines the unique employment of masculine language by the character Mulan in Disney's 1998 film Mulan, underpinning its analysis with Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity. Unlike traditional Disney princesses, Mulan adopts a non-stereotypical female role by disguising herself as a male warrior to save her country. With a conversation analysis approach, this study delves into how Mulan's language reflects masculinity, thereby challenging conventional gender roles and contributing to her portrayal as a formidable war hero. Using a sociolinguistic framework by scholars Tannen, Coates, and Mills, the paper analyses seven conversations from the film to reveal how Mulan’s speech aligns with masculine constructs such as assertiveness, independence, and dominance. The findings of this paper not only support Butler's notion that gender is performative but also highlight the media’s role in shaping and challenging societal norms concerning gender.
... This includes those who are similar to or different from the viewer's own gender, race/ethnicity, and physical or mental ability (e.g., Banjo & Jennings, 2017). Content-analytic work in this area has suggested that popular media often reinforces stereotypical depictions of identity characteristics such as gender (Hentges & Case, 2013;Wiersma, 2000), for instance by overrepresenting male characters as heroes (Aley & Hahn, 2020) and over-feminizing princesses (England et al., 2011). However, other work demonstrates a shift between first-generation princesses (e.g., Snow White and Sleeping Beauty) and second (e.g., Mulan) and thirdgeneration princesses (e.g., Moana), with more recent depictions portraying androgynous, independent, less-romanticized female leads who also engage in heroic behaviors Hine, Ivanovic, et al., 2018). ...
Children's entertainment media has been the topic of great scholarly and public concern for as long as entertaining media have existed. Typically, this concern is focused on the potential for media to negatively impact young audiences' social and academic development. But is this concern warranted? What exactly do children "get" from entertainment media? In this chapter, we attempt to answer these questions. We first provide an overview of several different age and developmental markers that characterize the heterogeneity of child audiences and review the factors that govern media's influence on audiences at different developmental milestones. Next, we turn to research assessing entertainment media's effects on children in three key areas: story evaluation, academic competencies, and social values. Finally, we look to the future of the field and consider questions left to be answered by scholars assessing the complex relationship between entertainment media and young audiences.
... Nurturing refers to giving loving attention and assistance to animals, humans, or even the surrounding environment that may support their life and growth (England, Descartes, & Collier-Meek, 2011;Nemcek, 1987). Meanwhile, nurturing act of a mother can be shown by providing security, safety, and responsive caregiving for the children (Daelmans, Manji, & Raina, 2021;World Health Organization, United Nations Children's Fund, & World Bank Group, 2018). ...
Although Maleficent’s characterizations as wicked witch by the first Disney’s adaptation into Maleficent in 2014, the beginning of the 2019 sequel Maleficent: Mistress of Evil started with a prologue that Maleficent was narratively still considered evil, from which the plot evolves to reveal how the marginalizing characterization prevailed. Amidst this entanglement between the film’s plot and Maleficent’s character revelation, the present study aimed at elaborating Maleficent’s characterizations as an affectionate fey. The present study employed McKee’s (2003) textual analysis to observe Maleficent’s characterizations along the plot development, to reveal how the film portray Maleficent’s affectionate dispositions despite her formidable strength and appearance. The study concludes that Maleficent affections are highlighted through her actions toward the moors and the marginalized, as well as her blessings for Prince Phillip, underlining her willingness to admit her misjudgment and to repent because of her love for Aurora. This finding implies that the film’s plot development strongly relies on Maleficent’s character development facilitated by her strong affection as a surrogate mother.Although Maleficent’s character as a wicked witch has been deconstructed by the first Disney's adaptation of Maleficent in 2014, the beginning of the 2019 sequel Maleficent: Mistress of Evil started with a prologue that Maleficent was narratively still considered evil, from which the plot evolves to reveal how her marginalizing traits prevailed. Amidst this entanglement between the film's plot and Maleficent's character revelation, the present study aimed at elaborating on Maleficent's personality as an affectionate fey. The present study employed McKee’s (2003) textual analysis to observe Maleficent’s character development along the plot development to reveal how the film portrays Maleficent's growing affectionate dispositions despite her formidable strength and appearance. The study concludes that Maleficent's affections are highlighted through her loving, nurturing, and protective traits toward Aurora, the creatures of the Moors, other feys, and humans. With the depiction of these traits, Maleficent emerged as an affectionate Fey in human's eyes. They eliminate the prejudice against Maleficent, the feys, and the fairies, fostering a harmonious life between humans, the feys, and the fairies.
... Another study by Davis (2005) That being said, adults may have been continuously exposed to Disney's animated movies during their childhood and formative years, which is very likely to have an impact (Gray, 2019). Several studies investigated the influence of Disney's movies on modern society (Bazzini et al., 2010;England et al., 2011;Hine et al., 2018;Maity, 2014;Robinson et al., 2007;Saleh & Salih, 2022;Siddique et al., 2021). A study by Robinson, for instance, analyzed 34 Disney animated movies from 1937 up to 2004 and found that most older characters were portrayed positively (Robinson et al., 2007). ...
Background: Raya and the Last Dragon is the first Disney movie inspired by traditional Southeast Asian cultures, somewhat under-represented in mainstream media. Hence, the movie is worth further investigation. Purpose: The study intends to read Disney’s Raya and the Last Dragon using a deconstructionist lens. Methods: The study used qualitative analysis of audio-visual materials. The auditory and visual aspects of the movie are examined using a deconstructionist lens by watching and rewatching the movie with occasional note-taking. Data are presented in the forms of characters’ dialogues, and screen captures of relevant scenes. Results: It found that, to a certain extent, the movie deconstructs dominant narratives. The most prosperous tribe, Heart’s chief, chooses to promote trust and cooperation over violence. Then, against popular views associating toddlers with innocence, this movie presents a toddler as a con baby. It also seems to advocate the power of youngsters to make a difference in society. Though it seems to have feminist details through its two androgynous female warriors, Raya and Namaari, the same characters lead Kumandra to its downfall and eventual rise. It suggested that female warriors can achieve great things but also bring catastrophes. The movie, furthermore, portrays Sisu as an insecure yet trusting dragon, quite different from the typical portrayals of dragons often associated with power and destruction. However, the movie marginalizes the antagonists, the Druun, by not giving them the language to defend themselves from the judgmental assumptions of the talking characters. Implications: The movie carries hidden messages and could be used to challenge dominant narratives. It, however, could also be used to marginalize certain groups.
