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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Television Viewing and Rape Myth Acceptance
among College Women
LeeAnn Kahlor & Dan Morrison
Published online: 17 May 2007
#
Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2007
Abstract Prior research has shown that people who
consume pornographic movies and magazines are more
likely to accept rape myths. The results of the present study
build on that research to link the acceptance of rape myths
to general, daily television use among college women.
Furthermore, our data show that college women who watch
more television are more likely to believe that rape
accusations are false. In addition, the data support a positive
relationship between conservative political ideology and
rape myth acceptance. However, the data do not support the
cultivation hypothesis; that is, television use did not
correlate with the overestimation of rape in society. The
results suggest the need for additional research focused on
the role that general television viewing may play in
perpetuating rape-related misperceptions.
Keywords Television viewing
.
Rape perceptions
.
Rape myth acceptance
.
Cultivation
.
Sexual assault
There is a large body of research on sexual assault in the
United States, which represents contributions from many
disciplines, including sociology, psychology, public health,
women’s studies, and mass communication studies. The
literature covers myriad sexual assault-related topics that
range from the social construction of rape myths to the
effectiveness of specific interventions within targeted
populations (for an annotated bibliography, see Ward 1994).
Within this body of research, however, one area remains
relatively understudied: media effects. A number of studies
analyze sex-related content in the mainstream mass media
(for a summary, see Greenberg and Hofschire 2000 ), but
only a handful of researchers have looked specifically at
sexual assault-related content in the mainstream media (see
Greenberg and Busselle 1996), and there is a dearth of
studies that link such content to the audience’s beliefs about
sexual assault. Thus, our goal in the present study was to
examine the link, if any, of beliefs about sexual assault—
specifically rape myths—to television viewing. Such a link
has implications for risk-reduction campaigns, particularly
those aim ed at wom en, and can open the door to additional
research focused on the impact that television viewing may
have on the rape-related misperceptions that have been
linked to women’s underestimation of their own vulnera-
bility to rape (see, for example, Grayson and Schwarz 1999).
Rape Myths
The U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
(2003), which published a report to Congress on medical
examination and treatment for victims of rape and sexual
assault, defined rape and sexual assault this way:
As a general matter, rape is a term that refers to forced
or attempted sexual intercourse with a male or female,
by an offender that may be of the same sex or a
different sex from the victim. Sexual assault is usually
defined to encompass rape, attempted rape, forced oral
Sex Roles (2007) 56:729–739
DOI 10.1007/s11199-007-9232-2
An earlier version of this manuscript received top honors from the
Entertainment Studies Interest Group of the Association for Education
in Journalism and Mass Communication at the association’s 2005
conference in San Antonio, Texas.
L. Kahlor (*)
Department of Advertising and Public Relations,
University of Texas at Austin,
1 University Station, A1200,
Austin, TX 78712, USA
e-mail: kahlor@mail.utexas.edu
D. Morrison
School of Journalism and Communication, University of Oregon,
Eugene, OR, USA
and anal sex, penetration with objects, touching of
intimate parts, and other types of threats or coercion in
which unwanted sexual contact is attempted or occurs
between the victim and offender (p. 13).
Lonsway and Fitzgerald (1994) defined myths as “false
or apocryphal beliefs that are widely held; they explain
some important cultural phenomenon; and they serve to
justify existing cultural arrangements” (p. 134). Rape
myths, therefore, refer to false beliefs and stereotypes
regarding forced or attempted sexual intercourse and the
victims and perpetrators of such acts (Burt 1980; Lonsw ay
and Fitzgerald 1994).
As is the case with all myths, rape myths are believed to
be quite prevalent among the general public (Gilmartin-
Zena 1987). Two of the most common rape myths are: (1)
victims lie about rape when they regret consensual sex after
the fact, and (2) a victim’s provocative dress, suggestive
behavior, or “bad reputation” is often to blame for the
“mixed signals” that led to the rape (Cuklanz 1998;
Lonsway and Fitzgerald 1994).
Rape myths are believed to contribut e to the public
consciousness in myriad unproductive, damaging ways.
They serve to demoralize victims, bolster perpetrators, and,
ultimately, shift the “blame for the crime from the rapist to
his victim” (Lonsway and Fitzgerald 1994, p. 136). They
also perpetuate what some call the “just world” phenome-
non, which is that good things happen to good people and
bad things happen (deservedly so) to bad people (Gilmartin-
Zena 1987; Kelley 1967; Lerner 1980; Nisbett et al. 1982).
