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Millennials’ Career Perspective and Psychological Contract Expectations: Does the Recession Lead to Lowered Expectations?
Journal of Business and Psychology
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of generational, contextual, and individual influences on Millennials’ career expectations.
Design/methodology/approach
Two matched samples of Millennials graduating in 2006 (n = 787) and 2009 (n = 825) filled out a questionnaire regarding their psychological contract expectations, career strategy, and optimism about the labor market in completely different socioeconomic contexts.
Findings
Recession is related to lower levels of optimism. During times of recession, Millennials lower their expectations regarding the work-life balance and social atmosphere. However, their expectations regarding job content, training, career development, and financial rewards remain high, suggesting that these expectations are largely embedded within the generation. Moreover, Millennials’ expectations are significantly influenced by individual variables, careerism, and optimism.
Implications
This study suggests that managers need to focus their limited resources during times of recession on meeting Millennials’ high expectations regarding their development and careers. Because violating these high expectations can have detrimental effects on a number of outcomes, organizations are encouraged to discover creative and inexpensive ways to provide Millennials with meaningful work, plenty of learning opportunities and career development.
Originality/value
By comparing two matched samples of Millennials in two different situations, this study was able to disentangle generational, contextual, and individual influences on Millennials’ psychological contract expectations.
... Employees with a transactional psychological contract may expect financial and material exchanges for their work and have a short-term commitment to their obligations. In essence, employees whose psychological contracts are portrayed as transactional base their contracts on financial rewards, money, and being paid on time (Bellou, 2009;De Cuyper & De Witte, 2006;De Hauw & De Vos, 2010). Because transactional psychological contracts are closeended, specific, and are based on extrinsic and economic factors, employees with this type of contract generally do not envision themselves working for their current organization in the long term. ...
... psychological contract is open-ended, indefinite, dynamic, and has a broad scope (De Cuyper & De Witte, 2006;Rousseau, 1990). That is to say, employees whose psychological contracts are portrayed as relational may base their contracts on status, recognition, the chance to be creative (Bellou, 2009), job security, work/ lifestyle balance, training (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010), career development (Bellou, 2009;De Hauw & De Vos, 2010), and promotions (Alcover et al., 2012;Kickul& Lester, 2001;Rousseau, 1995). These psychological types could have a negative or positive relationship with the performances of employees based on their subjective views. ...
... psychological contract is open-ended, indefinite, dynamic, and has a broad scope (De Cuyper & De Witte, 2006;Rousseau, 1990). That is to say, employees whose psychological contracts are portrayed as relational may base their contracts on status, recognition, the chance to be creative (Bellou, 2009), job security, work/ lifestyle balance, training (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010), career development (Bellou, 2009;De Hauw & De Vos, 2010), and promotions (Alcover et al., 2012;Kickul& Lester, 2001;Rousseau, 1995). These psychological types could have a negative or positive relationship with the performances of employees based on their subjective views. ...
... Estudios previos han señalado la necesidad de examinar diferentes grupos de millennials en función de sus antecedentes culturales o educativos (de Hauw & de Vos, 2010;Modestino et al., 2019). Debido a que los comportamientos de carrera de las personas no dependen exclusivamente de los mecanismos psicológicos integrados en la personalidad sino también del contexto, que varía de país a país (Andresen et al., 2020), es importante examinar millennials de diferentes nacionalidades y con diferentes orientaciones hacia el futuro. ...
... En consecuencia, este estudio contribuye, en primer lugar, a ampliar la literatura sobre gci al profundizar la comprensión de los procesos de planificación de carrera, evaluados de manera retrospectiva, por parte de los millennials. En segundo lugar, da respuesta a la necesidad de integrar los rasgos culturales en los estudios de carrera y de contar con más investigaciones sobre diferentes grupos de dicha generación según sus antecedentes culturales o educativos (de Hauw & de Vos, 2010;Modestino et al., 2019). Finalmente, en términos prácticos, los resultados obtenidos pueden ayudar a que los empleadores ofrezcan un acompañamiento de carrera más ajustado al tipo de planificación de carrera de cada persona y su origen cultural. ...
... Finalmente, la orientación a futuro, como característica cultural, pareciera constituir una variable que influencia la planificación de carrera.ConclusionesNuestros resultados contribuyen a enriquecer la literatura de carreras, centrándonos específicamente en la gci y profundizando la comprensión de los procesos de planificación de carrera, evaluados por los millennials profesionales de manera retrospectiva. Al mismo tiempo, estos resultados responden a la necesidad de integrar los rasgos culturales en los estudios de carrera, considerando diferentes grupos de millennials según sus antecedentes culturales o educativos(de Hauw & de Vos, 2010;Modestino et al., 2019).En términos prácticos, dado que la gestión de carrera constituye una responsabilidad compartida entre las personas y las empresas (van der Heijden et al., 2020), los resultados obtenidos pueden ayudar a los empleadores a diseñar propuestas de acompañamiento de carrera (career support tools) individualizadas, ajustadas en función de las variables exploradas: tipo de planificador de carrera y origen cultural. Estas acciones conducen a ...
Objetivo:
Al ser los recorridos de carreras cada vez más idiosincráticos, la gestión de carrera individual constituye un aspecto clave del desarrollo profesional. Además, los millennials supondrán el 75 % de la fuerza laboral mundial. En consecuencia, este trabajo examina la percepción del proceso de planificación de carrera por parte de los millennials profesionales.
Metodología:
Por medio de un enfoque cualitativo exploratorio, 26 profesionales millennials de Europa y América Latina participaron en este estudio.
Resultados principales:
Aunque la mayoría planifica su carrera en algún grado, distintos grupos fueron identificados: aquellos que planifican a detalle, los que planifican solo grandes objetivos, los que planifican de manera gradual y los que no planifican. Aun en contextos inciertos, y debido a esta incertidumbre, la planificación de carrera sigue vigente.
Conclusiones:
Estos resultados contribuyen a ampliar la literatura sobre gestión de carrera individual. Al mismo tiempo, pueden ayudar a que los empleadores ofrezcan un acompañamiento de carrera más ajustado al tipo de planificador y a su origen cultural; estas iniciativas son especialmente relevantes en contextos de carrera pospandémicos.
... Literature has supported the idea that even first-time job seekers have a mental image of their prospective employment relationship in the form of anticipatory psychological contracts (APCs) (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010;De Vos et al., 2009). This anticipatory psychological contract offers possibilities for analysing how people's expectations about their jobs affect their work behaviour, perceptions of their employment, productivity on the job, and all other aspects of strategies for talent management (Zupan et al., 2018). ...
... De Vos et al. (2009) underscored the significance of APC, noting that the expectations delineating the APC significantly influence the eventual formation of the actual psychological contract upon employment commencement. However, it is essential to acknowledge the dynamic nature of the APC, as individual characteristics shape one's perception of it (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010). In conclusion, the individual's APC is private and unique, arising from their expectations and providing a clear framework for understanding the perspectives of prospective employees. ...
Master of Business Administration (MBA) graduates are valued for their adeptness in critical thinking, problem-solving, and innovation, crucial skills demanded by the globalised business environment. Amidst the “great resignation,” retention of this talent poses challenges, as evidenced by high turnover rates among professionals, which often stems from unmet expectations regarding the job. Anticipatory psychological contracts (APCs) offer insights into managing these expectations and fostering productive employee relationships. The present study aims to explore the expectations of MBA graduates by collecting data from 302 students. EFA results revealed that students’ job expectations can be categorised under three factors similar to the patterns of employees’ psychological contracts. It indicates that students already have a mental image of the prospective employment relationship. MBA graduates are attracted to organisations that offer professional and personal growth prospects while selecting their first job. Development is students’ most important aspect of a job, highlighting a preference for balanced psychological contracts. At the same time, lower importance is associated with the relational attributes of a job. The recruiters and HR managers are suggested to consider these findings to recruit, manage and retain the best talent.
... The employees sometimes unintentionally demonstrate CWB because they assume that they deserve more rewards or special treatment than others, without considering their actual qualities or performance outcomes (Harvey and Martinko, 2009). Such phenomenon is termed as a psychological entitlement (PE) (De Hauw and De Vos, 2010;Crampton and Hodge, 2009). Employees exhibiting high levels of PE often result in unethical work behaviors (Lee et al., 2019). ...
... Psychological entitlement, ethical leadership and counterproductive work behavior PE refers to an individual's belief that he/she deserves more benefits, privileges or rewards and is entitled to receive more outcomes than others (De Hauw and De Vos, 2010). Such expectations are manifested as deserving more resources, recognition and respect over others in the organization. ...
Purpose
Drawing on the equity theory, this study examines the influence of ethical leadership on counterproductive work behaviors. Furthermore, it tests the mediating influences of organizational citizenship behavior and psychological entitlement on the relationship between ethical leadership and counterproductive work behavior.
Design/methodology/approach
The study used a survey questionnaire employing a random sampling technique to collect the data from hotels and restaurants. Data were collected from 329 supervisors and employees working in different hotels and restaurants in Karachi, Pakistan. For the purpose of analysis and to predict hypothesized relationships, the study used PLS-SEM techniques.