... The portrayal of gender in Disney princess animations has been widely examined (Towbin et al., 2004;Giroux and Pollock, 2010;England et al., 2011;Dundes and Streiff, 2016;Streiff and Dundes, 2017a,b;Hine et al., 2018;Primo, 2018). However, little research has investigated the portrayal of gender within the Marvel and Star Wars franchises, which Disney acquired in 2009 and 2012, respectively. ...
An abundance of previous research has investigated how gender has been portrayed within feature length films produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios, particularly those within the Disney princess franchise. However, the Disney corporation acquired the Marvel and Star Wars franchises in 2009 and 2012, respectively, which was likely a strategy for the corporation to obtain characters that would capture the imagination of boys and men. The current qualitative study explored how gender is portrayed by leading protagonists in these texts, utilising thematic analysis, which was necessary considering little is currently known in this domain. The researchers analysed series one of Avengers Assemble and series one of Star Wars Rebels. Interpretation of the data led to the development of several themes and subthemes based on the gendered portrayals within each series. Overall, the findings suggest that there was more overt gender stereotyping in Avengers Assemble when compared with Star Wars Rebels, meaning that the former could be particularly problematic for children who may replicate its messages. The current study has facilitated a greater understanding of the gendered messages that may be consumed by children who engage with Marvel and Star Wars media. Future research is needed to assess the relationship between such messages and children’s behaviour.
... In the late 20th century, numerous studies revealed gender inequities and gender stereotyping in representations in the context of animated television media, concluding that male characters appeared much more often and showed more aggressiveness and proactiveness, while female characters were scarcer, more deferent, and respectful [5,6,7,8]. In the subsequent decades and until today, researchers would establish that gender, racial and cultural stereotypes have persisted in animated productions [9,10,11,12], where male characters still outnumber female characters by a significant margin, even though we can see improvement towards gender parity [13]. It has also been shown how female characters talk significantly less than male characters [14], both in animated movies as well as live-action ones. ...
This article addresses the underrepresentation of women in the context of popular contemporary animated feature films. These films reach worldwide audiences and play a pervasive role in contemporary society, by contributing to the creation and reinforcement of social concepts, while shaping young audience's social expectations. Therefore, it is relevant to understand how the content presented in these movies is evolving. For this study, we gathered data on 260 popular animated movies that were released after 2001 and, through quantitative data analysis, learned that: more than 90% of the directors of these movies are men, approximately 80% of the movies have a male-driven narrative and almost half of these movies don't pass the Bechdel test. The staggering results confirm the gender imbalance in today's animation industry. Nonetheless, the present research intends to contribute to overcome this imbalance by fostering critical thinking and discussion around the subject.
... In this study, a comparative analysis is made on the transformation of Disney's female character image from the beginning to the present by taking Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Moana as cases. Female characters have changed over time in the Disney Princess line [1]. The biggest audiences of these series of films are children and women, reflecting the female images and social concepts of different periods at that time, and also influencing the development of feminism in different era. ...
Disney is one of the most famous film companies in the world, and its Disney Princess series is also one of the most popular movies for women and children. The characteristics and personalities of the princesses influence peoples ideas. However, with the passage of time, the image of women in Disney movies has also undergone great changes. In this regard, based on Disneys first princess movie Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and the last officially certified princess movie Moana, this paper makes a case analysis and comparison of female characters in these two movies. Through the method of literature analysis, it can be concluded that with the development of feminism, Disneys portrayal of female characters has changed from a single, weak and innocent flat image at the beginning to a diversified and independent image of the brave in the modern era.
... deutliche Orientierung an soziokulturellen Stereotypen, die entweder forciert oder dekonstruiert werden. (Heider & Simmel, 1944 (Callcott & Lee, 1994) oder zur Stereotypisierung hinsichtlich Geschlecht und weiteren Kategorien (England et al., 2011;Towbin et al., 2004). Die filmund medienwissenschaftliche Forschung widmet sich dagegen einem breiteren Themenspektrum. ...
... Female characters are more likely to be portrayed as passive and submissive. Female characters need to rely on male characters for production [7]. Female characters are more likely to be portrayed as victims, while male characters are more likely to be portrayed as powerful and militant [8]. ...
Disney movies have been a much-researched topic, especially for studying the impact of childrens perceptions of traditional gender roles and sexist stereotypes. Disney movies often portray women as needing rescue, weakness and passivity from male characters. These movies perpetuate traditional gender roles but also largely limit the roles women can play in society. Therefore, this review will examine various studies that examine the impact of Disney movies on childrens perceptions of gender roles and stereotypes, and further discuss how to counter these negative effects. Children are easily and deeply influenced by the characters and plots portrayed in movies, they gradually internalize the idea that men should dominate and women should be submissive in their daily lives. This perception can negatively affect childrens interpersonal relationships, which can lead to harmful behaviors and attitudes, such as gender-based violence and discrimination. Parents and educators need to be aware of these issues and further research is needed to explore the long-term effects of Disney movies on childrens attitudes and beliefs.
... Moreover, Miss Trunchbull's power to create a significant impact at the Crumchem Hall School depicted her as a strong woman. Strong means an ability to control others (England, Descartes, Collier-Meek, 2011). (Tong, 2009) also states that a woman's financial independence is a feature of liberal feminism. ...
