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Computerized Presentation of Text: Effects on Children’s Reading of Informational Material

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Reading and Writing
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Abstract

This study examined whether children’s reading rate, comprehension, and recall are affected by computer presentation of text. Participants were 60 grade five students, who each read two expository texts, one in a traditional print format and the other from a computer monitor, which used a common scrolling text interface. After reading each text, participants were asked to recall as much as they could from what they had read and then answered questions that measured text recall and comprehension. Children took more time to read the passage and recalled more of the text material that they had read from the computer monitor. The benefit of computer presentation disappeared when efficiency variables, which take time into account, were examined. Children were, however, more efficient at comprehending text when reading from paper. The results suggest that children may take more time to read text on computer screens and that they are more efficient when reading text on paper.

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... A similar pattern was also reported for mandatory state-wide student performance evaluations in Germany (Wagner et al., 2022) that resulted in lower reading test performance on computerized test versions among eighth graders, particularly for low-achieving students. Other studies replicated these results for younger age groups, such as 10-to 13-year-old children (Golan et al., 2018;Kerr & Symons, 2006;Støle et al., 2020). Based on these findings, several meta-analyses on mode effects in reading performance (Clinton, 2019;Delgado et al., 2018;Kong et al., 2018) found, on average, lower scores in computerized testing with pooled effects corresponding to Cohen's ds between -0.25 and -0.54. ...
... However, the size of these effects seems to vary depending on the administered test and the examined sample. So far, only a few studies examined mode effects in tests of reading performance for young children (Golan et al., 2018;Kerr & Symons, 2006;Lenhard, Schroeders, & Lenhard, 2017;Støle et al., 2020). ...
... Prior research on different aspects of remote testing often relied on rather small and selective samples; for example, the median sample size in a metaanalysis of mode effects in reading performance was 67 (Delgado et al., 2018). More importantly, with notable exceptions (Golan et al., 2018;Kerr & Symons, 2006;Lenhard, Schroeders, & Lenhard, 2017;Støle et al., 2020), they primarily focused on adolescents and adults, but rarely addressed young children. Therefore, the present study examined the feasibility of testing reading comprehension of over 1,500 German children at the age of 8 years in a remote setting. ...
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Proctored remote testing of cognitive abilities in the private homes of test-takers is becoming an increasingly popular alternative to standard psychological assessments in test centers or classrooms. Because these tests are administered under less standardized conditions, differences in computer devices or situational contexts might contribute to measurement biases that impede fair comparisons between test-takers. Because it is unclear whether cognitive remote testing might be a feasible assessment approach for young children, the present study (N = 1,590) evaluated a test of reading comprehension administered to children at the age of 8 years. To disentangle mode from setting effects, the children finished the test either in the classroom on paper or computer or remotely on tablets or laptops. Analyses of differential response functioning found notable differences between assessment conditions for selected items. However, biases in test scores were largely negligible. Only for children with below-average reading comprehension small setting effects between on-site and remote testing were observed. Moreover, response effort was higher in the three computerized test versions, among which, reading on tablets most strongly resembled the paper condition. Overall, these results suggest that, on average, even for young children remote testing introduces little measurement bias.
... While they might now read more digitally than on paper, they learned to read in the traditional medium and very likely did not start using digital devices on school work. Studies in elementary schools have involved children around the end of primary education, mainly in fifth and sixth grades, and considered different mediums, including hand-held devices such as tablets (Liang & Huang, 2014;Nishizaki, 2015;Salmer on et al., 2021) but mainly computers (Dahan Golan et al., 2018;Halamish & Elbaz, 2020;Kerr & Symons, 2006;Støle et al., 2020). Most of these studies consistently indicate that children's text comprehension is better when they read on paper than on screen (i.e., computer screen), even for those who prefer to read digitally or have no clear medium preference. ...
... Most of these studies consistently indicate that children's text comprehension is better when they read on paper than on screen (i.e., computer screen), even for those who prefer to read digitally or have no clear medium preference. Furthermore, whereas they may take more time reading on screen, their longer processing does not benefit comprehension, and so their reading on paper is both more accurate and more efficient than digital reading (Kerr & Symons, 2006). In line with these findings, a large cross-sectional study including 1-6 graders reading under time constraints indicated that students were less accurate when reading on screen than when reading on paper (Lenhard et al., 2017). ...