Findings
The study’s results indicated support for all hypothesized relationships. We found a negative relationship between ethical leadership and counterproductive work behavior. The findings also suggest that organizational citizenship behavior positively mediates between ethical leadership and counterproductive work behavior, which was unexpected. Furthermore, the findings also reveal that psychological entitlement positively mediates between ethical leadership and counterproductive work behavior.
Originality/value
The study examines the direct relationship between ethical leadership and counterproductive work behaviors and through the lens of organizational citizenship behavior and psychological entitlement. The relationships were founded on the theoretical underpinning of equity theory.
... The breach of an employee's psychological contract is also positively related to the employee's intention to leave the organization, which is another widely researched attitudinal job outcome (Hess & Jepsen, 2009). After a psychological contract breach, employees may be reluctant to employ extra effort for the organization and lower their desire to remain with their organization (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010). It has been found that employees with a relational psychological contract had a significant and positive relationship with the intention to quit (Alcover et al., 2012). ...
In today's rapidly evolving business environment, effective employee-employer relationships are pivotal for organizational success. Despite the deployment of numerous motivational strategies, companies struggle to retain and engage employees, leading to the emergence of psychological contracts as a promising solution. This chapter explores the concept of psychological contracts—implicit agreements shaping mutual expectations beyond formal employment contracts—and proposes a framework for a balanced psychological contract that benefits both employees and employers. This chapter addresses critical themes such as the nature, importance, and types of psychological contracts; factors leading to contract breaches; and the distinct yet complementary roles of employees and employers in fostering a balanced contract.
... Furthermore, studies indicate that careers are not just work; they are an integral part of life, encompassing personal development and experiences (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010). Greenhaus et al. (1990) define career satisfaction as satisfaction derived from both intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of a career, including overall career objectives, income, advancement, and development. ...
Greenhaus’s Theory assesses career satisfaction through five key dimensions: career achievement, goal fulfillment, income, career advancement, and skill development. However, in the context of Islamic guidance and counseling teachers, gratitude should be considered as an additional determinant. Gratitude, as a core spiritual value, plays a significant role in career satisfaction for Muslim educators, yet it is often overlooked in traditional career satisfaction models. This study aims to expand Greenhaus’s Theory by incorporating gratitude as a sixth dimension. A quantitative approach was applied using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) with SmartPLS to validate the six-dimensional career satisfaction model. A random sample of 121 Islamic guidance and counseling teachers from Tasikmalaya participated in the study by completing a career satisfaction questionnaire. The findings confirm that career achievement, goal fulfillment, income, career progress, skill development, and gratitude are all valid and reliable indicators of career satisfaction. Gratitude significantly contributes to teachers’ overall career fulfillment, reinforcing its importance as a spiritual dimension in career satisfaction models. The inclusion of gratitude enhances the applicability of Greenhaus’s model in Islamic cultural contexts, addressing the gap in traditional career satisfaction frameworks. Recognizing gratitude as a career satisfaction factor provides a more comprehensive understanding of teacher well-being in religiously influenced educational environments. The adaptation of Greenhaus’s Theory with the inclusion of gratitude offers a more holistic perspective on career satisfaction for Islamic educators. Future research should explore its implications across diverse cultural and religious settings.
... Fuente: Elaborado por Silva (9), basado en las aportaciones de Burke y Ng (10), Hatum (11) y Hauw y De Vos (12). ...
Desde el inicio del nuevo milenio, el mundo se ha enfrentado a nuevos retos y crisis, que van desde lo económico y social hasta lo ético y ambiental. En algunos ámbitos como el laboral, las oportunidades de trabajo se han visto reducidas con el paso del tiempo. Una de las alternativas para disminuir estos datos puede
encontrarse en el emprendimiento, ya que, es importante para el desarrollo de la economía y como herramienta para activarla después de las crisis. En México, solamente el 37% de los emprendedores son mujeres. Las generaciones Millennials y Centennials optan por el emprendimiento antes de tener su primer
empleo y han estado alcanzando mayor injerencia en la administración de empresas y en el desarrollo económico de la región. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo Comparar las competencias emprendedoras de las mujeres de las generaciones Millennials y Centennials en el Camino Real de Campeche. El
estudio tuvo un enfoque cuantitativo con alcance correlacional y diseño no experimental transversal. Las muestras fueron 12 emprendedoras Millennials y 7 Centennials; todas ellas pertenecientes a organizaciones públicas o privadas que apoyan al emprendimiento. El método utilizado fue el deductivo, la técnica
empleada fue la encuesta y el cuestionario como instrumento de recolección de datos. Se observó una importante reducción en 10 de las 11 competencias emprendedoras de las mujeres emprendedoras de la generación Centennials con respecto a las Millennials.
... Business graduates, in particular, hold a significant position in organizational success. Their employability skills are vital in determining their ability to contribute to an organization's prosperity (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010). Employers seek graduates with a diverse range of abilities, including proficiency in their field as well as excellent interpersonal, problem-solving, communication, self-initiative, and efficiency skills (Kivunja, 2015). ...
This research investigates the impact of employability skills on organizational performance, with employee performance serving as the mediating variable. Data was collected through a self-administered survey questionnaire from a sample of business employers located in the Pokhara Valley of Nepal. For data analysis, statistical methods like confirmatory factor analysis, descriptive statistics, Cronbach’s alpha test, and structural equation modeling were used. Results showed strong factor loadings and significant direct and indirect effects between the variables. The mediation analysis confirmed that employee performance acts as a significant mediator between employability skills and organizational performance.
... Recent studies have examined the dual nature of careerism-its potential to enhance moive (Fatima et al., 2023), particularly through its motivational features and its relationship to organizational commitment (Jian & Sullivan, 2020), but also its potential to foster unhealthy competition around issues such as employee alienation , counterproductive work behaviors (Qazi et al, 2019), and psychological contracts (de Hauw & de Vos, 2010). Careerist attitudes may manifest themselves through a strategic approach in which individuals attempt to maximize their personal interests in the business world (Bouzidani & Torun, 2019;Malik & Malik, 2019;Smale et al., 2018). ...
This study presents the first known bibliometric analysis of research on careerism in business and management, and shares
the results obtained by examining 33 articles published between 1983 and 2024. Although there are existing studies in the
careerism literature, there are some gaps in terms of global trends, collaboration networks, and institutional contributions in
this field. The aim of the study is to provide a comprehensive overview of the current status and future trends of careerism
research, and with its methodological approach that emphasizes collaboration networks and institutional effects, it brings a
different perspective to the existing literature. In order to identify studies on the concept of careerism, a search was conducted
in the Web of Science (WoS) database between 1983 and 2024 with the term “careerism” in English, and the publications
were analyzed using the Biblioshiny 4.2 interface (Aria & Cuccurullo, 2017) used in the R programming language. In addition,
VOSViewer software was used to visualize the collaboration analyses. According to the findings, the most productive period in
terms of careerism studies was 2015-2016, and the most productive author was determined as de Vos. In addition, contributions
from leading institutions such as the Texas Aandm University and prestigious journals such as the Journal of Business and
Psychology reveal the importance of academic studies in the field of careerism. Although significant progress has been made
in careerism research, some important gaps continue. As a result of the analysis, it is understood that topics such as “normative
commitment”, “continuity”, “perceptions”, “management”, and “leadership” need to be examined further. These areas are critical
to better understand the changing structure of careerism within organizations, and it is recommended that future research
focus on these themes. In addition, the results reveal the dynamic nature of careerism research and offer new opportunities for
future research in this field.
... As they now occupy everything from entry-level positions to middle management, their influence is pivotal as we navigate the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) (Teng et al., 2019). This generation contrasts sharply with Baby Boomers, displaying a distinct approach to work-life balance, loyalty, and hierarchical respect, and is characterized by a strong preference for a balanced approach to work and life and a pronounced need for individual recognition and appreciation (Hauw & Vos, 2010;Kosterlitz & Lewis, 2017;Sungdoo Kim, 2018). ...
... As they now occupy everything from entry-level positions to middle management, their influence is pivotal as we navigate the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) (Teng et al., 2019). This generation contrasts sharply with Baby Boomers, displaying a distinct approach to work-life balance, loyalty, and hierarchical respect, and is characterized by a strong preference for a balanced approach to work and life and a pronounced need for individual recognition and appreciation (Hauw & Vos, 2010;Kosterlitz & Lewis, 2017;Sungdoo Kim, 2018). ...
This systematic literature review examines the intricate interplay between generational differences, the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), and the unanticipated effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the contemporary world of work. In response to the pandemic, organizations worldwide rapidly reevaluated their work processes, embracing digital technologies and remote work. This unforeseen shift underscored the world's capacity for rapid adaptation to unforeseen challenges. However, the 4IR extends beyond technological advancements, involving non-technological aspects such as evolving business models, workforce well-being, job security, and the changing nature of work. Understanding these dimensions is vital in shaping the modern workforce. Generational differences add another layer of complexity. Each generation, from Baby Boomers to Millennials, brings distinct worldviews and work values. This review explores how different generations perceive and adapt to the evolving nature of work, especially in the context of the 4IR. In addition, the 4IR highlights the critical role of knowledge in driving innovation and competitiveness. Knowledge-sharing practices within organizations have become pivotal in staying ahead in this era of rapid technological change. By addressing both technological and non-technological dimensions of the 4IR and considering generational perspectives, this review offers a comprehensive understanding of how these forces intersect and influence the modern workplace. It provides insights and recommendations to guide organizations, policymakers, and individuals in navigating the complexities of the modern world of work, harnessing 4IR opportunities, and addressing its multifaceted challenges.