In addition, such beliefs bolster a pervasive error in attribution
of responsibility such that good outcomes are perceived to be
the result of one’s own efforts, whereas bad outcomes are
attributed to external factors (Gray et al. 1993). In other
words, people think that they are not susceptible to rape
because rape victims are not like them. Such perceptions may
foster a false sense of security , which may, in turn, lead
potential victims to place themselves in situations in which the
likelihood of rape is elevated.
Rape and Sexual Ass ault in America: Fact and Myth
Ultimately, rape myths are believed to downplay the
significance of a crime that victimizes a substantial portion
of society—women, men, and children. For example,
research conducted jointly in the mid-1990s by the Centers
for Disease Cont rol a nd Prev ention and the National
Institute of Justice indicated that, of the 8,000 women
surveyed, about one in six (17.6%) had been the victim of a
completed or attempted rape at some time in her life
(Tjaden and Thoennes 2000).
The National Institute of Justice published another report
(Fisher et al.
2001) that suggested that between one-fourth
and one-fifth of college women may become the victim of
rape or attempted rape during 4 years of college. Yet
another report (Na tional Institute of Justice 2004) indicated
that by the end of 4 years of college, 79% of women had
experienced at least one incident of sexual victimization.
Sexual victimization refers to experiences that range from
coerced sexual contact to rape.
In terms of unfounded accusations of rape (according to
data available on request through the FBI’s Uniform Crime
Reporting Program), in the United States the number of
forcible rape complaints deemed unfounded was around 5%
of the more than 90,000 complaints received in 2003 from
law enforcement.
1
But it is equally important to note here
that, according to US Department of Justice records (2003),
only between 35 and 50% of rapes and sexual assaults are
reported to law enforcement officials. In fact, between 1993
and 2002, compared to robbery and aggrava ted assault,
rape was the most underreported violent crime in the United
States, (US Department of Justice 2003).
Despite the reality of rape in America, rape myths
pervade the public consciousness. For example, in their
extensive review of the research on this topic, Lonsway and
Fitzgerald (1994) reported that between 25 and 35% of
respondents agree with the majority of rape myths
presented to them by researchers. The acceptance of rape
myths is likely to have a notable impact on the public’s
perceptions. For example, rape myths have the power to
impact the perceived relevance of rape among women.
They serve to “obscure and deny the personal vulnerability
of all women by suggesting that only other women are
raped” (Lonsway and Fitzgerald 1994, p. 136). This clear
distortion of the reality concerning sexual violence against
women can influence perceptions, which, in turn, can affect
public priorities and legislative agendas. It can also
facilitate the internalization of rape myths, which can lead
to men and women placing themselves in risky situations
(Nurius et al. 1996) or misinterpreting situations that are
likely to become risky (Rozee et al. 1991). It can also
undermine the effectiveness of education efforts intended to
make women aware of their actual vulnerability: Women
who be lieve that rape only happens to “other women” are
less likely to see rap e-r educt ion efforts as personally
relevant. Research shows perceived personal relevance to
be an important determinant of the effectiveness of health
or safety related interventions (c.f., Markova and Power
1992). Audiences who do not perceive a topic (e.g., AIDS)
to be personally relevant are less likely to see the relevance
of a related message to their own behaviors (e.g., sexual
1
To request data concerning “unfounded offenses” in the US, contact
the Communications Unit of the Criminal Justice Information Services
Division at the FBI, Module D3, 1000 Custer Hollow Road,
Clarksburg, WV, 26306-0154, or email cjis_comm@leo.gov.
730 Sex Roles (2007) 56:729–739
activity) and are therefore less rece ptive to messag es
designed to initiate changes in their own risky behaviors
(e.g., unprotected sexual activity) (Markova and Power 1992).
Although men are significantly more accepting of rape
myths, these distorted perceptions are held by both men and
women (cf. Brady et al. 1991; Check and Malamuth 1983;
Field 1978; Malamuth 1986; Malamuth and Check 1984;
Russell 1990; also see Lonsway and Fitzgerald 1994). Race
and ethnicity are also believed to influence the acceptance
of rape myths, if only as a function of “cultural history,
religious tradition, sex role expectations, and sexual mores
for different groups” (Lonsway and Fitzgerald 1994,p.143).
For example, African American and Hispanic college students
appear to be more accepting of rape myths than European
Americans (Dull and Giacopassi 1987; Fischer 1987).
Rape Myths on Television
Relatively little research documents the presence of rape
myths in television programming. However, the available
data indicate that myths are fairly prevalent when the topi c
of rape is broached in programming. For example, Brinson
(1992) analyzed 26 prime-time television storylines that
contained references to rape, and found that the average
storyline contained at least one reference to a rape myth.