... Comprehension was investigated at different levels in accordance with theoretical models that explain how readers can construct the meaning of a text more superficially or deeply (e.g., Kintsch, 1998). Specifically, comprehension of explicit information was measured through literal questions, while the more demanding skill of inferencing was measured by means of inferential questions whose answers were not within the texts (Kerr & Symons, 2006;Oakhill & Cain, 2012). Inferential questions required the generation of text-connecting (or text-based) inferences and integrative (or knowledge-based) inferences (Oakhill & Cain, 2012). ...
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Background Text comprehension research in relation to the reading medium showed that digital‐based reading represents a disadvantage compared with paper‐based reading. Most paper versus screen research; however, was conducted with university students. Objectives This study investigated the contribution of reading medium to text comprehension and medium preference in beginner readers who use technology for school learning. The moderating role of text genre, word reading and medium preference on the reading medium effect on text comprehension was also analysed. Methods First graders (N = 115; mean age = 6;8 years) read narrative and informational linear texts on paper and computer screen and answered main idea, literal and inferential comprehension questions. Medium preference questions and a word reading task were administered. Results and Conclusions Logistic mixed models showed that the main idea and literal comprehension of narrative and informational linear texts were greater on screen and for higher word reading skills. Inferential comprehension was lower on screen at lower levels of word reading skills but became similar for the two media as word reading increased. Children had no clear medium preference and medium effect on text comprehension was independent of children's medium preference. The main results show that beginner readers who use technology for learning and are fast and accurate in word reading display no comprehension disadvantage in digital reading. Takeaways Our results add to existing knowledge by clarifying how reading medium effects on beginner readers' text comprehension interact with factors such as fundamental reading skills and experience with technology.
... Clinton, 2019;Hsu et al., 2013;Singer & Alexander, 2017a), reading speed (e.g. Kerr & Symons, 2006;Latini et al., 2019), strategy use (e.g. Isaacson, 2017), and perceptions (e.g. ...
... Regarding the reading medium's influence on reading comprehension speed, several studies have concluded that the reading speed from a screen is slower than that of reading from paper (e.g. Kerr & Symons, 2006;Latini et al., 2019;Singer et al., 2018Singer et al., , 2019, especially in time-constrained reading (Delgado et al., 2018). According to these studies, the reasons for the slower reading speed on a screen can be summarized as follows: (1) students cannot track electronic text as they can track text on paper; (2) students cannot access the text in its entirety (e.g. ...
... According to these studies, the reasons for the slower reading speed on a screen can be summarized as follows: (1) students cannot track electronic text as they can track text on paper; (2) students cannot access the text in its entirety (e.g. Kerr & Symons, 2006;Zou & Ou, 2020); and (3) students show less behavioral engagement and textual integration when reading from a screen (Latini et al., 2019). Some studies, however, have found that learners' reading speed is faster when reading on screens than when reading from paper (e.g. ...
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The issues of whether mobile-assisted English as a foreign language (EFL) reading is effective have become increasingly important for EFL teachers and policy-makers. However, empirical studies investigating EFL students’ reading comprehension performance on mobile phones and students’ perceptions of these reading formats are lacking. The present research employed questionnaire surveys and semistructured interviews to investigate whether differences exist between mobile-assisted and paper-based EFL reading in terms of participants’ reading comprehension accuracy, reading speed, and reading strategy used (i.e. general, problem-solving or support strategies) and explore EFL learners’ perceptions of mobile-assisted EFL reading. A sample of 81 first-year college students participated in a quasiexperiment, 6 participants participated in a semistructured interview, and a sample of an additional 10 students participated in a pilot study. The analyses, including qualitative descriptions, mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA), paired-sample t-tests, and independent-sample t-tests, indicated that participants achieved superior reading comprehension accuracy when reading from printed paper compared to reading from mobile phones. Superior reading speed from paper was observed only when participants were instructed to read and complete the comprehension test the first time, while no difference in speed between the two reading media was observed the second time. Additionally, participants’ use of reading strategies during mobile-assisted EFL reading was not as effective as that during paper reading. Regarding participants’ preferences, most participants (79%) preferred reading from paper over mobile phones because hard copies provided a better reading experience and promoted active reading engagement. However, participants held positive attitudes toward mobile-assisted EFL learning and wanted to continue to read from mobile phones to assist their foreign language learning due to their convenient built-in functions and portability. The implications for the use of mobile devices to assist language pedagogical practice are discussed.