... zaposlenih milenijcev Za milenijce sta znanje in človeški kapital osrednji sestavini zadovoljstva pri delu, saj ta generacija ceni nenehno učenje in osebni razvoj. Milenijci pričakujejo, da jim bo delodajalec omogočil dostop do izobraževanja in razvojnih programov, ki prispevajo k njihovi strokovni rasti (De Hauw in De Vos, 2010). Prav tako je zanje pomembno, da lahko svoje znanje uporabijo na delovnem mestu, kar povečuje njihovo občutek vrednosti in zadovoljstva (Lyons in Kuron, 2014). ...
... By defining roles, creating rules, and understanding their purpose, the model maximizes role freedom, aiding comprehension of the entire R&D process. A goal-oriented organization is more suitable for R&D in companies, especially with the increasing participation of new-generation employees who seek more personal fulfillment [32] (De Hauw and De Vos, 2010). ...
... For many young professionals, the focus of their overall identities may be aligned with their role as a career orientated individual. 36 Thus, we anticipated our sample to score higher on the PIVS; a scale that measures professional development and values of the profession. 7 Moreover, the millennial generation is career-orientated and eager to have opportunities for career growth. ...
Purpose: Professional identity is defined as an individual’s set of attitudes and beliefs about their specific role in their profession; a concept that could perhaps have implications on experiences of work-family conflict. The purpose of the study is to examine professional identity within college athletic trainers and how it relates to experiences of work-family conflict. Methods: Data was collected through an online survey (Qualtrics) where participants responded to demographic questions and previously validated Professional Identity and Values (PIV) Scale and the Work-Family Conflict (WFC) Scale. Demographic data were reported and analyzed for descriptives and frequencies. Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal Wallis tests were performed to identify differences among groups. Results: 585 (373 female, 210 male) college athletic trainers completed our study. Participants on average were 33 9 years of age and had 10 8 years of experience. Participants average score on the PIV scale was 93.618.96 and 4511.55 on the WFC scale. A Mann Whitey U test revealed there was no statistical difference between genders within the PIVS scale (p=.527). A Mann Whitey U test revealed a significant statistical difference between those who had less than 3 years of experience and those who had more than 3 years (U=20178.5, pConclusions:Male and female athletic trainers, regardless of their level within the NCAA collegiate setting, reported similar levels of PIV, but those athletic trainers with more than three years of experience reported higher levels. When an athletic trainer has responsibilities at home that require time and energy, his/her level of PIV is reduced.
... However, studies on applicant attraction have primarily focused on the type of work involved (e.g., the role applicants will perform), but the amount of work that applicants will contribute is rarely specified (Chapman et al., 2005;Turban et al., 1998). In light of applicants' varying preferences for workload, (e.g., work hours, overtime; Golden & Wiens-Tuers, 2005;Stier & Lewin-Epstein, 2003) and the increasing emphasis on work-life balance (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010), it is important not to lose sight of the amount of time that employees are expected to contribute to the job. Thus, this study seeks to explore whether the amount of work matters when applicants evaluate job offers. ...
We examine the influence of two factors beyond pay on applicants’ job offer evaluations in the IT and hospitality industries – whether an offer’s expected work hours influence attraction and whether job applicants’ perceptions of the economy influence attraction. Using a policy-capturing approach and a sample of 49 university students (882 total observations), we hypothesized that (a) the number of hours also matters when evaluating a job offer and (b) the economy moderates the relationships between hours worked and offer attractiveness and pay and offer attractiveness such that job offers would be more attractive under a weak economy than under a strong economy. Our findings suggest that the amount of work matters to applicants and that more research is needed to understand how macro factors like the economy impact important work evaluations.
... A generation is a group, which can be identified by year of birth, age, location, and significant events that create their personality (Guha, 2010;Smola & Sutton, 2002). Major life events such as wars, technological advancements, or major economic transitions moulds the personality, values, and expectations of a generation (Hauw & Vos, 2010). Over the past eighty years, four main generations have dominated the world: Baby Boomers, Generation X, Millennials, and Generation Z (Kaifi, Nafei, Khanfar, & Kaifi, 2012). ...
This research paper explores the spatial design parameters critical for accommodating the lifestyles and preferences of millennials in global urban environments. Millennials, characterized by their unique social behaviors, technological adeptness, and value for community, demand living spaces that reflect their dynamic and flexible lifestyles. This study investigates key design elements such as adaptability, communal integration, visual connectivity, and spatial diversity. By analysing contemporary architectural practices and case studies from diverse global contexts, the paper provides insights into creating residential environments that enhance social interaction, adaptability, and a sense of belonging for millennial residents. Key Words: millennial; shared living; flexible design; adaptable design; community engagement; spatial parameter; urban dwelling; social sustainability; participatory design; millennial living; spatial privacy
... First, the millennial generation is the largest population in the United States (Mottola, 2014). Millennials also suffered long-term career development and job satisfaction due to the economic recession between 2007and 2009(De Hauw & De Vos, 2010. Unexpected events (e.g., the 2007/2008 Recession, a tragedy like 9/11, etc.) caused societal changes. ...
... ;Poisat, Mey, and Sharp (2018);Huy et al. (2020);De Hauw and De Vos (2010);Sparrow (1998).Leader-member exchange, teammember exchange, leadershipDelobbe, Cooper-Thomas, and De Hoe (2016); Naktiyole and Kula (2018); Shih and Lin (2014); Clarke and Scurry (2020); Ali (2021); Kasekende (2017); Raulapati et al. (2010). Talent management: retention Poisat, Mey, and Sharp (2018); Seopa et al. (2015); Deas and Coetzee (2020); De Vos and Meganck(2009) ...
only consisted of one paragraph This comprehensive study thoroughly examines the psychological contract literature by reviewing 134 papers published from 1989 to 2022. It extensively explores various aspects, including the conceptual framework, classifications, influencing factors, measurement criteria, and evolutionary trends of psychological contracts. Through a critical analysis, this paper reveals that certain areas within the realm of psychological contracts have reached a saturation point, with a wealth of existing research. It highlights the need for a paradigm shift towards studies conducted from the employer's standpoint, which can offer invaluable insights into the dynamics of psychological contracts. In essence, this review encapsulates the existing knowledge on psychological contracts and maps out a roadmap for future research, emphasizing the importance of diverse perspectives and methodological approaches
... Research has shown that employees vary in the contents of their PCs and the level of importance they attach to their PC terms. Private life is critical to human nature and its hallmark is variability among individuals, as people pursue different goals depending on their stages of life and the contexts in which they live (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010;de Lange et al., 2011;Low et al., 2016). Human variability is the reason for which PC is often described as being "in the eye of the beholder" (Rousseau, 2011). ...
A core aspect of Sustainable Human Resource Management (S-HRM) has been its focus on developing high-quality employment relationships. This endeavor, however, has become increasingly complex, because the employee-employer relationship has undergone a profound transformation in recent years. This problem is further exacerbated by inherent tensions that surface when organizations aim to develop high-quality employment relationships in concert with sustainability-related goals. In this article, we intend to align theory and practice toward a more sustainable HRM by explaining how the psychological contract (PC) literature can provide new insights and perspectives to understand these tensions. We begin by delving into the nature and drivers of these sustainability-related tensions that arise when organizations strive to develop high-quality employment relationships. Next, we recount previous PC research that can inform the S-HRM literature to better understand how those tensions unfold. Finally, we identify concrete avenues for future research and discuss why integrating the PC and S-HRM literature could be an important path to expand our understanding of how to create more sustainable employment relationships.
... Значний інтерес у сфері кар'єрного розвитку приділяється аспектам, таким як прийняття кар'єрних рішень, зрілість кар'єри, вибір кар'єри та очікування професійних результатів [6]. Акцент робиться на важливості активної участі осіб у розвитку власної кар'єри [7], що відображає зростання відповідальності індивідів за успішне управління власною кар'єрою в останні десятиліття [5,8,9]. ...
... The psychological contract is recognised in the literature as an individual mental construction that (a) spans all of the beliefs of an employee [58][59][60] , (b) concerning the obligations of both worker and employer [61,62] , (c) held consciously and otherwise [63][64][65] that is (d) continually reshaped by experience [66] to provide (e) a representation of those beliefs at a particular point in time [67][68][69] . ...