Matilda is one of Roald Dahl's greatest works. In this novel, the titular character, Matilda, is described as a five-year-old girl Matilda with extraordinary ability, despite her unfavorable family. She was fortunate to meet a dedicated teacher, Miss Honey, who recognized her talents. The present study aimed at analyzing Roald Dahl’s novel entitled Matilda from feminist perspectives. This study focused on analyzing feminism represented in the novel’s intrinsic elements. The study employed close reading enriched with Rosemary Tong's elaboration on feminist perspectives. The analysis revealed that feminist ideologies are represented through the novel’s theme, setting, and characterizations of the major characters. The novel's theme represents feminist ideologies by presenting women against, abused, or embraced feminist ideologies. The socio-cultural setting of the novel further emphasized the oppression of women who wanted to be independent. The depiction of feminism was strongly presented in the characterizations of Matilda and Miss Honey, who cooperated in fighting against their families' patriarchal treatment. These results imply that the novel is educative for children and young women to raise awareness about gender equality.
... Study shows that princesses from the New-Age also perform about the same number of rescues as the princes [13]. This means that princes are no longer the only ones saving the day. ...
From 1937 to the present, Disney produced 13 princess movies in total. Many gender portrayals in these movies are stereotypical, inaccurate, and/or problematic. To explore the effects of these stereotypes displayed in Disney's princess movies on its viewers, this paper reviewed 25 sources to first demonstrate if and how Disney princesses has changed throughout the years. It will then analyze how the evolving portrayal of female characters casts influences on young girls. Results of the study shows that Disney princesses have advanced in terms of their decision-making abilities and leadership skills, but not in their body images and representations. Research also reveals that princess media in-take can cast negative influences on young girls' body esteem, while it is still unclear how young girls will be influenced in terms of their self-confidence as the Disney princess line continues to progress. Possible intervention includes the concept of media literacy and what adults can do to minimize the manipulation of the media on their child.
... Another example is the character of Alya, who is brave and daring in the face of the threat of villains. In this way, this programme continues with the line of modern animations where the female characters play a heroic role [32,33]. ...
This study follows the line of different authors who examined the visibility of ethnic diversity in children’s television series and the psychoeducational implications of these media narratives for children. Specifically, this work analyses the behaviours/actions developed by the model characters of cultural diversity and how these characters promote a perspective on diversity that conditions children. Employing a qualitative methodology, we use content analysis and critical discourse analysis as tools to be able to read, describe and interpret said content. The results highlight that these children’s programmes present a culture that reinforces certain values and behaviours. Likewise, the TV programmes analysed present stories marked by models of cultural diversity that contribute to the maintenance of certain social structures and the normalisation of inequality. We believe that educational institutions, through media education, should go deeper and teach students to look critically, deciphering codes of the audiovisual language present in the elements of children’s stories. In the complex society of the 21st century, we must consider that the needs of children change depending on how their identity intersects with aspects such as ethnicity, class, gender, etc., in order to equip them with the appropriate tools to deal with these problems.
... It is therefore clear that this is a yoke that society has been subliminally imposing on women. In film and television, female characters are portrayed as slender, white, gentle, familyoriented and dependent on men [14], which has been criticized by many scholars as reinforcing media stereotypes of women. Merchandise advertisements, such as 'hair removal creams' and 'anti-ageing skin care products', offered a variety of physical and figurative language to entice female users to use the products. ...
As the influence of the media on the female body image has been of great interest to scholars, this article examines the influence of the media on the ideology of the female body image based on the national fitness boom in China driven by Will Liu. In the development of body image anxiety, scholars have previously attributed social comparison theory and psychological factors. However, research on the role of social media communication is lacking. Therefore, this study will be based on the influence of mass communication #WillLiu’s Girls labels on body image ideology. As a result, it is evident that Chinese women place a much more emphasis on fitness, weight loss and slimming results than men. The media and corporate promotions cause Chinese women to get lost in the weight loss vortex. This study believes that the inequality between men and women in society itself has contributed to an increased anxiety about female body image, and that the media has exacerbated to this process.
Studying the role of state, society, and family regarding patriarchy and gender stereotypes. Patriarchy is ingrained in the roots of the subcontinent, which includes Pakistan. Patriarchy gives rise to gender stereotypes, and they become societal norms. This study will be limited to Pakistan and the role of the state, society, and family in facilitating or curbing the role of gender stereotypes. It explores the changes brought by technological advancements, education, awareness, and media and their impact on societal systems and mindsets. What further needs to be done to bring some constructive changes in the existing biases and how the plight of women empowerment can break the shackles of patriarchy and gender stereotypes?
In this analysis, we argue that the film Maleficent rhetorically communicates productive ecofeminist values to international audiences. Specifically, we examine Maleficent at the intersections of ecological studies, queer theory, and intercultural communication by adopting a queer ecofeminist framework that calls into question the audience as a participatory group in preventable environmental degradation. Primarily, we track the way characters in the film use intercultural communication to cross borders and build an environmentally friendly community based on queer ecofeminist ethics. Ultimately, Maleficent communicates an awareness of ecological pedagogical practices that serve to liberate audience members in the midst of environmental collapse.
This paper conducts a critical discourse analysis to explore how gender roles are portrayed in selected scenes of the English children's movie "Toy Story 1". Employing Fairclough's three-dimensional framework, the study analyses linguistic features such as vocabulary usage, pronouns, and modalities to reveal underlying societal and institutional biases. By examining the interactions between characters such as Woody, Buzz Lightyear, Bo Peep, and others, the study aims to uncover the underlying messages about linguistic gender norms and expectations conveyed through dialogue and character dynamics. Through this critical lens, the paper contributes to the broader discourse on linguistic gender representation in children's media, emphasizing the importance of scrutinizing popular movies to understand their impact on children audiences' perception of linguistic gender roles. The findings highlight how gender roles are subtly reinforced through dialogue and character interactions, providing insights into the socialization of children through media.