... Some studies have reported that print media are more effective than computer screens for improving reading comprehension among students at different levels, such as those in elementary schools (Halamish & Elbaz, 2020;Kerr & Symons, 2006;Støle et al., 2020), secondary schools (Mangen et al., 2013), anduniversities (KazazoĞLu, 2020;Singer & Alexander, 2017). In particular, several studies have demonstrated that printed texts are strongly correlated with the in-depth reading comprehension of readers (Kerr & Symons, 2006;Singer & Alexander, 2017). ...
... Some studies have reported that print media are more effective than computer screens for improving reading comprehension among students at different levels, such as those in elementary schools (Halamish & Elbaz, 2020;Kerr & Symons, 2006;Støle et al., 2020), secondary schools (Mangen et al., 2013), anduniversities (KazazoĞLu, 2020;Singer & Alexander, 2017). In particular, several studies have demonstrated that printed texts are strongly correlated with the in-depth reading comprehension of readers (Kerr & Symons, 2006;Singer & Alexander, 2017). In a study of 90 United States college students learning their L1, Singer and Alexander (2017) found few differences between text media (computers or print) if the participants were able to identify the main ideas of the texts. ...
... However, the print group performed better at recalling the key points of the text and other relevant information. In another study, despite the display on the computer screen being similar to a printed text, elementary school students read the printed book faster and recalled information more efficiently compared to those who read the text on computers (Kerr & Symons, 2006). ...
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In today’s digital era, tablets are gaining popularity as reading devices. However, few studies have compared reading e-books on tablets with reading printed books and regular classroom instruction for language learning. To evaluate the role of tablets in reading and analyze the possibilities, the current study examined 97 elementary school students learning English as a foreign language in South Korea. These students were taught English once or twice a week for 11 weeks based on extensive reading using tablets (n = 42), printed books (n = 32), or regular textbook-based instruction as control (n = 23). The results indicate that literal level reading comprehension was improved the largest in the tablet group compared with the other groups. By contrast, improvements in inferential reading comprehension and grammatical knowledge were greater in those reading printed books than in the tablet group. The findings suggest that the print medium was superior for deep reading and digital texts were better for quick and shallow learning.
... Recent meta-analyses indicate that readers frequently exhibit lower comprehension and memorization of text when it is presented on screens compared to when it is printed on paper [4][5][6][7]. This screen-inferiority effect has been extensively confirmed in memory retrieval tasks where participants read articles and then recall text details by free recall, cued recall, or objective recognition multiple-choice [8][9][10][11][12][13]. While this screen-inferiority effect may result from the screen characteristics, such as refresh rates, fluctuating luminance and contrast levels [14,15], and hence visual fatigue [10], it is primarily attributed to cognitive factors associated with a reduced depth of processing during learning [5,7]. ...
... In keeping with previous studies showing that electrical devices as reading media can impair memory for text details-a phenomenon referred to as the screen-inferiority effect [9][10][11][12][13]57]-the present study also found lower accuracy rates for retrieving word pairs presented on computers compared to those presented on paper in a learning context. This memory disadvantage observed with computers might be caused by factors directly related to digital technology, such as screen-induced eye strain, visual fatigue and attentional interference [10,20,58], and/or cognitive factors associated with a reduced depth of processing, such as reduced sustained attention and working memory [17][18][19]59]. ...
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People are increasingly reliant on various electrical devices for learning and memory, yet the implications and consequences of this dependence remain poorly understood. The present study aimed to investigate how learning through electrical media impacts recall under varying task difficulties. During this study, participants encoded information related to daily life situations (low difficulty), academic conceptual knowledge (middle difficulty), or associative word pairs (high difficulty), presented on smartphones, computers, or paper. At test, they recalled the omitted content based on the provided cue information. A significant screen-inferiority effect was observed for both computers and smartphones. However, the impairment related to computers disappeared in the retrieval of daily life situations and academic conceptual knowledge, whereas the impairment associated with smartphones was consistently present across all tasks. These results suggest that memory performance is modulated by the interaction between the presentation medium and the specific demands of the task, highlighting a more pronounced screen-inferiority memory effect when the media restrict the depth of processing or when the memory tasks pose greater external challenges. A deeper understanding of these factors can guide the optimization of electrical devices to enhance human memory abilities and functions.