A substantial literature has emerged in recent years advocating the view that women and men have different definitions, approaches and emanating perspectives of work. However, many of these assumptions regarding gender differences in construal of work are not empirically supported. Within the framework of the psychological contract, this study contributes to the literature by analysing the constructs of work obtained from both sexes, proportionately distributed across comparable cohorts of workers in the Czech Republic and the UK. The findings show a high degree of congruence in the construct distributions for both sexes, supporting the argument that gender inequality is socio-cultural in origin and not a product of gender-based differences in the construal processes. Suggestions are made concerning implications for practice.
... From the COR perspective, job crafting -proactively customizing one's job by making changes to one's tasks and interactions with others at work [39] -is one potential practical approach to mitigating job boredom [19,34]. Young adults have high expectations of developing their careers [40] and organizations should negotiate and provide job content that provides inspiring and meaningful tasks. ...
Background
Job boredom has been generally associated with poorer self-rated health but the evidence is mainly cross-sectional and there is a lack of a holistic mental health approach. We examined the temporal relationships between job boredom and mental health indicators of life satisfaction, positive functioning, anxiety, and depression symptoms.
Methods
We analyzed a two-wave postal survey data of adults aged 23 to 34 that was collected from the Finnish working population between 2021 and 2022 (n = 513). Latent change score modelling was used to estimate the effects of prior levels of job boredom on subsequent changes in mental health indicators, and of prior levels of mental health indicators on subsequent changes in job boredom.
Results
Job boredom was associated with subsequent decreases in life satisfaction and positive functioning and increases in anxiety and depression symptoms. Of these associations, job boredom was more strongly associated with changes in positive functioning and anxiety symptoms than with changes in life satisfaction.
Conclusions
Our two-wave study suggests that job boredom, a motivational state of ill-being in the work domain, spills over into general mental health by decreasing life satisfaction and positive functioning and increasing anxiety and depression symptoms. Our findings contribute to the understanding of the potential detrimental effects of job boredom and its nomological network. From a practical perspective, workplaces are adviced to improve working conditions that mitigate job boredom and thus promote employees’ mental health.
... HR can implement performance-based recognition programs and provide regular feedback to acknowledge and appreciate employees' efforts. Feeling valued and appreciated reinforces a positive PC (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010). Finally, because not all PCBs are preventable by having a clear HR management strategy and organizational policies in place, HR professionals should establish effective mechanisms for addressing conflicts and grievances. ...
Consistent with recent developments, we question the validity of trait neuroticism (N) and conscientiousness (C) as antecedents of psychological contract breach (PCB) and violation feelings. We investigate how key mediating (i.e., approach/avoidance goals) and moderating (i.e., emotion regulation strategies) mechanisms of the personality-PCB relationship operate over time. In Study 1 (550 observations), state N or C was associated positively with PCB and state N was associated positively with violation feelings. In study 2 (394 observations), state N was positively related to momentary avoidance goals, which in turn were related negatively to PCB and related positively to violation feelings. Moreover, suppression moderated the latter relationship; as suppression increased, the relationship between avoidance goals and violation feelings grew stronger. In contrast, state C was related positively to approach goals, which in turn were related positively to PCB and negatively to violation feelings. We discuss implications for theory and practice.
... Non-financial factors are equally important and can play a crucial role in motivating students to take on employment. Flexible working hours are one such factorstudents, due to their academic commitments, often seek jobs that allow them to adjust their work schedules to their university activities (De Hauw and De Vos, 2010). Additionally, students value opportunities for advancement and attractive career paths (Tomlinson, 2017). ...
... Generation Y, also known as Millennials, has emerged as a critical demographic in contemporary workplace dynamics, characterised by their distinct values, aspirations, and technological adeptness (Chavadi et al., 2021;Howe & Strauss, 2000). Born between 1981 and 1996, this cohort has been shaping organisational cultures and human resource management (HRM) strategies with their unique approach to work and life (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010). Their affinity for technology, emphasis on achieving a work-life balance, and the quest for meaningful employment differentiate them significantly 4 In contrast, with its developed economy, the USA showcases a more mature landscape of HRM practices. ...
This comparative analysis investigates Generation Y's perceptions of Human Resource Management (HRM) practices in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) within Bangladesh and the USA's distinct cultural and economic contexts, employing a mixed-methods research design that combines quantitative surveys with qualitative semi-structured interviews. The study meticulously selects a stratified sample of SMEs across both nations to capture a wide array of HRM practices and organisational cultures, followed by rigorous comparative analysis and statistical examination to identify the impact of these practices on turnover intentions. Key findings highlight that while Generation Y employees universally value work-life balance, professional growth opportunities, and supportive work environments, regional differences are pronounced; American employees exhibit a strong preference for flexible working conditions and immediate feedback as key to job satisfaction and retention, whereas Bangladeshi counterparts prioritise job security and clear advancement pathways, underscoring the nuanced influence of cultural and economic factors on employee expectations. These insights emphasise the critical need for SMEs to customise their HRM strategies to meet the specific aspirations of Generation Y, advocating for a context-aware approach that transcends a one-size-fits-all model. The research underscores the strategic importance of understanding and integrating local cultural and economic nuances into HRM practices for SMEs, suggesting that such tailored strategies are pivotal in fostering a motivated, engaged, and loyal Generation Y workforce, thereby enhancing SME competitiveness in a globalised business environment.
... As the war for talent con2nues, employees have a higher bargaining power to have their needs heard (Korn Ferry, 2018;The Economist, 2022). Along with fair compensa2on which has always been a means for mo2va2on, there appears to be a higher apprecia2on of flexibility and meaningful work (Cascio, 2003;De Hauw & De Vos, 2010;Ng et al., 2010). Purposeful work has been found to posi2vely influence engagement, job sa2sfac2on and reten2on (Hurst et al., 2016;Amire, 2022). ...
The inability of traditional hierarchical structures to meet the needs of individuals and organizations in a rapidly changing socio-economic environment has fostered a growing interest in alternative ways of organizing. Although self-managing organizations (SMOs) have been found to be better suited for agile, complex work environments, providing many benefits to both the business and employees, the understanding of its practical implementation and the associated psychological experiences of people involved is still scarce. Teal organizations - a more human centric and purpose oriented type of SMO, have been labeled utopian but continue receiving practitioner attention. This study investigates the barriers and facilitators of Teal implementation from the founders’ perspective. 11 founders from 10 organizations working on Teal principles have been interviewed using semi-structured interviews. The insights were analyzed using narrative thematic analysis with the pragmatic epistemological lens. The results highlight the importance of intrinsic motivation, person-environment fit, clarity of the roles and of the decision making process, perception of fair pay, capability building activities and a systemic approach to all processes. Noteworthy differences in key organizational practices are highlighted and discussed in the context of existing theories and empirical evidence. The findings are framed within self determination theory and the concept of work meaningfulness.
Celem rozdziału jest ukazanie specyfiki wartości przyjmowanych w miejscu pracy przez nowe pokolenie pracowników w odniesieniu do treści kontraktu psychologicznego. Badania empiryczne zostały przeprowadzone w postaci badań ilościowych przy wykorzystaniu testu psychometrycznego MindSonar. W badaniu wzięło udział 435 studentów czynnych zawodowo. Szczegółowa analiza
zebranych danych wskazuje, że nowe pokolenie pracowników jest wewnętrznie zróżnicowane pod względem przyjmowanych wartości. Wyniki badań dowodzą, że jednocześnie w ramach tej samej grupy pokoleniowej preferowane są wartości z różnych poziomów, co nie daje podstaw do stworzenia uniwersalnych zaleceń dotyczących treści kontraktu psychologicznego. Jednocześnie młodsze pokolenie wykazuje większą skłonność do orientacji na wyniki, rywalizację, rozwój kompetencji
i rozwój kariery oraz na korzyści materialne.
The article examines the value profiles among Lithuanian women and men. Data from the European Social Survey (Round 10) was used to perform latent profile analysis to determine the number of profiles among Lithuanian women and men. The latent profile analysis was performed to search for the best fitting profile number. The data confirmed that six-profiles solution is the best for both women and men. Only one significant difference was observed between the profiles. The findings of the research showed that men and women represent similar profiles based on the patterns of how value is important. These similarities among men and women suggest the existing of Lithuanian cultural profiles and that they are probably not gender-sensitive. However, considering the lack of a priori theory to exploit the findings, recommendations for future research are provided.
Purpose
Workplace accountability is a fundamental aspect of organizational functioning, influencing both individual motivation and overall performance. This study aims to investigate the antecedents of accountability by exploring the potential linkage between employees’ views regarding accountability issues and the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness as defined by self-determination theory (SDT).
Design/methodology/approach
The authors employ qualitative analysis to assess employees’ responses to a single question, presented as an open-ended question to avoid guiding employees’ responses in any way. The sample consists of knowledge workers employed at an electric commercial vehicle manufacturer. Of the 120 employees who completed a quantitative survey, 67 voluntarily answered the question on workplace accountability (included in the same survey), sharing their views to contribute to organizational improvement. Applying an inductive method to derive insights directly from employees’ experiences and using reflexive thematic analysis, the researchers produce six key themes which form the basis of a practical model framed within SDT.