Brinson found that 42% of the storylines suggested that the
rape victim wanted to be raped, 38% of the storylines
suggested that the victim lied about the assault, and 46% of
the storylines suggested that the victim had “asked for it” in
the way that she dressed or acted (male and female
characters were equally likely to make this accusation).
On the other hand, only 38% of the storylines contained any
opposition to the myt h that the victim had “asked for it.”
Cuklanz’s(1999) data echoed those findings. Her results
indicate that prime-time depictions of rape have consistent-
ly, over the course of nearly 15 years, perpetuated rape
myths. However, Cuklanz also pointed out that there is an
increasing trend in the entertainment media to portray rape
with more complexity by infusing plots with proactive
female characters and more ambiguous rape situations (e.g.,
more references to date and acquaintance rape than to
violent stranger rape).
Althoug h rape depictions are becomin g increasingly
complex, they are also occurring with greater frequency
on television. In their review of the literature on television
sex, Greenberg and Hofschire (2000) reported that, in soap
operas, references to rape increased between 1985 and 1994
from one per every ten episodes to one per episode. They
attributed this trend partially to fluctuations in media
coverage of rape trials and the tendency of the soap operas
to draw plots from the headlines. However, as a further
testament to this trend, NBC has, since 1999, aired a prime-
time crime drama dedicated to the topic of rape and sexual
assault—“Law & Order: Special Victims Unit.” The show
has been on the air for seven seasons. Typical storylines
involve serial rapists, date rape, stranger rape, gang rape,
incest, and pedophilia.
2
The ubiquity of these types of
depictions over the course of several decades has led mass
communication researchers to examine not only how rape
themes play out in the media, but also whether those
themes have an impact on their audiences.
Linking Media Content to Audience Effects
Cultivation theory (Gerbner 1969; Gerbner and Gross 1976;
Gerbner et al. 1994) is one of the most often cited media
effects the ories in mass commu nication rese arch. The
theory posits that heavy consumption of television leads
to the cultivation of distorted, media-influenced perceptions
of reality. For example, heavy consumers of television
estimate their own likelihood of becoming a victim of
violent crime to be 10 times higher than light consumers’
estimates. Put simply, heavy consumers of television view
the world as a more violent place (cf., Gerbner 1998;
Gerbner et al. 1994; Morgan and Shanahan 1997; Romer
et al. 2003; Signorielli et al. 1995; Signorielli and Morgan
1996).
3
Cultivation effects surface regardless of the content
and regardless of audience race or gender. In addition to
crime and violence, cultivation research has located
relationships between media consumption and perceptions
related to such topics as gender roles (cf. Holbert et al.
2003; Morgan 1982; Signorielli 1989; Signorielli and Lears
1992), marriage (Signorielli 1991), aging (Signorielli
2004), the environment (Shanahan et al. 1997), nutrition
(Signorielli and Lears 1992),andrace(Armstrongetal.1992).
Two assumptions underlie the cultivation hypothesis.
One is that television-influenced perceptions of reality are
cultivated via television consumption over time. The other
is that television presents to heavy viewers a unified,
homogenized view of reality, one that reflects the dominant,
mainstream values of society (Gerbner et al. 1994). This
homogenized view of reality is internally consistent,
regardless of the specific content that is viewed. It is the
amount of television viewed, rather than the type of
television viewed, that predicts cultivation effects.
2
Plot summaries are available for each episode in the show’s 7-year
history at http://www.nbc.com/Law_&_Order:_Special_Victims_Unit/
episode_guide/index.html.
3
According to Gerbner et al. (1994), heavy viewing is a relative term,
based on the overall viewing habits of the sample under study. Thus,
heavy viewing is not standardized across samples, but must be
calculated on a sample-by-sample basis. Within a given sample, the
best way to determine heavy viewers is to split the sample evenly
three ways—into heavy, medium, and light segments—based on
viewing duration. “The heaviest viewers of any sample of respondents
form the populations on which cultivation can be tested” (p. 26).
Sex Roles (2007) 56:729–739 731731
However, there is a related body of research that has
sought to illuminate the potential for specific television
content (e.g., situation comedies, news, cartoons, crime
dramas) to impact the cultivation of social reality (cf.
Hawkins and Pingree 1981; Potter and Chang 1990). The
researchers have focused on two types of cultivation
effects: First order (i.e., the cultivation of beliefs about the
prevalence of a social phenomenon) and second order (i.e.,
the cultivation of related beliefs about society). This body
of research shows that viewing specific types of program-
ming is still more predictive of both first and second order
beliefs than is total time spent viewing television (Potter
and Chang 1990). To date, it appears that neither cultivation
nor social reality researchers have explored the relationship
between media consumption and the cultivation of percep-
tions about rape or sexual assault.