... Yapılan araştırmaların bazılarında ders kitaplarındaki metinler kullanılırken (Baştuğ ve Keskin, 2012) bazılarında farklı metinler (Mayes, Sims ve Koonce, 2001;Jeong, 2012) tercih edilmiştir. Söz konusu araştırmaların bir bölümünde metin türü üzerinde durulmamış bir bölümünde ise metinlerin bilgilendirici veya hikâye edici metinler olduğu açıkça ifade edilmiştir (Aydemir, Öztürk ve Horzum, 2013;Ercan ve Ateş, 2015;Kerr ve Symons, 2006;Sackstein, Spark ve Jenkins, 2015). Araştırmalar incelendiğinde, okuduğunu anlamanın doğru tespiti için dijital ve kâğıt tabanlı metinlerin niteliğinin açıkça ifade edilmesinin önemi görülmüştür. ...
... Yapılan testler incelendiğinde ise genellikle çoktan seçmeli sorulardan oluştuğu belirlenmiştir (Kim ve Huynh, 2008;Mayes, Sims ve Koonce, 2001;Sackstein, Spark ve Jenkins, 2015;Taylor, 2011). Buna karşın açık uçlu soruların yer aldığı başarı testinin tercih edildiği araştırmalar da mevcuttur (Kerr ve Symons, 2006). Ayrıca hazırlanan testlerin içerikleri ele alındığında okuduğunu anlama becerisinin genel olarak tek bir boyutta ele alındığı görülse de Baştuğ ve Keskin'in (2012) yapmış olduğu çalışmada "basit ve derin anlamaya" odaklandığını belirttiği gibi anlamanın alt boyutlarına odaklanan birkaç araştırma olduğu tespit edilmiştir. ...
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Bu araştırmada, Türkiye’de ve yurt dışında, duygu yönetimi becerisi ile ilgili 2012-2021 yılları arasında yapılmış olan akademik çalışmaların sistematik olarak incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Sistematik Derleme Yöntemi ile yapılan bu çalışmanın kapsamını, Türkiye ve yurt dışında yayımlanmış doktora ve yüksek lisans tezleri ile hakemli dergilerde yayımlanmış makaleler oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada, duygu yönetimi becerisi ile ilgili yapılan akademik çalışmalar, belirlenen bazı ölçütler çerçevesinde incelendiği için veri analiz yöntemi olarak İçerik Analizi Yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Araştırma kapsamında EPROQUEST, KUAL, SCOPUS, WEB OF SCİENCE, EBSCHOST, ERIC, ELSEVIER, ULAKBİM, Ulusal Tez Merkezi ve Google Scholar veri tabanlarında 18 yerli tez, 16 yerli makale, 5 yabancı tez ve 15 yabancı makale olmak üzere toplam 54 akademik çalışmaya ulaşılmıştır. Araştırma kapsamındaki akademik çalışmaların incelenmesi sürecinde, araştırmacı tarafından hazırlanan “Araştırma Değerlendirme Formu” kullanılmıştır. Araştırma kapsamında incelenecek akademik çalışmalar, dâhil edilme ölçütlerine göre belirlendikten sonra içerik analizine tabi tutulmuştur. Akademik çalışmalar; yayımlanma yılı, araştırma türü, araştırma deseni, çalışma grubu, çalışma grubu büyüklüğü, çalışmalarda yapılan istatistiksel analizler ve duygu yönetimi ile çalışılan diğer değişkenler olmak üzere belirlenen kriterler çerçevesinde incelenmiştir. Araştırma kapsamında incelenen Türkiye’de yayımlanmış olan akademik çalışmalar 2018 yılı ve sonrasında daha fazla çalışılmıştır. Yabancı akademik çalışmaların ise 2012-2021 yılları arasında dengeli bir dağılım izlediği görülmüştür. Türkiye’de yapılan çalışmalar yoğun olarak yüksek lisans tezi ve makale çalışması türündedir. Yabancı akademik çalışmaların ise genellikle makale çalışması türünde olduğu görülmüştür. Çalışmalarda araştırmacılar tarafından genellikle nicel araştırma yöntemi (betimsel, ilişkisel, nedensel, deneysel vb.) tercih edilmiştir. İncelenen akademik çalışmaların çoğunluğunun örneklem grubunu yetişkinler ve üniversite öğrencileri oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmalar genellikle “0-400” kişi ile yürütülmüştür. Alanyazın taramasında duygu yönetimi becerisi değişkeninin birçok farklı değişkenle birlikte çalışıldığı görülmüştür. Birlikte en fazla çalışıldığı değişkenler ise kişilik özellikleri, tükenmişlik, duygu düzenleme, öğrenme güçlüğü, duygusal emek davranışları, yalnızlık, affetme, bağlanma stilleri, duygusal zeka, depresyon, kültürel değerler, psikolojik iyi oluş, iş doyumu, motivasyon düzeyi ve empati gibi çok çeşitli değişkenlerden oluştuğu görülmüştür.