Findings
While the single question requested suggestions for improving accountability, the answers touched upon various components of job design and psychological need satisfaction. The extracted themes were arranged in hierarchical order and included: Clarity in communication and expectations, A need for well-defined roles and responsibilities, Creating an environment in which employees can reach their full potential, Supportive supervisors, Performance feedback and Interpersonal relationships.
Practical implications
By applying our framework to address these six themes, leaders and managers can create a more supportive work environment which satisfies employees’ basic psychological needs and leads to autonomous motivation and improved accountability.
Originality/value
The study is novel due to its qualitative analysis of real workplace accountability issues at both the supervisory and non-supervisory levels and the theoretical connection made with SDT. The findings contribute valuable insights by offering a framework that highlights the drivers of accountability across organizational levels and serves as a practical tool for practitioners seeking to improve workplace accountability.
La crisis económica generada por la pandemia de COVID-19 destruyó cientos de millones de empleos a nivel mundial, precarizando todavía más el escenario laboral de las y los jóvenes. También representó una oportunidad para valorar la oportunidad del teletrabajo, la flexibilidad y la autonomía en el trabajo. Esta experiencia compartida podría contribuir a la configuración de las preferencias y expectativas laborales de jóvenes que inician su trayectoria laboral. El objetivo de este artículo fue contrastar hipótesis para aportar conocimiento en relación con estas posibles reconfiguraciones. A partir de análisis de clústeres, entre otros análisis, de una encuesta transversal con una participación de 300 jóvenes, se realizó un estudio de la significación del trabajo entre jóvenes de la metrópolis colombiana de Bucaramanga. Los hallazgos principales permiten concluir que hay un sector mayoritario que califica positivamente su empleo actual, valora el trabajo como algo central en sus vidas, y prefiere un empleo en función de la paga y la estabilidad, lo que contrasta con otros estudios que muestran una caída en la centralidad del trabajo en la vida de las personas, y una preferencia mayor por los empleos con propósito y con más flexibilidad y autonomía.
Career resilience is critical to the world's aging workforce, aiding older workers in adapting to the ever‐evolving nature of work. While ageist stereotypes often depict older workers as less resilient when faced with workplace changes, existing research studies offer conflicting evidence on whether older age hinders or improves career resilience. In response to this conflicting evidence, the present study employs multi‐level data from 6772 employees in 28 countries to examine the age‐career resilience relationships and underlying mechanisms, hence advancing our understanding of career resilience across the life course. By integrating macro‐contextual factors such as the unemployment rate and the culture of education with individual‐level mechanisms such as positive career meaning and career optimism, we provide a comprehensive model explaining how career resilience varies across age groups. Grounded in life course theory, our findings resolve prior inconsistencies in resilience research, contribute to bridging the micro‐macro gap in HRM literature, and challenge existing age‐based stereotypes.
Financial literacy and financial inclusion are critical components of economic empowerment, particularly among the millennial generation, who are actively engaged with digital financial services. This study employs a bibliometric analysis using data exclusively from Scopus and analyzed with VOSviewer to map the intellectual structure, trends, and key research themes in financial literacy and inclusion. The findings reveal that financial literacy is a dominant theme, with strong interconnections to financial behavior, financial knowledge, investment decision-making, and digital finance. The role of social media and fintech innovations is increasingly shaping millennials' financial engagement, highlighting the need for digital financial literacy. Co-authorship analysis identifies three primary research clusters: (1) financial literacy and personal finance, (2) behavioral and methodological frameworks, and (3) technology acceptance in financial behavior. The study underscores the interdisciplinary nature of financial literacy research, incorporating insights from economics, behavioral psychology, and technology adoption models. Implications suggest the need for updated financial education programs integrating investment literacy and digital finance competencies. Future research should explore regional financial inclusion disparities, the role of digital platforms in financial education, and emerging fintech trends influencing millennials' financial behavior.
Young people are lazy, seniors are bad at technology… Young people are impatient, seniors are slow… Stereotype after stereotype, Gen Z versus Boomers—this battle is lost before it even begins. So why categorize employees based on their generation? How can we tackle this challenge and move beyond these differences? Can four generations truly coexist within the same team? Élodie Gentina and Jérémy Lamri answer these questions and dismantle the traps of generational clichés. They provide insight into the shared challenges across all generations, as well as those specific to each. By recognizing these differences, they propose an inclusive management approach that goes beyond preconceived ideas. This dual perspective is enriched by expert insights: more than twenty HR directors and senior executives share their experiences in addressing intergenerational dynamics and their impact within organizations.
Table of Contents
PART 1. GENERATIONAL CULTURE: THE GREAT CHALLENGE
Chapter 1 – Why is intergenerational management a key issue today?
Chapter 2 – Generations in the workplace
Chapter 3 – Six misconceptions about Generation Z
PART 2. CONTEXT AND CHALLENGES OF INTERGENERATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Chapter 4 – Identifying generational challenges
Chapter 5 – Common mistakes in intergenerational management
Chapter 6 – Importance and implications of generational diversity
PART 3. TOWARD TRUE INTERGENERATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Chapter 7 – Rethinking HR processes and work organization
Chapter 8 – Motivating and uniting intergenerational teams
Chapter 9 – Three key aspects of intergenerational communication
Chapter 10 – Managing intergenerational conflicts
Chapter 11 – Seven trends shaping the future of intergenerational work
This book is about the underlying mechanisms of agile management that control work processes in the context of industrial tech development. It challenges commonly held beliefs in adaptability, collaboration and flattened hierarchies claimed to be achieved by agile approaches. In asking how these promises are put into practice, this book offers novel insights into how work is controlled in times of increasing flexibility and constant change in the world of work and management.
Through a rich analysis of a case study in industrial tech companies, Klara‑Aylin Wenten argues that agility is deeply entrenched in ambivalences ranging between planning and improvising, caring and exploiting, intimacy and professional distance, accuracy and imperfection and autonomy and control. She illuminates the challenging expectations and invisible work efforts that employees are faced with to adhere to the promise of agility. In introducing the concept of ‘management scripts’, the author sheds light on how action patterns, work habits, roles, interactions or artifacts embed (unspoken) guidelines instructing and controlling employees’ daily work lives. This lens on scripts challenges conventional management theories and highlights the pivotal role of material objects in work control. This book thus extends our understanding of the heterogeneity of humans and nonhumans contributing to the dynamics of managerial control, even beyond the scope of agile methodologies.
This book appeals to an academic audience ranging from the humanities and social sciences to more practice‑based disciplines in management and business. As a research monograph, this book is predominantly dedicated to academic scholars in the fields of Science and Technology Studies, organization and management studies and the sociology of work but also addresses practitioners and scholars interested in business, innovation, design, anthropology or cultural studies.
Existing psychological contract (PC) research has paid inadequate attention to specific cohorts like new‐generation employees and their perceptions of employers' psychological contract fulfillment (PCF). Individuals' expectations and perceptions of employer obligations may differ contingent on age and life experience in different societal contexts. We explore the construct of perceived employer PCF among new‐generation employees in China through one pilot study and two formal studies. The pilot study shows that new‐generation employees' PCF generally differs from that of previous generations. In Study 1, we use qualitative and quantitative methods to develop a perceived employer PCF scale and find five dimensions: Employee care, positive culture and climate, empowering employees, salary and benefit satisfaction, growth and development. In Study 2, establishment of validity confirms the factor structure of Study 1, indicating the proposed measurement is valid. Our findings have significant implications for research and practice for new‐generation employees in China.
Penelitian ini bertujuan mengeskplorasi pengaruh gaya kepemimpinan transformasional terhadap kinerja karyawan, gaya kepemimpinan transformasional terhadap motivasi kerja, motivasi kerja terhadap kinerja karyawan, gaya kepemimpinan transformasional terhadap kinerja karyawan dengan motivasi sebagai mediasi,gaya kepemimpinan transformasional terhadap persepsi kebermaknaan kerja, dan persepsi kebermaknaan kerja terhadap motivasi kerja. Studi ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif dengan metode survey yang menyebarkan kuesioner secara online kepada 325 orang karyawan yang bekerja pada bagian staf administrasi di kantor pusat industri manufaktur di wilayah DKI Jakarta. Responden penelitian ini dipilih dengan metode purposive sampling. Penelitian dilakukan dengan metode Structural Equation Model (SEM). Dari hasil penelitian ini ditemukan bahwa gaya kepemimpinan transformasional tidak berpengaruh terhadap kinerja karyawan, gaya kepemimpinan transformasional berpengaruh terhadap motivasi kerja, motivasi kerja berpengaruh terhadap terhadap kinerja karyawan, gaya kepemimpinan transformasional memiliki pengaruh terhadap kinerja karyawan dengan motivasi sebagai mediasi, gaya kepemimpinan transformasional berpengaruh terhadap persepsi kebermaknaan kerja, persepsi kebermaknaan kerja berpengaruh terhadap motivasi kerja. Disarankan pada penelitian berikutnya dapat dilakukan analisis mengenai gaya kepemimpinan transformasional pada bidang atau sektor industri lain yang cakupan wilayahnya lebih luas. Kedua, dapat dilakukan penelitian lebih lanjut dengan melibatkan pekerja yang tidak hanya bekerja di kantor pusat sebagai pegawai administrasi tetapi juga melibatkan pekerja di bidang lain, seperti pegawai operasional lapangan di pabrik.