Communal values (i.e., valuing care for and connection with others) are important to individual well-being and societal functioning yet show marked gender differences, with girls valuing communion more than boys do. We examined whether endorsement of gender stereotypes associating communal values more with girls than with boys relate to children’s own communal values and interests, potentially giving rise to gender differences in preferences. We tested this relation across two studies with Canadian children between the ages of 4 and 11 years (N = 379; 92 girls, 287 boys; majority White and East Asian or Pacific Islander). We assessed children’s stereotypes about communal values (Studies 1 and 2; e.g., “Who do you think cares more about always helping other people, even if it takes effort? Boys or girls?”), as well as the extent to which children themselves (a) valued communion and (b) displayed interest in communal activities (Study 2). In both studies, we found that children older than 6 consistently associated communal values with girls more than with boys. Younger children, in contrast, exhibited an ingroup bias—they associated communal values with their own gender. Study 2, which included only boys, found that endorsement of stereotypes associating communal values with girls predicted lower personal endorsement of communal values and lower interest in communal activities among boys older, but not younger, than 6. These results suggest that gender stereotypes about communal values are learned early and predict boys’ disengagement from communal domains. Implications for gender differences in values and behavior are discussed.
Fairytales may represent a unique genre of media well-suited to depict feminine traits as valuable to characters of all genders by positioning traditionally feminine-coded traits as sources of strength and power to characters in fairytale plots. To examine this theoretical supposition, this study examines the association between indices of female empowerment (United States), modern audience ratings of films, and gendered depictions within 31 film adaptations of Cinderella produced over the span of 100 years. Results indicate Cinderella was consistently depicted as more feminine and the Prince more masculine, but both Cinderella and the Prince consistently displayed both masculine and feminine traits—providing mixed evidence of the renegotiation of gender in fairytales. Cinderella’s femininity was negatively related to indices of female empowerment, but positively related to modern audience ratings, suggesting possible tension between the production and consumption of gendered media in this context.
Disney movies have long fascinated audiences with their fantastical narratives, lively characters, and imaginative landscapes. However, the representation of women in Disney movies was always through a patriarchal lens. This research investigates the portrayal of women characters in contemporary Disney movies Moana (2016) and Mulan (2020) and analyses how they differ from the traditional portrayal of women in Disney movies using the theoretical framework of postmodern feminism and patriarchy. The paper analyses how travel empowers these women and what significant changes it brings about in the development of their characters. The paper also explores the psyche of these women characters and how their journey inspires young adults, especially today’s women. The paper serves as a lens into society and the influence of media and other popular culture in the perceptions formed about women and how they are supposed to be.
This project examines associations of gender and emotions in videos on YouTube Kids, a virtual environment for socialization during middle childhood. We selected YouTube Kids because of its popularity, newness, and absence in previous research on emotion socialization. The top 20 recommended videos were sampled and coded for gender and emotional content, by two independent teams of coders. This procedure was replicated for a total of 40 videos and 689 characters. By assessing gender and emotion content at both the video and character levels, we found feminine videos and characters depict more positive emotionality than their masculine counterparts. Furthermore, characters presented without any gender-typed information displayed significantly less emotionality than feminine, masculine, and androgynous characters. Emotionality is a gendered aspect of media representations. Nonetheless, evolving forms of media have potential as an avenue towards gender-fair socialization of emotions by proactively presenting and promoting equal representations of people and emotions.
Introducción: La justicia social constituye una referencia cada vez más importante en el mundo actual, donde los constantes avances tecnológicos y los efectos económicos globales conviven con una creciente brecha de desigualdad social. Urge la necesidad de conciliar el progreso con el compromiso social. En el terreno educativo, esta preocupación ha de animar a trabajar en la llamada educación en valores que a su vez incluye algunas de las más importantes competencias trasversales. El objetivo principal de este artículo es comprobar si un cuento y un juego de simulación ambiental pueden ser recursos adecuados para adquirir valores relacionados con la justicia social en el ámbito de las ciencias en la etapa Infantil. Métodos: Se han analizado las repuestas de maestros y maestras sobre el valor de estos recursos. Asimismo se ha diseñado un cuento centrado en valores de igualdad de género inspirado en La Cenicienta y con un enfoque participativo así como un juego de simulación que abordara los recursos naturales y la equidad y la pobreza. Ambos se aplicaron a niños y niñas de Infantil. En los dos recursos se intentó averiguar los cambios de ideas producidos. Resultados: Los docentes valoraron más el cuento que el juego como recurso. Los niños y niñas modificaron sus ideas y visiones mediante la interacción con el cuento y la aplicación del juego. Discusión: Los dos recursos permitieron desarrollar competencias trasversales. Los y las escolares mejoraron sus ideas sobre el género con un cuento participativo. El juego favoreció el compromiso hacia la equidad.
In Latino Images on Screen: Stereotypes, Subversion, Resistance (2002), Charles Ramírez Berg delineates the long-lasting “Hollywood stereotyping apparatus” (5), which has allowed for many stereotypical portrayals of Latino and Latin American characters as brutes, criminals, or oversexualized lovers. Stereotyping is also attributed to Disney’s (animated) films, especially when it comes to the heroines of color and their communities. In this light, this chapter argues that Disney’s Encanto (2021) is a major step toward a decidedly positive representation of Latin Americans, specifically Colombians, on the Hollywood screen. Subverting race and gender stereotypes attributed to Disney films in general, Encanto notably avoids the dominant stereotypes of Latinos and Latin Americans as bandidos and Latin lovers. Led by a matriarch, with a “madman in the attic” and a muscle woman, the magical community of Encanto finds its heroine in a dark-skinned, short-haired, bespectacled girl unencumbered by romantic pursuits, whose appearance and demeanor subvert the Disney heroine stereotype. Finally, the chapter argues that Encanto also overturns the superhero(ine) stereotype since Mirabel’s “Not Special Special” status as the only family member lacking magical powers is comparable to that of the titular protagonists of Joker (2019) and The Batman (2022), who are no longer larger-than-life figures but products of their closest relationships.