... In terms of reading comprehension, Muter et al. (1982) divided subjects into an e-reading group and a paper reading group and found that there was no difference in the understanding of the reading content between the two groups (Muter et al., 1982). Additionally, Kerr and Symons (2006) concluded that e-reading can recall more information freely through the comparison experiment of repetition between e-reading and paper reading (Kerr and Symons, 2006). Burghardt et al. (2009) investigated the differences between different reading carriers, such as paper and electronic devices, and concluded that the reading speed was related to individual factors, but not significantly to reading carriers (Burghardt et al., 2009). ...
... In terms of reading comprehension, Muter et al. (1982) divided subjects into an e-reading group and a paper reading group and found that there was no difference in the understanding of the reading content between the two groups (Muter et al., 1982). Additionally, Kerr and Symons (2006) concluded that e-reading can recall more information freely through the comparison experiment of repetition between e-reading and paper reading (Kerr and Symons, 2006). Burghardt et al. (2009) investigated the differences between different reading carriers, such as paper and electronic devices, and concluded that the reading speed was related to individual factors, but not significantly to reading carriers (Burghardt et al., 2009). ...
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With the rapid development of mobile devices, users can now read on the screen. Electronic reading (e-reading) has become a common reading style with the growth in online learning or electronic learning (e-learning). E-book applications (APPs) are widely developed and applied for reading on a screen. However, it is difficult for readers to change their reading habits or preference from paper-printed books to digital devices. The study of readers' continuance intention to use e-book APPs is the first step to improving e-reading. This study focuses on the influential factors on undergraduates' continuance intention of e-book APPs, which analyzed and summarized the literature related to the electronic book (e-book) applications (APPs) and undergraduates' continuous intention, combined with the characteristics of the e-book APPs, introduced relevant theories and variables, and established the factors that influence undergraduates' continuous intention of using e-book APPs. On this basis, the paper analyzed the relationship between various influencing factors and their influence on continuous intention. A model composed of five hypotheses was constructed to test the factors influencing undergraduates' continuous intention in e-book APPs. The results indicated that of all research variables, satisfaction is the most important factor that affects continuous intention; Perceived usefulness and perceived playfulness have an indirect effect on continuous intention through satisfaction; personalization has direct effects on perceived usefulness and perceived playfulness, so it also has an indirect effect on continuous intention. The findings of the study will be helpful for designers and developers of e-book APPs and provide e-book APP suggestions for readers as well.
... With the introduction of e-textbooks, the text structure can be either in a linear or nonlinear form thus creating different ways of learning. E-204 textbooks can be in a nonlinear form, rotating based on the content of the screen as opposed to printed books which are in a linear form with a fixed layout text (Kerr and Symons 2006). Baier et al. (2011) carried out an investigation into college students' perceptions of designated readings for university course. ...