As labour demographics continue to change, particularly concerning Generation Y, human resources professionals are faced with an unusual task. Millennials, often known as Generation Y (Gen Y), were born between 1979 and 2002. Human resources professionals must improve their social networking site-based recruitment techniques because there are 53.5 million Gen Y workers in the labour force today. From the perspective of human resources recruiters, this research study carefully investigates the challenge of luring Gen Y in proportionate numbers to the labour force in a two-year college system in the Odisha Region. Young experts are a significant element of Generation Y, and numerous studies have examined their viewpoints, attitudes, beliefs, etc. This essay compares the significance of career and life values to friends from various B-schools with comparable backgrounds and the same age. Between December 2021 and May 2022, 250 B-school students from two different study programmes at the same Faculty completed a life value inventory to test the hypotheses. The data were then analyzed using SPSS statistical software. Only a portion of the expectations for various values in life and at work was met. The results are discussed within the context of strategic leadership and stakeholder involvement requirements.
Bu çalışmanın amacı psikolojik sözleşme ihlalinin işten ayrılma niyeti üzerine etkisinde devam bağlılığının aracı etkisini incelemektir. Bu ilişkiler sosyal değişim teorisi ve kaynakların koruması teorisi ilkelerine dayalı olarak oluşturulmuştur. Çalışma verileri, kesitsel araştırma deseninde TR82 bölgesindeki bir ilçe belediyesi çalışanlarından toplanmış ve verilerin analizinde istatistiksel yöntemlerden faydalanılmıştır. Çalışmanın bulguları, psikolojik sözleşme ihlalinin işten ayrılma niyeti üzerinde etkisi olduğunu ancak devam bağlılığının bu etkiye aracılık etmediği sonucunu göstermektedir. Bu çalışmanın sosyal değişim teorisi ve kaynakların korunması teorisi çerçevesinde literatüre katkıda bulunması ve psikolojik sözleşme ihlaliyle ilgili farkındalığı artırması beklenmektedir. Ayrıca devam bağlılığını artırmak ve yetenekleri elde tutmak için örgütlerin stratejiler geliştirmelerine katkı sağlamayı hedeflemektedir.
As organizations strive to engage and retain the younger generations, the increasing growth of the younger workforce as a percentage of the organizational workforce has inadvertently created difficulty in integrating them with the older workforce. With younger employees embracing significantly different values and expectations than the older workforce, organizations are increasingly working to promote corporate entrepreneurship as a potential means of engaging them. Nonetheless, we lack clarity on how the corporate entrepreneurship environment enables organizations to engage the younger workforce is unexplored. Therefore, this study uses the mixed method approach to explore the relationship between the corporate entrepreneurship environment and younger workforce engagement. Adopting a qualitative research design, we conducted semi-structured interviews with six chief people officers and four middle-level human resource managers from six different organizations in India. The findings revealed key themes, including (a) top management support, (b) work discretion, (c) rewards and younger workforce engagement, (d) time availability, and (e) organizational boundaries. We followed up with the survey research conducted on 120 younger employees to examine the hypothesized relationship. The findings indicate a direct relationship between corporate entrepreneurship environment dimensions and young workforce engagement. The study adds to the literature on younger employee engagement by explaining the critical role of corporate entrepreneurship environment dimensions as a driver of younger workforce engagement. An improved understanding of the expectations of the younger workforce will assist organizations in designing work and creating organizational environments that are more likely to engage the younger workforce.
This chapter unpacks the critical aspect of integrating the organizational vision at the individual level. By drawing inspiration from the innovative approach of the early leaders of 3M, who pivoted towards harnessing the creativity of their workforce, this chapter underscores the paramount importance of empowering team members with creativity to drive vision-based decision-making. Highlighting the pivotal role of autonomy, visual thinking, rapid prototyping, and experimentation, this chapter explores the transformative power of these elements in translating vision into actionable strategies. Additionally, this chapter sheds light on the compelling impact of coaching behaviors and the cultivation of a coaching culture in fostering perpetual stakeholder engagement and driving vision realization.
As one of the world's largest economic sectors, travel and tourism creates jobs, drives exports, and generates prosperity across the world. Comprising a wide range of industries, it supports one in every ten jobs on the planet, has accounted for one in five of all jobs created across the world over the past five years, and is a dynamic and complex engine of employment opportunities. Its companies are inside a competitive arena and must ensure its sustainability on the basis of its greatest asset: its employees. Nowadays in the workplace there are a great diversity of cultures, ages, and generational differences, and employers have to explore new ways to motivate people to efficiently work. Each generation is unique and usually this variety does not work without supervision. The study will be conducted on two Portuguese Polytechnic Institutes with Masters Students from Hospitality and Tourism. As a methodology, it will be used a quantitative research. Conclusions may help companies to better understand the reasons why employees abandon them or are attracted by them.
This book delves into the intricate nature of the psychological contract and its profound impact on job satisfaction and employee behavior in academia. This is an effort to explore the gap between what employees expect and what they experience in their workplace, examining how these perceptions influence their overall satisfaction and willingness to go beyond their formal job requirements. Through a blend of theoretical insights and practical strategies, this book offers valuable guidance for managers, HR professionals, and organizational leaders. It emphasizes the importance of effective communication, realistic job previews, recognition systems, career development opportunities, and supportive leadership in nurturing a positive psychological contract. By doing so, organizations can enhance job satisfaction and cultivate a culture of organizational citizenship, ultimately driving long-term success and sustainability.
Although the work attitudes of new generations entering the labor market are significantly different from those of previous generations, whether these different attitudes are due to generational or age effects is unclear. This study analyzes the work attitudes of different generations of young adults of the same age using data from the 2006 and 2019 Korean Workplace Panel Surveys. The results show that millennials and Generation Z, the young adults in 2019, are less satisfied with their jobs and less committed to their organizations than Generation X, the young adults in 2006. Second, millennials and Generation Z have higher union instrumentality than Generation X, which, in turn, is positively associated with job satisfaction. Finally, perceived current socioeconomic status exacerbates the negative relationship between cohorts and job satisfaction, whereas perceived future improvement in socioeconomic status mitigates the negative relationship between cohorts and job commitment. The authors discuss the findings as they relate to economic disadvantages, including fewer opportunities in the labor market for new generations.
The level of competency and skills possessed by an individual determines the scope of growth opportunities available to that individual both within and outside of the organization. They can advance their careers and achieve success because of it. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role that individual participation plays in competency development initiatives and their organizational support on his career success. Moreover, the indirect effect of perceived employability is also examined. The data was gathered from the various branches of three leading banks in Lahore, Pakistan. The results of the study reported that there is a significant relationship between employee participation, organization support in competency development, and career success. Moreover, perceived employability mediates the relationship between employee participation, organization support in competency development, and career success. There are important implications for practitioners who are looking for ways to increase the employability of workers and who want to benefit from the advantages of employability for both the organization and the employee. Further, it highlights the importance of competency development for both individuals and organizations.
Framing the socio-cultural and economic revolution brought about by cognitive technologies, the chapter aims to discuss the redefinition of workers’ identities and the meaning they attach to work. Yet, authoritative studies in the field show that work experience represents a symbolic space for the development of personal and social identity. The emergence of new technology-based working modalities, more rapidly diffused after the pandemic, has concretely redesigned the role played by people at work. Moreover, this change is also framed within the discussion about an unavoidable clash between different generations of workers (namely baby boomers, Gen X, millennials and Gen Z) who are animated by different values, different expectations, and technological skills. Therefore, the chapter discusses challenges and potentialities associated with this revolution, highlighting how the questions posed by technologies will also impose a redefinition of HRM practices.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this chapter we review existing research into work group socialization. Contrasting newcomer socialization into the wider organization with their assimilation into their proximal work group, we argue that the work group often forms the primary medium through which the socialization process is enacted. A critical review of existing studies reveals that researchers active in work group dynamics, and those interested primarily in organization socialization, have neglected the process of socialization into work groups. To redress this situation we propose a testable model of work group socialization and conclude the chapter by arguing the need for further research at the group level of analysis.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine whether four different generations (Silent Generation, Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y) hold different beliefs about career. Career type, career success evaluation and importance attached to organizational security are to be scrutinized for each generation.
Design/methodology/approach
A total of 750 people completed a vignette task, rating the career success of 32 fictitious people. Each vignette contained a different combination of five career features (functional level, salary, number of promotions, promotion speed, and satisfaction) at two levels (low and high). Furthermore, several items were added in order to determine each participant's career type and the extent to which they attached importance to organizational security.
Findings
The majority of participants still had rather “traditional” careers, although younger generations seemed to exhibit larger discrepancies between career preferences and actual career situation. Overall, satisfaction appeared to be the overriding criterion used to evaluate other people's career success. No significant differences were found between generations. With regard to importance attached to organizational security, the Silent Generation and Generation Y scored significantly higher than the other generations.