In contrast, media effects regarding rape-related media
content have emerged outside of the cultivation research
approach. During the 1980s, several notable experimental
studies were conducted that focused on the effects of
exposure to printed rape depictions (Check and Malamuth
1983), audiotaped rape depictions (Malamuth and Check
1983), and depictions of noncons ensual sex and rape in
films released in mainstream theatres (Malamuth and Check
1981). These experiments demonstrated positive relation-
ships between men’s exposure to these depictions and their
acceptance of violence against women and between men’s
exposure to such depictions and their self-reported likeli-
hood of raping. In yet another experiment, Zillmann and
Bryant (1982) found a positive relationship between
viewing pornography and the trivialization of rape. This
finding was evident in both men and women. In a study of
only women, Mayerson and Taylor (1987) found greater
acceptance of rape myths among college women who read
pornographic stories. (For a review of this body of
literature, see Malamuth et al. 2001).
Survey research has also provided some support for such
media effects. For example, Malamuth and Check (1985)
found a relationship between exposure to sexually explicit
magazines, such as Penthouse and Playboy, and men’s
acceptance of rape myths. Likewise, in a sample of men
and women, Perse (1994) found that self-reported exposure
to sexually explicit materials (e.g., X-rated magazines,
movies, and books) was directly and positively related to
rape myth acceptance.
Although informative for the curren t research effort,
none of these studies directly concerns exposure to tele-
vised images of rape and the acceptance of rape myths or
violence agains t women. In addition, only a few of these
studies addressed the effects of sexually explicit media expo-
sure on women. A meta-analysis published in 1995 (Allen
et al. 1995) illustrated that only a handful of 24 studies on
the link between exposure to pornography and rape myth
acceptance employed female respondents and only two
demonstrated a positive link (c.f., Zillmann and Bryant 1982).
There is a substantial body of research that links
exposure to violent television content and audience impact
(for a summary, see Anderson et al. 2003) and exposure to
sexual television content and audience impact (see Greenberg
and Hofschire 2000). Attitude and behavioral effects surfaced
for both women and men in both bodies of literature. For
example, Anderson et al. (2003) reported in their review of
the media violence research that “ Research on violent
tele vision and films, video games, and music reveals
unequivocal evidence that media violence increases the
likelihood of aggressive and violent behavior in both
immediate and long-term contexts” (p. 81).
Hypotheses
The first two-part hypothesis is consistent with the research
on media use and rape myth acceptance. H1a deals with
rape myths more generally, w hile H1b concerns o ne
specific rape myth.
H1a: Television use will correlate positively with the
acceptance of rape myths.
H1b: Television use will correlate positively with percep-
tions that rape accusations are false.
The specific myth identified in H1b was chosen because,
should the predicted relationship surface, we could also
compare the myth’s prevalence with reality; the reality in
this case is that 5% of the more than 90,000 complaints
received in 2003 from law enforcement are deemed false
accusations.
4
The second hypothesis is consistent with the research on
rape myth acceptance and with the research on cultivation
effects (that is, the positive relationship between television
viewing, regardless of content viewed, and the overestima-
tion of crimes).
H2: Television use will correlate positively with a general
overestimation of rape in society.
The third hypothesis was based on research that
demonstrates that rape myths obscure the vulnerability of
all women to rape and thus have the potential to undermine
informational campaigns intended to highlight the personal
relevance of rape to women. Thus, if television serves to
perpetuate rape myths, as is advanced in H1, then:
H3: Television use will correlate negatively with the
perceived personal relevance of sexual assault.
4
To request data concerning “unfounded offenses” in the US, contact
the Communications Unit of the Criminal Justice Information Services
Division at the FBI, Module D3, 1000 Custer Hollow Road,
Clarksburg, WV, 26306-0154, or email cjis_comm@leo.gov.
732 Sex Roles (2007) 56:729–739
Method
Participants
This sample consisted of 96 undergraduate women from a
large midwestern university. The women’s ages ranged
from 18 to 21, with a mean age of 19 years. About 80% of
the sample indicated that they were college sophomores.
Nearly 4% of the sample indicated that their country of
origin was outside of the United States, and 5% of the
sample identified themselves as People of Color. Twenty-
four percent of the sample described themselves as
conservative on economic issues, 40% as neither conserva-
tive nor liberal, 31% as liberal, and 3% as very liberal (no
one in the sample described herself as economically very
conservative). Nineteen percent of the sample described
themselves as conservative on social issues, 25% as neither
conservative nor liberal, 46% as liberal, and 10% as very
liberal (no one in the sample described herself as socially
very conservative).