... Their reason for choosing the specific textbook were: 20 per cent said price, 30 per cent said convenience, 8.8 per cent said portable and easy access, 6.3 per cent said easy to read and highlight, and the last 35 per cent said textual features. The textual feature being the most selected is in line with Kerr and Symons (2006) which showed that with the introduction of etextbooks, the text structure can either be linear or non-linear changing based on the content of the screen as opposed to printed textbooks which are in linear form with fixed layout text. Also, as for which textbook they use for most of their course, 66.3 per cent selected e-textbooks while the rest 33.8 per cent chose printed textbooks. ...
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The debate between using printed textbooks (traditional) or e-textbooks (digital textbooks) is ongoing in the educational sector. Students are often required to buy textbooks in order to complete a course in the university, and this textbook can either be printed or e-textbook. Students who are usually reluctant to read a printed text or electronic texts are not familiar with the advantages and disadvantages of each text, respectively. Thus, the absence of information prompts the students to employ only one kind of text either digital or printed. The purpose of this research was to investigate whether university students prefer printed textbooks or digital textbooks (e-textbooks). The importance of the research is to understand why students are making the decision to use either traditional textbooks or e-textbooks and what makes them develop these preferences. The benefits that will be derived from this research will help illustrate what the students feel about traditional (printed) and e-textbooks (digital) and the choices that go into making that decision. This article is based on a study that was conducted at a university based in Midrand, South Africa. The study applied the mixed methods to analyse the relationship between perceived ease of use (PEOU), perceived usefulness (PU), attitude (ATT), complexity (CMX) and compatibility (CMP) on Behavioural intention to use. Questionnaire was the main data collection tool from as sample of 80 third year students from the Information Technology department of the university in question. The overall result led to the conclusion that students prefer e-textbook to the printed textbook.
... These actions were taken after results were published implicating intensive digital media use in reducing working memory capacity [1][2][3] ; in psychological problems, from depression to anxiety and sleep disorders 4,5 ; and in influencing the level of text comprehension while reading on screens. 6,7 The latter is a rather surprising example showing that reading complex stories or interconnected facts in a printed book leads to better recall of the story, of details, and of the connection between facts than reading the same text on screen. [7][8][9] The reason for the astonishing results, considering that the words on a light emitting diode (LED) screen or in a printed book are the same, seems to be related to how we use associations of facts with spatial and other sensory cues: the location on a page in a book we read something in addition, for instance, to the fact that each book smells differently seems to boost recall. ...
... 6,7 The latter is a rather surprising example showing that reading complex stories or interconnected facts in a printed book leads to better recall of the story, of details, and of the connection between facts than reading the same text on screen. [7][8][9] The reason for the astonishing results, considering that the words on a light emitting diode (LED) screen or in a printed book are the same, seems to be related to how we use associations of facts with spatial and other sensory cues: the location on a page in a book we read something in addition, for instance, to the fact that each book smells differently seems to boost recall. 9 In addition, the language scientist Naomi Baron, cited in an article by Makin,10 argues that reading habits are different in such a way that digital environments lead to superficial engagement in text analysis. ...
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This overview will outline the current results of neuroscience research on the possible effects of digital media use on the human brain, cognition, and behavior. This is of importance due to the significant amount of time that individuals spend using digital media. Despite several positive aspects of digital media, which include the capability to effortlessly communicate with peers, even over a long distance, and their being used as training tools for students and the elderly, detrimental effects on our brains and minds have also been suggested. Neurological consequences have been observed related to internet/gaming addiction, language development, and processing of emotional signals. However, given that much of the neuroscientific research conducted up to now relies solely on self-reported parameters to assess social media usage, it is argued that neuroscientists need to include datasets with higher precision in terms of what is done on screens, for how long, and at what age. .
... El uso de los medios digitales tiene influencias positivas sobre las personas, como la facilidad de la comunicación, y su utilización como herramienta educativa; pero también negativas, como la potenciación de las conductas adictivas, las dificultades en el desarrollo del lenguaje, y el procesamiento de señales emocionales (Korte, 2020). Además, el uso frecuente de medios digitales afecta negativamente a la memoria de trabajo (p.ej., Moisala et al., 2016), puede producir ansiedad y depresión en niños (Hoge et al., 2017), y perjudica la comprensión de textos (Kerr et al., 2006;Mangen et al., 2019). Por último, resulta preocupante la asociación del uso de medios digitales con el incremento de los diagnósticos del Trastorno por Déficit de Atención con Hiperactividad (TDAH) (Swing, 2010). ...