This study was developed to examine the popular cartoon Pepee, which is broadcast on a private TV channel in Turkey, considering gender equality. The results are discussed by comparing them with the results of another study that scrutinizes the broadcast of the same cartoon on a Turkish public TV channel (Kalaycı, 2015). The purpose of this comparison is to determine whether the messages on gender equality/inequality differ in terms of TV channels' belonging to public and private media corporations and whether the messages are similar or different. The research is designed in a descriptive model and has qualitative research characteristics due to utilizing the document review method. The documents analyzed in the study are audio-visuals, the 30 episodes of the cartoon Pepee which were broadcast on a private television channel. The themes determined by Kalaycı (2015) were used in the collection and analysis of the data. Although the number of gender equality messages were reduced in Pepee's private media broadcast episodes compared to the public media, they still exist. The results show that women's and men's gender roles are considerably homogenized between private and public mass media. The differences are Gender representation in children's programming on Turkish television 261 | P a g e notable but not greatly significant. This is a solidification of the critical literature on both state and private mass media and ideological hegemony. This paper works to analyze scientifically the behavioral characteristics of the characters regarding the development of gender role modelling. It finds that regardless of media company control, consistent themes of female domesticity, and relative passivity and male vocational activity putting them at a relative distance from the nurturing components of home living. While democratic discourses are found in some episodes of the Pepee cartoon that were examined, the opposite practices are also present implicitly. Although the media are conceptually and practically categorized as private and public, the contents of broadcasts of both are shaped in line with the ideology of the "state," and the continued privatization and homogenization of both social and private space. As digital and social media expand greatly, traditional mass media still hold an important place in social education. If countries advocate a democratic way of life, continued critical evaluation of the expression of mass media is still essential, concerning the process of entertainment and it's ideological, educational function.
Makalah ini bertujuan meneliti lakaran perwatakan watak wanita yang yang terdapat dalam siri dan filem animasi bergenre aksi, khususnya siri animasi Ejen Ali: Musim 1, siri animasi Ejen Ali: Musim 2 dan filem Ejen Ali The Movie. Kajian ini juga berhasrat untuk merincikan jumlah watak wanita yang dipaparkan dalam siri dan filem ini berbanding dengan watak lelaki selain memerihalkan citra watak wanita yang terdapat dalam siri dan filem ini. Dapatan menunjukkan 38 watak wanita yang ditampilkan dalam siri animasi Ejen Ali: Musim 1, seramai 58 watak wanita pula dalam siri animasi Ejen Ali: Musim 2 dan 7 watak wanita dalam filem Ejen Ali The Movie. Watak lelaki didapati terus mendominasi dari segi populasi watak sama ada dalam rancangan bersiri ataupun filem. Dapatan juga memperlihatkan bahawa watak wanita dalam siri dan filem ini juga bersifat atipikal, khususnya aktif, bijak, mempunyai sifat pemimpin, berkerjaya dalam bidang sains dan kejuruteraan, cantik dan kurus, agresif, lasak serta bertentangan dengan stereotaip gender yang tradisional.
This study aims to see what kind of language features used by the transgenders and how the transgenders represented in the digital media which in this case, YouTube. The study will be conducted using the qualitative data analysis. Starting with collecting the data from four videos taken from the YouTube channel of Jimmy Kimmel, Allure, About Ethan, and Netflix. These data then analyzed using the theory of women’s language features by Robin Lakoff, men’s language features by Jennifer Coates, and the theory of gender presentation in digital media by LaFrance and Vial. The result of this study shows that the transgender woman uses six out of ten female language feature such as: lexical hedge/filler, empty adjective, precise color terms, intensifiers, hypercorrect grammar, and superpolite form, while maintaining two of men language feature: harsh words and theme. Meanwhile, the transman maintains three women’s language feature: precise color term, intensifier, and hypercorrect grammar, while using four men language feature such as: backchannel, command and directives, harsh words, and direct questions. The outcome of this study implies that gender need to be considered as a multidimensional construct and more studies about language and gender must be expanded in order for multidimensional identity to be recognized in this vast digital world.
In virtual environments, avatars are used to represent users. Previous research focusing on video games has found that similarity of self and avatar leads to higher satisfaction with one’s avatar. We extend the existing research by examining avatar use in a real-world professional training setting. We asked 472 participants in a full-time online training program about their avatars in their 3D learning environment, i.e., about their satisfaction with their avatars, how similar their avatar was to them, reasons for avatar choice and switching, modifications, and suggestions for improvements. We found that higher self-similarity with one’s avatar leads to greater satisfaction with the avatar and that this effect was partly related to participant gender, with women considering avatar self-similarity as more important than men. Moreover, we found differential patterns for avatar use for female and male participants. Based on our findings, we argue that avatars should represent the diversity that exists in the users to allow for greater identification and for the resulting benefits, since having an avatar that is similar to oneself might improve the experience for all users and help to close a gender fairness-gap that exists regarding a positive learning environment.KeywordsAvatarsStereotypesOnline trainingEmpirical study
Bu çalışmada Ahmet Büke’nin çocuk kitaplarından olan Zeyno Serisi’nde toplumsal cinsiyet rollerinin nasıl yansıdığını ortaya koymak amaçlamıştır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda araştırma nitel araştırma desenlerinden durum çalışması ile tasarlanmıştır. Elde edilen veriler doküman inceleme yöntemi ile toplanmıştır. Çalışmanın inceleme nesnesini Ahmet Büke’nin “Eyvah Babam Şiir Yazıyor, Annemle Uzayda, Neşeli Günler, Paspas Tepemde Kapiş Paçamda” adlı eserlerden oluşan Zeyno Kitapları Serisi oluşturmaktadır. Doküman incelemesi ile elde edilen veriler içerik analizi yoluyla çözümlenerek yorumlanmıştır. Elde edilen bulgulara göre kadın ve erkek karaktere verilen sorumluluklar, meslekler, kişisel özellikleri ve dilsel ifadeler onu süregelen cinsiyet algısı dışına çıkarmıştır. Karakterlerin meslekleri göz önüne alındığında kalıplaşmış toplumsal cinsiyet rollerine rastlanmadığı, sorumlulukların erkek karaktere daha fazla verildiği ve dış dünyaya açık ve güçlü olanın kadın karakter olduğu görülmektedir. Resimlerin cinsiyeti yansıtma durumu incelendiğinde cinsiyetle ilişkilendirilen meslek gruplarının, cinsiyete atfedilen kıyafet ve aksesuar seçiminin, karakterler ile bağdaştırılan nesne ve renklerin, bedensel gücü kullanma durumunun ve dış mekanla ilişkilendirilmesinin geleneksel toplumsal cinsiyet rolleri ile desteklenmediği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır
The ease with which we can now create digital selves means that virtual environments such as video games can be playgrounds for experimenting with alternative identities. Extensive experimental research exists examining what determines our virtual selves’ (avatar’s) appearance and impact, but relatively few studies addresses this in detail using qualitative methods. There is also very little research which focuses specifically on female gamers and how they may experience avatar choices, which is especially important given the hostile environment they may face in public gaming spaces. The present study aimed to examine avatar decisions of women gamers with the use of semi-structured gaming interviews, where participants were interviewed while creating an avatar in a popular action adventure game. The data were analysed using inductive thematic analysis and three themes were extracted. The women interviewed expressed frustration having to ‘pretend to be a guy’ due to lack of choice and motivation to avoid harassment online. However, when discussing environments where they were free to customise their character, participants both adhered to prescriptive norms for women to avoid being a ‘bigger girl’, while rejecting traditionally feminine appearance to avoid being ‘a stereotype’. Findings show that despite using avatars to be someone else, the women were often constrained in their choices by the male-centric context of gaming, and reactions to this context which involved eschewing femininity in their avatar choices.