Measure
Rape myth acceptance Ten Likert-type scale items intended
to capture rape myth acc eptance were subjected to principal
component factor analysis (varimax rotation). These items
were primarily borrowed from Burt (1980; a 19-item scale)
and Field (1978; a 32-item scale).
5
Each item was chosen in
hopes that it was reflective of a “modern” college audience.
Thus, we selected items that did not use outdated
colloquialisms and added several items that explicitly
dealt with al coho l-re lated scenarios.
6
Scale pre-testing
indicated that the 10-item index was more stable (one
component, Cronbach’s alpha=.78) than what surfaced in
the final analysis. In the final analysis, only seven of the
original ten items emerged on one factor. The Cronbach’s
alpha for this factor was .64, which, although minimally
acceptable, fell within the range of alphas ( .62–.88)
reported in Lonsway and Fitzgerald’s(1994) review of the
rape myth literat ure. These seven items read: (1) The degree
of a woman’s resistance should be the major factor in
determining if a rape has occurred; (2) In the majority of
rapes, the victim is promiscuous or has a bad reputation; (3)
In order to protect men, it should be very difficult to prove
that a rape has occurred; (4) Women who make it a habit of
getting drunk at parties should expect to eventually end up
in a situation where a man will have sexual intercourse with
her while she is passed out; (5) Having sex with someone
when they really don’t want to or when they are too drunk
to really talk about it is not rape; (6) Any female can get
raped (reserve coded for analysis); and (7) A woman who
goes to the home or apartment of a man on their first date
implies that she is willing to have sex. Response options
(and corresponding values) were “ strongly disagree” (1),
“disagree” (2), “neither disagree or agree” (3), “agree” (4),
“strongly agree” (5); thus, a higher score indicated more
agreement with these myths.
Perception that rape accusations are false As another
indicator of rape myth acceptance, participants were asked:
“On a scale of 0–100, in your opinion, what percentage of
rape accusations are false?” Responses ranged from 1 to
90%, with a mean of 18.6 (SD=15.98).
Estimation of rape in society Participants were asked: “On a
scale of 0–100 (with 0 = not at all and 100 = extremely),
how common do you think it is to go ahead and have
intercourse with another person when that person does not
want to or is too intoxicated to give consent?” Responses
ranged from 1 to 100, with a mean of 39 (SD=21.98). This
is a measure of first order beliefs.
Perceived personal relevance of sexual assault To capture
whether they identified with the topic of sexual assault as
personally relevant, participants were asked: “ On a scale of
0–100, how relevant is the topic of sexual assault to you?”
Responses ranged from 0 to 100, with a mean of 60.73
(SD=32.39).
Television use Three items captured general daily television
use: television entertainment, television news, and music
video programming. These items were subjected to
principal component factor analysis (v arimax rotation),
and all three loaded onto one factor. The Cronbach’s
alpha for this index was .67, which makes it minimally
acceptable. On a typical weekday, the average respondent
watched 1–2 h of entertainment television, up to 1 h of
television news, and up to 1 hour of music videos.
Cultural identification
Two items captured cultural
identification: race/ethnicity and country of origin. These
items asked respondents to indicate their “country of origin”
and the “racial/ethnic group” with whom they most identify.
The response option was open-ended for both. The items
were subjected to principal compo nent factor analysis
(varimax rotation), and both loaded onto one factor.
Ulti mately, the lowest score indicated White individua ls of
US origin. The Cronbach’s alpha for this index was .85.
Political ideology Two items captured political ideology.
These items read: “How would you describe yourself when it
5
For a summary of more than 20 established rape myth scales that are
available to researchers today, see Lonsway and Fitzgerald (1994).
6
Studies point to the important role that alcohol plays in sexual
assault and rape scenarios. See, for example, Murphy et al. (1998).
Sex Roles (2007) 56:729–739 733733
comes to economic issues,” and “How would you describe
yourself when in comes to social issues?” Response choices
were “ very conservative,”“conservative,”“neither
conservative nor liberal,”“liberal,” and “very liberal,” with
very conservative = 1 and very liberal = 5. These items were
subjected to principal component factor analysis (varimax
rotation), and both loaded onto one factor. The Cronbach’s
alpha for this index was .78.
Knowledge of involuntary intercourse This variable was
captured with the item: “Do you know someone who has
had intercourse with another person involuntarily or when
he/she was too intoxicated to give consent?” Fifty-two
percent of the sample reported that they knew someone
who had, by this definition, been raped. This survey did not
differentiate between self-knowledge or knowledge of
other’s experiences.