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Las emociones son reacciones fisiológicas, cognitivas y conductuales que nos permiten adaptarnos al entorno. El incremento de la complejidad de la estructura social durante nuestro desarrollo como especie, modificó los requerimientos emocionales necesarios para favorecer la supervivencia del individuo y del grupo. Las respuestas a las demandas del ambiente fueron más flexibles y controladas para afrontar peligros que no eran inmediatos, pero que se proyectaban en el futuro y necesitaban ser previstos y abordados en el presente. Una vez conformada la estructura actual de nuestro cerebro, la plasticidad neuronal permitió un ajuste adecuado de las conductas, las cogniciones y las emociones del sujeto a un entorno físico y social en continuo cambio. Sin embargo, el mundo digital supone un nuevo reto evolutivo, porque ha modificado los parámetros de tiempo y espacio de las interacciones sociales. Esto podría ser un nuevo requerimiento del entorno, necesario para nuestra evolución como especie. Siendo optimistas, podemos pensar que lograremos adaptarnos, pero será necesario proyectarnos en el futuro y ver qué cambios debemos hacer en el presente. Estos cambios deben partir de un conocimiento adecuado del proceso de construcción de las emociones en el mundo natural, para poder replicarlo con garantías en el mundo digital.
... Certaines de ces études ont encore trouvé que les performances étaient meilleures sur papier. Dans une étude évaluant la lecture sur papier versus ordinateur de deux textes descriptifs (372 et 411 mots) par des enfants de cinquième année de primaire, Kerr et Symons [27] ont mesuré le temps de lecture, la compréhension et le rappel via des questions sur le contenu des textes et des questions nécessitant des inférences. Les résultats ont indiqué que les élèves lisaient plus lentement sur l'ordinateur, mais rappelaient plus d'informations. ...
... However, the perceptual and cognitive qualities of printed text seem to differ from those of text displayed on screens. Behavioral experiments show that reading text on paper offers speed advantages, with readers typically reading 10%-30% faster compared to when the text is presented on screens (Dillon, 1992;Zaphiris and Kurniawan, 2001;Kerr and Symons, 2006, but see Kong et al., 2018 for lack of differences). Moreover, printed text exhibits advantages in reading comprehension and learning due to various factors. ...
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Undoubtedly, the future of humanity is digital. As we transition into this new technological era, we are confronted with many uncertainties. The digital environment, a relatively recent phenomenon, differs both qualitatively and quantitatively from other natural and social environments. Its ubiquity and rapid evolution, along with the ease of automating and replicating digital code, set the stage for significant impacts on human cognition and perception. This article conceptually explores the general characteristics of the digital environment, highlights its significance and relevance to cognitive science, summarizes a range of recent findings on the effects of digital technology on our cognitive and perceptual processes, and concludes with several hypotheses about the evolution of our minds in the digital future.
... Thus, adolescents' ability to self-regulate their behaviors, desires, and emotions is still immature [14]. Previous studies have indicated that intensive digital media use can induce attentional problems [15], reduce working memory capacity because of an increased tendency to conduct multitasking [16], and lower the level and efficiency of text comprehension written on screens compared to papers [17]. In addition, adolescents were shown to be more susceptible to internet addiction than young adults during COVID-19 [18] because of a less developed cognitive control system. ...
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Advancements in digital technology have led to increased usage of digital devices among teenagers. The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic and the subsequent implementation of social distancing policies have further accelerated this change. Consequently, a new concept called the metaverse has emerged. The metaverse is a combination of a virtual reality universe that allows individuals to meet, socialize, work, play, entertain, and create. This review provides an overview of the concept and main features of the metaverse and examples of its utilization in the real world. It also explains the unique developmental characteristics of childhood and adolescence, as well as the possible negative influences of the metaverse on them, including addiction, antisocial behavior, cyberbullying, and identity confusion. This review summarizes several suggestions for future research because the metaverse is a relatively new concept.
... Some writers compared the impact of the technology interface on reading comprehension in children with typical development to printed texts in children with typical development (Kerr & Symons, 2006). Although children and teens performed worse on-screen texts than printed texts in terms of comprehension, they preferred digital texts (Singer & Alexander, 2017). ...