This article is presented as an intervention in the field of feminist media and cultural studies with particular reference to consumer culture. It is concerned with the seeming evasion of critique which can be detected in a number of recent feminist responses to the way in which modalities of 'popular feminism' have found themselves incorporated into women's genres of television, such as, in particular, the US series Sex in the City. This usage or instrumentalization of feminism (in its most conventionally liberal feminist guise) also provides corporate culture with the means of presenting itself to young women as their ally and even champion of 'girls' while at the same time earning seeming approval for adopting the mantle of social responsibility, which makes the concept of popular feminism more problematic than it first appeared. Such appropriation of popular feminist discourse by the commercial domain prompts a self-critique on the part of the author alongside an analysis of recent approaches toward consumer culture in cultural studies. The article continues by presenting a schematic account of how the commercial domain increasingly supplants state and public sector institutions in the intensity and dedication of its address to girls and young women. Whilst some may argue that the intersection of youthful femininity and the commercial sphere is not a new phenomenon, what is being explored here is the connection between this intensification of attention and the logic of current neo-liberal economic rationalities. The argument is, therefore, that it is by these means including the instrumentalization of a specific modality of 'feminism' that there emerges into existence a neo-liberal culture, with global aspirations, which has as its ideal subject the category of 'girl'.
Tested the hypothesis that the amount of time spent watching TV is significantly related to the strength of traditional sex-role development. Data from 80 kindergartners and 2nd, 4th, and 6th graders support the hypothesis and suggest that this relationship holds equally for both sexes and does not change with increasing age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
[the authors'] research project, Cultural Indicators, has tracked the central streams of television's dramatic content since 1967 and has explored the consequences of growing up and living with television since 1974 / [Cultural Indicators] investigated the extent to which television viewing contributes to audience conceptions and actions in areas such as gender, minority and age-role stereotypes, health, science, the family, educational achievement and aspirations, politics, religion, and other topics, all of which are increasingly also being examined in cross-cultural comparative contexts / summarize and illustrate our theory of the dynamics of the cultivation process, both in the US and around the world (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examined the gender-stereotyped content of children's TV network cartoons across 4 genres: traditional adventure (e.g., “Spiderman”), nontraditional adventure (e.g., “Reboot”), educational/family (e.g., “Magic School Bus”), and comedy (“Animaniacs”). Acting negatively, showing physical aggression, and being a victim were significantly less likely in the educational/family genre cartoons than any of the other three genres. Demonstrating romantic behavior was significantly more likely in the traditional adventure and the comedy genres than the other genres. Male characters were represented in cartoons significantly more than were female characters, but only in the traditional adventure and the comedy genres. Male characters were more likely than were female characters to use physical aggression, but only in the traditional adventure genre. Behaviors that were relatively more likely among female characters across genres included showing fear, acting romantic, being polite, and acting supportive. Most of the significant differences were also associated with very large effect sizes.
Reliability coefficients often take the form of intraclass correlation coefficients. In this article, guidelines are given for choosing among 6 different forms of the intraclass correlation for reliability studies in which n targets are rated by k judges. Relevant to the choice of the coefficient are the appropriate statistical model for the reliability study and the applications to be made of the reliability results. Confidence intervals for each of the forms are reviewed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
The contribution of cognitive perspectives (cognitive-developmental theory and gender schema theory) to a contemporary understanding of gender development is evaluated. Recent critiques of cognitive approaches are discussed and empirical evidence is presented to counter these critiques. Because of the centrality of early gender development to the cognitive perspective, the latest research is reviewed on how infants and toddlers discriminate the sexes and learn the attributes correlated with sex. The essence of cognitive approaches--emphasis on motivational consequences of gender concepts; the active, self-initiated view of development; and focus on developmental patterns-is highlighted and contrasted with social-cognitive views. The value of cognitive theories to the field is illustrated, and recommendations are made concerning how to construct comprehensive, integrative perspectives of gender development.
This chapter traces the process of feminist mobilization in the U.S. It argues that the dramatic increase in the number of women in sociology since the early 1970s has produced a still-ongoing process of remaking sociological theory, methods, and organizational practice by drawing attention to two previously ignored phenomena: the social structures that produce gender and the gender relations that shape all social structures. Central to this project is the overthrow of the sex roles model of the 1950s. Feminist sociologists went beyond their initial critique of its normative prescription of a specific form of family relations to reject its underlying assumption of binary social roles. As a result, a new, structural understanding of gender has emerged that draws from and contributes to the sociological analysis of inequality in general. It is argued that women's own struggle to enter and change sociology has been the engine driving this theoretical transformation from the end of the 1960s through the present.
While television cartoons have served as focal points for researchers concerned about gender depictions in Disney works, their film counterparts have received little attention. This study analyzed Disney full-length animated films to identify the gendered “world view” they provide for young viewers. Prosocial and antisocial behaviors were examined to determine the prevalence of gender stereotypes within the Alms. Specific attention was paid to gender issues regarding victims of antisocial acts, contrasts between heroes and heroines, and differences between female and male villains.