Procedure
Participants were recruited from an introductory mass
communication theory course. An announcement briefly
describing the study was made during lecture and students
were offered extra credit for participation. Students were
told the study was designed to help the researchers to learn
more about “general media use among undergraduates, as
well as their knowledge of and beliefs about sensitive
campus topics.” Students whose chose not to participate
were offered an alternate extra credit option. Participants
completed the consent form and survey in a supervised
classroom during specifie d hours offered outside of
scheduled class time. They were asked to answer all
questions thoughtfully a nd honestly, and they were repeat-
edly assured of their anonymity, which was of the utmost
importance given the sensitivity of the topics. The survey,
which consisted of opened- and closed-ended questions,
took about 30 minutes to complete. After they had
completed the survey, each student was directed to place
it into an unmarked envelope and then put it into a secured
box. Consent forms were coll ected separately. The survey
and its consent form were approved by the host university’s
institutional review board. Later in the semester, students
learned of the preliminary results during lecture and the
study was discussed in more detail within the context of
class readings.
Results
A series of four multiple regressions were performed. Each
of the dependent variables—rape myth acceptance, percep-
tion that rape accusations are false, estimation of rape in
society, and personal relevance of sexual assault—were
regressed on the following independent variables: age,
cultural identity, political ideology, experience with rape,
and television use. Consistent with multivariate analysis
concerning rape myth acceptance, age, cultural identity,
political ideology, and experience with rape—or, in this case,
knowledge of involuntary intercourse—were all included as
control variables (c.f., Lonsway and Fitzgerald 1994).
Hypothesis 1a predicted a positive relationship between
television use and rape myth acceptance. This relationship
was found to be significant, beta=.22, p<.05. As Table 1
indicates, the more one watches television, the more one is
likely to accept rape myths. Thus, Hypothesis 1a was
supported. Hypothesis 1b predicted a positive relationship
between televisi on use and perceptions that rape accusa-
tions are false. This relationship was found to be positive
and significant, beta=.29, p<.01. Thus, Hypothesis 1b was
also supported.
Hypothesis 2 predicted a positive relationship between
television use, regardless of content, and estimation of
prevalence of rape in US society. The relationship was
found to be negative, and it did not ac hieve a level of
significance. Thus, Hypo thesis 2 was not supported. We
also calculated a post hoc Pearson correlation between
television use and estimation of rape prevalence among the
heaviest television viewers (that is, those who viewed 7 or
Table 1 Summary of hierar-
chical multiple regression
analyses of rape myth accep-
tance, rape estimation, per-
ceived relevance, and false
accusations (N=96).
Standardized regression coeffi-
cients (betas) reported; *p≤ .05,
**p≤ .01, ***p≤ .001,
§p=.07.
Rape myths Estimation Relevance False
Age .05 −.07 .03 −.01
Culture .31** .07 −.19 −.05
Ideology −.20* .03 .24* −.05
R
2
change .15** .01 .09 .00
Know victim −.14 .13 .15* −.26**
R
2
change .02** .01 .02* .06
Television use .22* −.11 −.19§ .29**
R
2
change .04** .01 .03* .08*
Adjusted R
2
.16*** 0 .09* .09*
734 Sex Roles (2007) 56:729–739
more hours per day and, therefore, fell in the upper one-
third television viewing segment within this sample).
Again, the relationship was not significant and was not in
the predicted direction, r=−.04, ns. Finally, based on the
argument put forth by proponents of social reality theor y,
which suggests that specific television content is a more
powerful predictor of television e ffects than general
television use, we also calculated post hoc Pearson
correlations between estimation of rape prevalence and
three specific television conten t categories. Those were
television entertainment, r=.08, ns, television news, r=
−.15, ns, and music video programming, r=−.11, ns. All of
those relationships were not significant and were not in the
predicted direction.
Hypothesis 3 predicted a negative relationship between
television use and the perceived personal relevance of sexual
assault. The relationship was in the predicted direction, but it
did not reach statistical significance, beta=−.19. p=.07;
thus, Hypothesis 3 was not supported.
Several unpredicted relationships also surfaced in the
analyses. There was a positive and significant relationship
between cultural identification and rape myth acceptance,
beta=.31, p<.01, which indicates that individuals of Color
and individuals with origins outside the U.S. were more
likely than other people to accept rape myths. There was
also a significant negative relationship between political
ideology and rape myth acceptance, beta=−.20, p<.05,
which indicates that the more conservative individuals
were, the more likely they were to accept rape myths.
There was also a significant positive relationship between
political ideology and perceived personal releva nce of
sexual assault, beta=.24, p<.05, which indicates that the
more liberal individuals were, the more likely they were to
see sexual assault as a relevant topic. A significant positive
relationship also was found between knowledge of invol-
untary intercourse and perceived personal relevance of
sexual assault, beta=.15, p<.05, and a significant negative
relationship was found between knowledge of involuntary
intercourse and the perception that rape accusations are
false, beta=−.26, p<.01.