Research limitations/implications
The convenience sampling strategy led to large differences in sample size per generation. Using a vignette design limited the amount and richness of information that could be offered to participants. Perhaps other criteria relevant to real‐life career success evaluation should have been incorporated in this study.
Originality/value
The study raises questions about the validity of career success operationalizations frequently used in research. It is the first study to examine career success evaluation by means of vignettes.
Purpose
This introduction seeks to provide a brief background to the notion that there are generational differences at work and to introduce the papers included in this special issue of the Journal of Managerial Psychology .
Design/methodology/approach
The current context concerning generational differences at work is briefly outlined followed by a description of the core theory underpinning the notion of generational cohorts. Criticisms of this theoretical premise are provided before a brief outline is given to each article in the special issue.
Findings
There is evidence for changes in personality profiles across generations, and for differences in attitudes towards work and careers. However, effect sizes tend not to be large, and some findings are inconsistent with popular stereotypes regarding generational differences. Little support was found for differences in work values or motivation.
Practical implications
Contrary to popular hype concerning generational differences at work, managerial time may be better spent considering employee needs relating to age (maturity), life‐cycle and career stage differences than developing generationally specific management policies and practices. Significant methodological problems remain in generational research.
Originality/value
The papers facilitate a critical understanding of the challenges facing generational research and its limitations, and provide a litmus test against which popular stereotypes can be compared.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to investigate differences between three generational groups currently in the workforce (Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y), in work values, job satisfaction, affective organisational commitment and intentions to leave. The study also seeks to examine generational differences in person‐organisation values fit.
Design/methodology/approach
A total of 504 Auckland employees representing a range of industries completed an online questionnaire. Generation X (57 per cent) was defined as those born between 1962‐1979, Baby Boomers (23 per cent) were born 1946‐1961 and Generation Y (17 per cent) were born 1980‐2000. The remainder (3 per cent) were born 1925‐1945.
Findings
The youngest groups placed more importance on status and freedom work values than the oldest group. Baby Boomers reported better person‐organisation values fit with extrinsic values and status values than Generation X and Generation Y but there were no other generational differences in fit. Where individual and organisational values showed poor fit there were reduced job satisfaction and organisational commitment, and increased intentions to turnover across all three generational groups.
Research limitations/implications
The study was cross‐sectional and based on self‐report data, limiting the generalisability of findings.
Practical implications
Values are important in guiding behaviour and enhancing work motivation. Organisational values must be able to meet the needs of different employees, and organisations need to clarify their work values and expectations with staff.
Originality/value
The paper presents evidence that person‐organisation values fit is important for all generational groups and popular notions about generational differences should not be over‐generalised.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to review data from 1.4 million people who completed personality, attitude, psychopathology, or behavior scales between the 1930s and the present and to discuss how those differences may impact today's workplace.
Design/methodology/approach
The data are gathered from research reports using psychological scales over the last eight decades, primarily those using college student samples.
Findings
Generation Me (sometimes called Gen Y or Millennials) demonstrates higher self‐esteem, narcissism, anxiety, and depression; lower need for social approval; more external locus of control; and women with more agentic traits.
Practical implications
Managers should expect to see more employees with unrealistically high expectations, a high need for praise, difficulty with criticism, an increase in creativity demands, job‐hopping, ethics scandals, casual dress, and shifting workplace norms for women. Organizations can respond to these changes with accommodations (e.g. praise programs) or with counter pressure (e.g. dress codes), and it is imperative that managers consider the best reaction for their workforce.
Originality/value
Most studies of generations interview workers at one time; thus any differences could be due to age or generation. Many of these reports are also based on subjective opinions and perceptions. In contrast, the paper reviews quantitative data on generational differences controlling for age. This empirically based look at generations in the workplace should be useful to managers and workers.
Purpose – The purpose of this research is to examine whether personality and motivational driver differences exist across three generations of working Australians: Baby Boomers, Gen Xs, and Gen Ys.
Design/methodology/approach – Using the Occupational Personality Questionnaire and the Motivation Questionnaire, the study examined cross-sectional differences in personality and motivational drivers across three generations.
Findings – The results are not supportive of the generational stereotypes that have been pervasive in the management literature and the media. Specifically, few meaningful differences were found between the three generations. Moreover, even when differences have been observed, these have related more to age than generation.
Research limitations/implications – One of the key limitations is the use of cross-sectional data. To further explore this issue, it would be interesting to undertake a longitudinal study to assess personality preferences and motivational drivers of the different generations, when the participants are at the same age or the same point in their career.
Practical implications – The research emphasizes the importance of managing individuals by focusing on individual differences rather than relying on generational stereotypes, which may not be as prevalent as the existing literature suggests.
Originality/value – Managers and HR professionals may find the lack of differences across generations interesting and refreshing, in contrast with the popular management literature.
Presents a theoretical framework for understanding age-related differences in work attitudes and behavior. Based on a review of more than 185 research studies, age-related differences in 3 major categories of variables are examined: work attitudes, work behaviors, and values, needs, and preferences. The work attitudes include overall job satisfaction; satisfaction with work itself, pay, promotions, co-workers, and supervision; job involvement; internal work motivation; organizational commitment; and turnover intention. Among the behavioral characteristics are performance, turnover, absenteeism, and accidents. Consistent age-related differences are reported for a number of work attitudes and behaviors, but conceptual and methodological difficulties preclude identifying causal factors in the relationship between age and work attitudes and behaviors. Some theoretical orientations having utility for guiding theory development and research on age differences are discussed. (6 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Psychological contracts are a powerful concept in research on organizational behaviour. Substantial negative reactions towards perceived breaches to the psychological contract have been reported in many studies. There are sound theoretical arguments for the existence of a point in the continuous perception of contract breach, where sudden changes in attitudes occur in the relationship between breach and outcomes (i.e., thresholds). Using questionnaire data from 592 employees working in more than 30 different organizations across Germany, segmented regression models were tested against curvilinear effects for the relationship between breach of the psychological contract and job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, intention to quit, violation, and trust. This study provides empirical evidence for threshold models of psychological contract breach. The results imply that prior studies have underestimated the impact of psychological contract breach.
This research examined the relationship between employee personality and psycho- logical contract type, perceptions of contract breach, and feelings of contract violation. In general, personality characteristics (extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, self-esteem, equity sensitivity, and locus of control) were related to reported contract type. They also tended to predict perceptions of contract breach and to moderate the relationship between those perceptions and feelings of contract violation. Both con- tract type and feelings of violation were associated with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intentions to quit. Recent years have seen a renewal of interest in two phenomena with histories of research in organ- izational behavior—personality, and psychological contracts. In this article, we examine the relation- ship between these two phenomena to address im-
Based on the theoretical framework of newcomer sensemaking this study examines factors associated with changes in newcomers' psychological contract perceptions during the socialization process. More specifically, two mechanisms are addressed that could explain changes in newcomers' perceptions of the promises they have exchanged with their employer: (1) unilateral adaptation of perceived promises to reality and (2) adaptation of perceived promises as a function of the reciprocity norm. To test our hypotheses, a four-wave longitudinal study among 333 new hires has been conducted, covering the first year of their employment relationship. Results show that changes in newcomers' perceptions of the promises they have made to their employer are affected by their perceptions of their own contributions as well as by their perceptions of inducements received from their employer. Changes in newcomers' perceptions of employer promises are affected by their perceptions of employer inducements received, but the impact of perceived employee contributions is less clear. The data provide limited support for the idea that the adaptation of perceived promises to perceived inducements and contributions occurs to a stronger extent during the encounter stage than during the acquisition stage of socialization. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
As we enter the new millennium and face the entrance of another generation of workers into the changing world of work, managers are encouraged to deal with the generational differences that appear to exist among workers. This paper revisits the issue of generational differences and the causes of those differences. Data were obtained from more than 350 individuals across the country who responded to a request to complete a survey. Current generational differences in worker values are analysed and the results are compared to a similar study conducted in 1974. Results suggest that generational work values do differ. To a lesser degree, the results suggest that work values also change as workers grow older. Finally, the results indicate an increasing desire among American workers to balance work and personal goals. This change in attitude was reflected even within the same cohort group. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the influence of psychological contract breach on 8 work-related outcomes. Breach was related to all outcomes except actual turnover. Based on affective events theory, we developed a causal model integrating breach, affect (violation and mistrust), attitude (job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions), and individual effectiveness (actual turnover, organizational citizenship behavior, and in-role performance). Structural equation modeling was used to test the model. The results indicated that affect mediates the effect of breach on attitude and individual effectiveness. Two moderators were also examined including the type of breach measure (global vs. composite) and the content of the psychological contract breach (transactional vs. relational). Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Personnel Psychology is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators.
This study examines factors affecting employees' perceptions that their psychological contract has been breached by their organization, and factors affecting whether this perception will cause employees to experience feelings of contract violation. Data were obtained from 147 managers just prior to their beginning of new job (time 1) and 18 months later (time 2). It was found that perceived contract breach at time 2 was more likely when organizational performance and self-reported employee performance were low, the employee had not experienced a formal socialization process, the employee had little interaction with organizational agents prior to hire, the employee had a history of psychological contract breach with former employers, and the employee had many employment alternatives at the time of hire. Furthermore, perceived breach was associated with more intense feelings of violation when employees both attributed the breach to purposeful reneging by the employer and felt unfairly treated in the process. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed. Copyright (C) 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to explore HR managers' and employees' views on the factors affecting employee retention using the perspective of the psychological contract.