The Disney Corporation is one of the largest media companies in the world. Disney's full-length animated films have been a popular form of children's entertainment for more than 60 years. No research to date has examined the portrayals of the organizing societal principles of gender, race, age, and sexual orientation across a wide sample of these films. This study examines the portrayal of these organizing principles in a sample of 26 full-length animated Disney films. Findings indicate that gender, racial, and cultural stereotypes have persisted over time in Disney films. Few examples of positive portrayals emerged, but were increasingly common in later films. Marginalized groups were portrayed negatively, rarely, or not at all. Clinical implications for therapists are provided.
Men and women are increasingly likely to pursue careers in elite professions, but gendered expectations about homemaking and breadwinning continue to shape opportunities for professional advancement and individual decisions to marry, have children, regulate employment hours, or use “family-friendly” programs. This article describes how the Victorian ideology of separate spheres and other gendered beliefs and practices have spawned a modern-day “career advancement double standard” in which professional women who marry or have children are considered less serious about their careers, whereas professional men who marry or become fathers are considered more likely candidates for promotion. Trends in the general population toward more gender equality in labor force attachment and family labor sharing are compared to slower changes among elite professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and bankers.
This study investigates the ways in which gender transgression and "queering" are used as an indicator of deviance and villainy in children's animated full-length movies. Through an analysis of male villains in 10 full-length animated movies, this article examines the ways in which gender transgression creates what is termed a "villain-as-sissy" archetype that signifies villains as deviant and enhances the positive gender qualities of heroes. Further, this study discusses the potential impact this pattern of representation may have in terms of limiting and reinforcing heteronormative gender roles and promoting negative associations about gays.
This study examined four- and five-year-oldchildren's predictions concerning the sexof personscarrying out a variety of common activities andoccupations on television. The purpose of the study wasto investigate the possibility that young childrenmay have stereotyped beliefs and expectations which canbe applied in the course of television viewing.Preschoolers of European Australian background viewed short scenes establishing the need for avariety of activities and in each case were asked toindicate who would perform the activity: a man, a womanor both. The children's responses revealed strong gender stereotyped expectations, and these werestrongest in the case of masculine stereotypedactivities. With age, children were more likely to makestereotyped judgments about the ability of males andfemales to perform the activities. The children'sestimates of their own future competence in theactivities also indicated stereotypical beliefs, withthe older girls more likelyto rejectmasculineactivities. It is argued that children's preconceivedexpectations furnish an organizational basis for theirinterpretation of gender related information intelevision.
Because of the success of the first six animated feature films produced in the "new era" of Disney animation (The Little Mermaid, 1989; Beauty and the Beast, 1991; Aladdin, 1993; The Lion King, 1994; Pocahontas, 1995; The Hunchback of Notre Dame, 1996) and their mass merchandising, Disney animated characters became ubiquitous for children of the 1990s. Although Bell, Haas, and Sells (1995) suggested that Disney films present a "sanitization of violence, sexuality, and political struggle concomitant with an erasure or repression of difference" (p. 7), an increasing emphasis on sexuality and the exotic is evident in the construction of the female heroines in these films, particularly in the female characters of color. This article analyzes what may be referred to in Said's (1978) terminology as the orientalization of women of color in five of these six Disney animated films and posits how these representations of gender and cultural difference operate within Disney's consumerist framework, which provides "dreams and products through forms of popular culture in which kids are willing to materially and emotionally invest" (Giroux, 1999, p. 89). Using a critical lens, I interrogate the unity of images regarding gender and race that these Disney texts offer and the ways in which these meanings operate within the larger socio-historical framework regarding women of color and the notion of Whiteness.
This essay examines the commodification of Pocahontas surrounding the 1995 Disney film. Pocahontas. Through an examination of Pocahontas products and popular cultural discourses about Pocahontas, the essay develops a theory of the “cipher”; as a late‐capitalist commodity form. Theorization of the cipher helps explain how companies market a field of goods in relationship to a single product, such as a film. Marketing campaigns draw on generic forms and figures that can be easily reproduced and identified. Furthermore, through the marketing of Pocahontas goods and popular discourses, Disney and the general mainstream commodity culture construct a market for children versus parents. And while the commodity world of Pocahontas uses utopic appeals to sell products, through their appropriation of feminism and Native American culture and history, Pocahontas products and discourses contribute to the material oppression of women and Native Americans, generally, and Native American women in particular.
The popularity of the princess in Disney feature animation, merchandise, theme parks, and ice shows makes her one of the best known models of princess construction. This analysis of the Disney princess looks at her in terms of her position in the kingdom, her relationships to femme fatales, fathers, and bad boys, and her performance in a genre largely shaped by film musical and fairytale.
The paper provides a review and critical synthesis of research and theory dealing with the processes involved in children's learning from television. It asks how and what children learn from television, and at what ages television is a more or less powerful teacher. The focus is on assessing evidence that television can play a positive teaching role. It is suggested that a threshold model may be more appropriate than a linear model for evaluating television's impact on viewers. It is concluded that television can play a positive role in children's learning, but given typical North American media diets and current television content, the opposite has been true for most children.
This paper is the second in a three-part review series of television and sex-role acquisition. In the preceding paper, evidence was reviewed which establishes that much of television sex-role content is highly stereotyped. This paper points out that the effects of this content upon young viewers have often been assumed rather than demonstrated. The less extensive but growing literature on the relationship between television viewing and sex-role development is reviewed. Correlational and experimental studies are discussed. It is argued that the evidence of modest associations between amount of viewing and degree of sex typing claimed in some studies must be interpreted with caution, and it is pointed out that correlations have not always been found. Some interesting experimental work is taken as indicative of possible effects, but it is stressed that there is a fundamental need for more sophisticated theoretical accounts than the assumption that viewing time and effects are linearly related. Theoretical prospects are reviewed with reference to recent work in social-cognitive development.