Discussion
The most notable contribution of the present study is that it
establishes a link between television viewing and rape myth
acceptance. Although prior r esearch has established a
relationship between the viewing of “pornographic” and
“erotic” media and rape myth acceptance, what really sets
this effort apart is the attempt to generalize these findings to
media content defined more broadly. Our data establish a
link between general, daily television use and the accep-
tance of rape myths.
The findings of the present study are consistent with one
aspect of the r esearch on television’s impact on the
construction of social reality. Hawkins and Pingree (1982)
explained that, despite its convincing realism, the tele vision
world “contains systematic distortions and biases” (p. 224).
From a social learning perspective, these distortions, if left
un-refuted, can lead to shared misconceptualizations of
realit y (Bandura 1994). Content analyses of tele vision
programs that depict rape scenarios confirm such system-
atic distortions; for example, prime-time depictions of rape
have, over the course of nearly 15 years, been shown
consistently to perpetuate rape myths (Cuklanz 1999).
The acceptance of these myths (e.g., only women who
are more promiscuous are raped) is particularly notable
because such beliefs may influence perceptions of self
efficacy and outcome expectations (Bandura 1994). In other
words, the acceptance of rape myths may lead individuals
to put themselves in risky situations; after all, bad things
only happen to bad people. Further research is needed to
see if this is the case.
The relationship between television use and belief in rape
myths is particularly problematic from a health communica-
tion perspective; it suggests that television use has the
potential to erase, over time, the already limited effects that
rape education campaigns have on audiences (for a discussion
of those limited effects, see Lonsway 1996). For example, it
is unlikely that one education effort can offer long-term
influence when contrary information continues t o be
disseminated through television content. Educators interested
in overcoming these barriers may wish to build some media
literacy training into their rape prevention efforts.
Our data also establish a positive relationship between
television use and perceptions that rape accusations are
false. As reported above, responses to the question of what
percentage of rape claims are false ranged from 1 to 90%,
with a mean of 19%. In reality, according to the FBI, the
number of unfounded rape accusations is closer to 5%.
7
Clearly mainstream beliefs about false rape accusations
are notably distorted. It is difficult to say, however, at
least based on the data presented here, whether television
is merely a reflection of an already well-established myth
or whether it is responsible for the propagation of that
myth. Still the data do indicate that watching television
increases one’s likelihood to believe that women are lying
when they identify themselves as victims of rape.
However, knowledge of situations involving involuntary
intercourse makes one significantly less likely to believe
that rape accusations are false; reality does appear to have
7
To request these data, contact the Communications Unit of the
Criminal Justice Information Services Division at the FBI, Module
D3, 1000 Custer Hollow Road, Clarksburg, WV, 26306-0154, or
email cjis_comm@leo.gov.
Sex Roles (2007) 56:729–739 735735
the potential to temper this distorted version of reality that
is reflected in tele vision content.
In addition, because the literature indicates that, in order
to be successful, an information campaign must be
perceived as personally relevant (cf., Biek et al. 1996;
Liberman and Chaiken 1992; Markova and Power 1992;
Stockdale et al. 1989), it matters whether television content
is affecting audien ce members’ likelihoods to see sexual
assault as a personally relevant topic. On television, rape
victims are, after all, “other” women. Thus, we expected a
negative relationship between television use and percep-
tions that rape is p ersonally rele vant. This was not
supported. However, it is important to note that the
relationship approached significance. Thi s suggests the
need for further research.
It is interesting that our data did not support the
cultivation hypothesis, at least not entirely; that is,
television use did not correlate with the estimation (or
overestimation) of rape in society—a first order belief. This
could be an artifact of the methodology. One criticism of
cultivation research (cf., Holbert et al. 2003; Hughes 1980;
Potter 1994) is that Gerbner and colleagues (cf., Gerbner
1998; Gerbner et al. 1994; Signorielli et al. 1995) employed
the universal term “television” and did not differentiate
among genres. We followed Gerbner’s lead and looked at
general television use. It may well be that, when the
universal term television is used, cultivation effects do not
surface among relatively homogeneous audiences who
share similarities in viewing habits. For example, if
audiences primarily watch situation comedies, such
programming is not likely to perpetuate the belief that
the world is a more violent place than it actually is
(Rubin et al. 1988). Research has shown that situation
comedies are one of the most watched genres of television
among college undergraduates (Hawkins et al. 2001). In
future research, we need to extend our breakdown of
television content beyond the three macro genres tested
in the post hoc correlation analyses (entertainment, news,
and music videos) to encompass more specific viewing
choices including situation comedies, types of news
programming, crime dramas, medical dramas, and reality
shows.