Design/methodology/approach
– Two studies were conducted. First, a sample of HR managers gave their view on the factors affecting employee retention and turnover and described their retention practices. Second, a large sample of employees reported on the importance attached to five types of employer inducements commonly regarded as retention factors, on their evaluation of these inducements and on their loyalty. Regression analysis was used to examine the impact of the delivery of employer inducements on retention.
Findings
– The HR managers survey indicates that retention practices focus more on the factors believed to cause employee turnover (career opportunities and financial rewards) than on those believed to affect employee retention (social atmosphere, job content, work‐life balance). The focus on career opportunities is supported by the employee survey. The delivery of career opportunities had the strongest impact on employee loyalty while the impact of the delivery of financial rewards was much smaller.
Research limitations/implications
– It is useful to distinguish between different content dimensions of the psychological contract when studying its impact on employee outcomes. The psychological contract provides a relevant framework for studying employee retention.
Practical implications
– This paper offers HR professionals' insights into the effectiveness of retention practices.
Originality/value
– The paper shows how the psychological contract can be applied in retention management and examines impact of different content dimensions of the psychological contract on employee outcomes.
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Young workers represent the workforce of the future. We discuss research on two major influences on young people's work-related values, attitudes, and behaviours, namely family influences and work experiences. Particular emphasis is given to the role of young people's work experiences in shaping their future work-related attitudes, values, and behaviours (an under-researched area in occupational/ organizational psychology). To begin outlining a research agenda based on young workers, changes in the world of work and emerging areas of importance for the future generation of workers and their organizations are also highlighted (i.e. the rise in non-standard employment, leadership, workplace health and safety and unions).
This publication contains reprint articles for which IEEE does not hold copyright. You may purchase this article from the Ask*IEEE Document Delivery Service at http://www.ieee.org/services/askieee/.
This article examines the way students, making the transition from higher education into the labour market, construct, understand and begin to manage their employability. It draws upon a qualitative study of 53 final‐year undergraduates in a pre‐1992 university in the UK. It firstly explores students’ perceptions of the current labour market for graduates and how they understand future career progression. It examines their different orientations and attitudes to work and careers through the development of an ideal‐type model. It then considers how these orientations influence the way students approach future work and careers and manage their employability, and further discusses some of the implications this has for current policies around higher education and the labour market in the UK context.
Understanding the dynamics of the psychological contract in employment is difficult without research into its formation. Unfortunately, far less research exists on the antecedents and formation of the psychological contract than on the consequences associated with it. Three concepts frequently studied in psychology are particularly important to advancing research on psychological contract formation: schemas, promises, and mutuality (i.e. objective and perceptual agreement). This article develops the implications these three concepts have for future research on psychological contract formation.
This study examines factors affecting employees' perceptions that their psychological contract has been breached by their organization, and factors affecting whether this perception will cause employees to experience feelings of contract violation. Data were obtained from 147 managers just prior to their beginning of new job (time 1) and 18 months later (time 2). It was found that perceived contract breach at time 2 was more likely when organizational performance and self-reported employee performance were low, the employee had not experienced a formal socialization process, the employee had little interaction with organizational agents prior to hire, the employee had a history of psychological contract breach with former employers, and the employee had many employment alternatives at the time of hire. Furthermore, perceived breach was associated with more intense feelings of violation when employees both attributed the breach to purposeful reneging by the employer and felt unfairly treated in the process. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Psychological contracts are individual beliefs in reciprocal obligations between employees and employers. In a sample of 224 graduating MBA students who had recently accepted job offers, beliefs regarding employment obligations were investigated. Two types of obligation were demonstrated empirically: transactional obligations of high pay and career advancement in exchange for hard work and relational obligations exchanging job security for loyalty and a minimum length of stay. These types of obligations are connected with two forms of legal contracts: transactional and relational. Relational contract obligations for employers correlated with employee expected length of stay with the firm. Transactional contract obligations were associated with careerist motive on the part of new recruits. The relationship between these and other motives of new hires was also investigated.
This article reports the findings of research that explored relationships between work/life balance, work/non-work conflict, hours worked and organisational commitment among a sample of graduates in the early years of their career. It concludes that, although graduates seek work/life balance, their concern for career success draws them into a situation where they work increasingly long hours and experience an increasingly unsatisfactory relationship between home and work. The article discusses the causes and potential consequences of this predicament and in particular how work/non-work conflict is linked to hours worked, the state of the psychological contract and organisational commitment. It highlights the role of organisations' policy and practice in helping to manage the relationship between work and non-work and the development of organisational commitment through support for younger employees' lives out-of-work and effective management of aspects of the psychological contract.
PurposeThe purpose of this study was to investigate career-related antecedents of graduates’ anticipatory psychological contracts.
Design/Methodology/ApproachA survey was filled out by a sample of 722 graduates addressing questions on career strategy, individual career management,
work importance, and beliefs about employer and employee obligations.
FindingsGraduates with a high score on careerism, who are engaged in a high level of individual career management and with management
ambitions, reported a higher level of employer obligations and a higher level of employee obligations related to flexibility
and employability.
ImplicationsThis study adds to the literature by addressing the initial stage of psychological contract formation, taking place in the
anticipatory socialization stage. The obligations that are salient in graduates’ pre-employment beliefs are likely to affect
their psychological contracts after organizational entry. Moreover, depending on their career goals and other career-related
factors, graduates approach their future employment relationship with different beliefs about what they should contribute
and what they will receive in return. Employers may use these findings when working out recruitment strategies for young graduates.
They also provide input for actively managing the expectations of new hires.
Originality/ValueMost studies on psychological contracts addressed the relationship between employees’ psychological contract evaluations and
subsequent attitudes and behaviors. Only recently scholars have started to address the topic of psychological contract formation.
This study adds to this line of research by addressing the pre-employment stage. It also adds to the literature by addressing
the relationship between career-related antecedents and psychological contracts.
Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to explore HR managers' and employees' views on the factors affecting employee retention using the perspective of the psychological contract. Design/methodology/approach - Two studies were conducted. First, a sample of HR managers gave their view on the factors affecting employee retention and turnover and described their retention practices. Second, a large sample of employees reported on the importance attached to five types of employer inducements commonly regarded as retention factors, on their evaluation of these inducements and on their loyalty. Regression analysis was used to examine the impact of the delivery of employer inducements on retention. Findings - The HR managers survey indicates that retention practices focus more on the factors believed to cause employee turnover (career opportunities and financial rewards) than on those believed to affect employee retention (social atmosphere, job content, work-life balance). The focus on career opportunities is supported by the employee survey. The delivery of career opportunities had the strongest impact on employee loyalty while the impact of the delivery of financial rewards was much smaller. Research limitations/implications - It is useful to distinguish between different content dimensions of the psychological contract when studying its impact on employee outcomes. The psychological contract provides a relevant framework for studying employee retention. Practical implications - This paper offers HR professionals' insights into the effectiveness of retention practices. Originality/value - The paper shows how the psychological contract can be applied in retention management and examines impact of different content dimensions of the psychological contract on employee outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Personnel Review is the property of Emerald Group Publishing Limited and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
This paper reports the findings of a two-wave longitudinal study investigating relationships between organizational and individual career management activities and organizational commitment in the early years of graduate careers. Several hypotheses are tested and receive mixed support. High organizational commitment predicts the practice of career management activities by graduates to further their career within the organization while low commitment is closely associated with behaviour aimed at furthering the career outside the organization. Graduates who manage their own careers also receive more career management help from their employer. This suggests that there may be the potential for employers to create a virtuous circle of career management in which individual and organizational activities complement each other
Today's health care workforce comprises Traditional, Baby Boomer, and Generation X employees. Effective managers must understand the times and generational characteristics of these employees and they must assure that employees understand and respect one another's differences. They must foster open discussion of how generational differences influence attitudes toward work and organizations. They must provide opportunities for multigeneration employees to contribute their best concurrent with meeting organizational goals. Employees must be offered a conditional security based upon value-added results and collaboration. Managers must use leadership practices that encourage the hearts of dispirited employees.
A tale of two depressions. (forthcoming)
- B Eichengreen
- K H Rourke
Eichengreen, B., & O'Rourke, K. H. (2009). A tale of two depressions. (forthcoming).
Retiring the generation gap: How employees young and old can find common ground
- J J Deal
- JJ Deal
Deal, J. J. (2007). Retiring the generation gap: How employees young
and old can find common ground. San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass.
Millennials rising: The next great generation
- N Howe
- W Strauss
Howe, N., & Strauss, W. (2000). Millennials rising: The next great
generation. New York: Random House.
Harmonised Unemployment Rates (HURs)
- Oecd
OECD. (2009). Harmonised Unemployment Rates (HURs). OECD
Updated, February 2009. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/
dataoecd/32/24/42134775.pdf.