Televised role portrayals and interracial interactions, as sources of vicarious experience, contribute to the development of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination among children. The first section of this article reviews the amount and nature of racial/ethnic content on television, including limited portrayals of racial/ethnic groups and of interracial/ethnic interaction. The second section focuses on theoretical models that help explain television's role in the development, maintenance, and modification of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. The third section addresses research on the effects of television in altering stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination, with particular attention given to media intervention programs specifically designed to address these issues (Sesame Street and Different and the Same). This article concludes with a discussion of suggestions for future research.
This study examined gender differences in children's responses to animated scenes from an action adventure versus a sad film, and to animated previews of a prototypical male versus female movie. Females were more likely than males to express sadness in response to the sad scene, and gender differences in intensities of sadness increased with age. Children were much more likely to stereotype the male preview as most liked by other boys, whereas the majority of children perceived the female preview as liked by either gender equally. In terms of enjoyment of the male and female previews, gender differences in enjoyment of the male preview were apparent only among children who perceived the film as more appealing to boys, and gender differences in enjoyment of the female preview were apparent only among children who perceived the film as more appealing to girls. Implications for children's programming are discussed.
This study is an update of research done primarily in the 1970s on gender representation in children's cartoons. In the present study, 175 episodes of 41 different cartoons were coded for numbers and demographic characteristics of male, female, and androgynous characters. Behaviors, communication characteristics, and total talk time of male and female characters were coded, along with copyright year and country of origin. Results indicated notable discrepancies between prominence and portrayal of male and female characters. Both male and female characters were portrayed stereotypically. Compared to female characters, male characters were given much more prominence, appeared more frequently, engaged in more of almost all of the noted behaviors, and talked significantly more. When male or female behavior and communication variables were divided by number of male or female characters or by total talk time, results indicated consistency with gender role stereotypes. Comparisons of pre- and post-1980 cartoons, however, indicated significant change toward a less stereotypical portrayal of the characters, particularly female characters.
This study suggests that sex stereotypes implicitly enacted, but never explicitly articulated, in TV commercials may inhibit women's achievement aspirations. Men and women (N=180) viewed locally produced replicas of four current, sex-stereotyped commercials, or four replicas that were identical except that the sex roles were reversed, or (control) named their favorite TV programs. All subjects then wrote an essay imagining their lives 10 years from now. The essays were coded for achievement and homemaking themes. Women who viewed traditional commercials deemphasized achievement in favor of homemaking, compared to men and compared to women who had seen reversed role commercials. The reversed role commercials eliminated the sex difference in net achievement focus. Control subjects were indistinguishable from their same-sex counterparts in the traditional condition. The results identified some social changes needed to make equality of opportunity a social reality for women as well as men.
This chapter focuses on the division of labor between women and men and the distinction commonly drawn between domestic work
and paid work. Work performed directly in the service of families – including housework and childcare – is often unacknowledged
because of cultural assumptions that a wife or mother should do it in the privacy of the home. Paid work, on the other hand,
is much more public and historically associated with men. Holding a job and earning a salary has been considered to be a husband’s
traditional family obligation, whereas tending to home and children traditionally has been considered a wife’s primary obligation
(even if she also works outside the home).
A longitudinal study was conducted to explore the relationship between television viewing and beliefs about expressing sexual
desire in dating situations. In three consecutive years, a panel of early adolescents (N = 883) and a panel of middle adolescents (N = 651) rated the effectiveness of a sexual approach and a romantic approach. Latent growth curve analyses indicate that between
the ages of 12 and 15 there is a growing belief in the effectiveness of the sexual approach, which was related to respondents’
maturity status but unrelated to television viewing, and a weakening belief in the effectiveness of the romantic strategy,
a decline that appeared to be quickened by television viewing in the female sample and slowed down by television viewing in
the male sample. Between the ages of 15 and 18 television viewing reinforces a respondent’s belief in the effectiveness of
both the sexual and the romantic strategy.
This study sought to discover whether variations in relevant features of a first date would produce differences in young adults’
first-date scripts. In responding to scenarios that manipulated gender of the date initiator, alcohol availability, and relationship
type, 209 college students in the Midwestern United States generated lists including an average of 21 actions they expected
to occur on the date. Findings showed a trend toward traditional gender roles for male and female date partners, though some
complexity related to sexual behavior and the gender of the date initiator was found. In addition, the context of the date
influenced the date script to a great extent, whereas the type of relationship between the date partners had little effect.
The 45 fully animated, theatrical release feature films produced by Disney between 1937 and 2006 were analyzed for child maltreatment content. All child and adolescent characters were counted and coded for age, role type and incidents of child maltreatment, following US National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS) criteria. A total of 561 incidents of child maltreatment were identified among the 1369 child characters in the films. A total of 26 of the 42 (62%) main child characters were maltreated at least once. Findings are discussed in the context of previous research. Implications of the findings for understanding potential effects on film viewers’ understandings of issues around child maltreatment are outlined.
Disney’s animated heroine Pocahontas has been touted as a new type of protagonist differing from her predecessors whose lives revolve around men. Pocahontas’ romance eventually does become subordinate to her role in protecting the social fabric of her village. Yet in placing the needs of her community before her own personal desires, she fulfills societal expectations of today wherein young women are supposed to progress from selfish absorption in relationships to selfless dedication nurturing others. Pocahontas, then, models the submersion of a young woman’s desires to allow a commitment to selfless altruism.
The world of television activates, cultivates, and alters the gender schemata that children bring to the viewing situation.
Television has earned considerable public and academic criticism in recent years for the alleged bias in its sex-role content. A fundamental concern of many critics is with the representation of male and female roles that confronts children. This paper reviews the evidence accumulating from numerous content analyses of both adult and children's television. Overall, the evidence confirms that there are marked differences in the ways the medium presents the sexes. These differences are both quantitative and qualitative but the general pattern at either level is to present males as dominant and females as nurturant and complementary. Some qualifications, exceptions and gaps in the literature are discussed. The paper is the first of a three-part review series of television and sex-role acquisition: the subsequent papers will review respectively the effects of sex-stereotyped TV content upon children and the prospects for counter-stereotyped programmes aiming to modify young viewers' beliefs and attitudes.
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