In addition, our methodology differed slightly from
those traditionally employed by cultivation researchers.
For example, we did not utilize a forced choice between
two responses when we asked about perceptions of
vulnerability to violence. As Hughes (1980) noted, Gerbner
et al. (1994 ) typically asked respondents to rate their
chances of being involved in violence, and they offered a
choice between only two options—1 in 10 (10%) or 1 in
100 (1%). We offered the full range of response options
from 0 to 100 (0–100%).
However, it is also important to note here that the
support we found for the relationship between television
viewing and rape myth acceptance is, in effect, support for
the relationship between television viewing and the
cultivation of second order beliefs, that is, general (rele-
vant) conclusions about society. Indeed, the lack of a first
order relationship could be evidence of the power of these
specific myt hs. That is, rape myths perpetuate beliefs that
not just anyone g ets raped—only bad girls get raped
(Lonsway and Fitzgerald 1994). Such myths may work
against the cultivation of first order beliefs when in comes
to perceptions of rape. Further research is needed to
differentiate among, not just the type of content viewed,
but also the relationship between viewing and the cultiva-
tion of first and second order beliefs.
Our results regarding political ideology and rape myth
acceptance are consistent with the findings of Holbert et al.
(2003), who reported that the more liberal one’s political
ideology, the more likely one is to support women’s rights.
Our data similarly indicated that the more liberal one’s
political ideology, the less likely one is to believe in rape
myths (wh ich could be said to be the very antithesis of
women’s rights). In addition, our findings regarding the
relationship between cultural identification (race/ethnicity
and country of origin) revealed that women not of US
origin and Women of Color were more accepting of rape
myths than were White US-born women. This too is
consistent with previous research (Lonsway and Fitzgerald
1994). Our findings suggest that educational campaigns that
are intended to reduce rape myth acceptance should
consider that people who self-identify as conservative,
foreign-born, and/or People of Color may be more resistant
to the campaign’s messages. In such cases, extra effort may
be needed to develop culturally relevant (or value-sensitive)
messages that truly resonate with the target audience. This
is an area that deserves immediate research attention.
In a 2003 report on crime victimization, the US
Department of Justice reported that People of Color—
specifically Black people—were victims of rape and sexual
assault at rates significantly higher than White people. Yet,
according to Wyatt (1992), Black women are less likely
than women of other races to perceive themselves as sexual
assault victims and are less likely to define their sexual
assault experience as rape. This may explain why some
researchers (Kaukinen 2004 ; Wyatt 1990, 1992) have found
that Black women are less likely than White women to
report these incidents to the police and to seek social
service support. In this current study, the higher acceptance
of rape myths found among Women of Color and women
not of US origin might contribute to an increased
vulnerability and reluctance to report rape. This needs to
be explored in future research efforts, along with the
736 Sex Roles (2007) 56:729–739
possible role that socioeconomic status
8
and the media may
play in this phenomenon.
There are some limitations in the present study that need
to be recognized. As mentioned earlier, the scales we
employed demonstrated only minimally acceptable reliabil-
ities. Our attempt to merge existing rape myth scales in
order to create an index more reflective of our audience of
“modern” college women yielded a less stable index than
was indicated in our pretest. Future research may be better
served through the consistent use of Burt’s or Field’s scales.
In addition, we focused on a relatively small sample of
college-aged women, most of whom were White, which
means that we cannot generalize our findings much beyond
those limits. However, given the likelihood that college
women are exposed to more rape awareness activities (e.g.,
on-campus marches, related student organizations)
9
than
the average citizen, it is also possible that extending this
study to a more representative sample would actually yield
more powerful results. Women also tend to be less accept-
ing of rape myths than men, which further suggests that a
sample of both men and women would yield more powerful
results (cf. Lonsway and Fitzgerald 1994).
In sum, we were able to accomplish the primary purpose
of this research effort, which was to establish a statistically
significant, positive relationship between television viewing
and the acceptance of rape myths. Although this relation-
ship is based on cross-sectional data (i.e., it is impossible to
say whether people who hold rape myths seek out and
confirm those myths through the television that they view
or whether television viewing is a significant source for
those myths), further research can establish the parameters
of this relationship and lead us toward an even better
understanding of this socially signi ficant phenomenon.
Acknowledgement The authors thank Laura Prividera, Kurt Neuwirth,
the anonymous reviewers, and Joan Chrisler for comments on earlier
drafts of this article.
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