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This research aims to determine the teachers' reading style, determine their reading speed, and determine which reading methods are the teachers' strengths and weaknesses utilizing a thorough evaluation of reading techniques from Hawker Brownlow Education. Using predetermined reading materials. Using Google Forms, this study utilized the comprehensive assessment of reading strategies from Hawker Brownlow Education. This material is composed of four series of tests, with different reading passages using the same 12 reading strategies. Results were interpreted using descriptive method to find out which strategy the participants could be weak. It is found that readers can effectively comprehend when they use the following strategies namely, finding word meaning in context, understanding sequence, and making predictions. Therefore, the four series of assessments, show that there are varied ways of comprehending a material that might directly influence the duration and time limit allocated in reading and answering the material, the recurring events of the same material used, and the scheduling of reading comprehension tests. The study allows educators and teachers to specify their activities in order to strengthen the weak points of the reading teachers identified from the samples. Through this, educational planners can create more skills targeted training based on the results of the study.
... In collaborative play where players talk to one another in a physical environment, they are more engaged and have increased social interaction, which increases visual attention [10]. In a test comparing the recall rate of students reading digital and print passages, participants recalled more from the print text, suggesting that reading print reduces working memory load [44]. Another reading study found that people who read digitally were more likely to multitask than when reading print, suggesting an increased visual attention for digital formats [77]. ...
... Studies of readers who have mastered word reading skills, mainly undergraduates, as in Clinton (2019; for a study on adolescents, see Ronconi et al., 2022), found no differences in reading times between the two mediums. Longer times, though, were found for reading on screen than on paper in children at the end of primary school (Kerr & Symons, 2006; but see Lenhard et al., 2017). In these studies, text comprehension performance was better on paper than on screen. ...
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Research on text comprehension in relation to the reading medium (paper or screen) has mainly involved undergraduate or high school students. To advance current knowledge on the effects of reading medium, this longitudinal study focused on beginner readers, specifically, the role of precursors in first graders' comprehension of narrative and expository linear texts from reading on paper and computer screen. Working memory and inference skills as cognitive precursors and basic digital skills were measured at the end of preschool (T1); reading text comprehension and word reading, as a control variable, were measured at the end of the first grade (T2). Sixty-three children participated in total. The first graders read four texts, one narrative and one expository, on both paper and computer screen, in a counterbalanced order. Results showed no main effects of the reading medium or text genre, but the interactive effect of these variables was significant. At T2, the children had higher comprehension scores after reading narrative than descriptive texts from paper. In addition, reading from the screen was preferred at post-test, after all texts were presented. As precursors, working memory and inference skills predicted both printed and digital text comprehension. In contrast, basic digital skills predicted only digital text comprehension after controlling for medium, text genre, and word reading.
... Studies of readers who have mastered word reading skills, mainly undergraduates, as in Clinton (2019; for a study on adolescents, see Ronconi et al., 2022), found no differences in reading times between the two mediums. Longer times, though, were found for reading on screen than on paper in children at the end of primary school (Kerr & Symons, 2006; but see Lenhard et al., 2017). In these studies, text comprehension performance was better on paper than on screen. ...
... Results highlight an effect of age, with better reading/comprehension performances for older adults. Kerr and Symons (2006) developed one of the few studies comparing reading performances on paper and computer with two descriptive texts, involving 5th grade children. In their study, they assess reading time, comprehension and recall with questions concerning the texts content, as well as questions requiring inferential processing. ...
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In this study, we compared the effects of two media (Interactive Whiteboards and Paper) on both expository and narrative texts reading comprehension among 5th grade children of primary school. Two texts were constructed, according to the same controlled hierarchical structure. Comprehension was assessed by a multiple-choice questionnaire including three types of questions (surface, semantics, inferential). Results of the comprehension test revealed no difference between the two supports. Regardless of support, we found better performances for the narrative text, as well as an interaction between Text and Question factors, revealing that children had more difficulties to elaborate inferences when reading the expository text. These results are in line with previous findings underlying that texts with a similar structure, with a single-page presentation elicit similar performances on paper and electronic devices. They also provide interesting perspectives about the use and impact of Interactive Whiteboards during reading activities or lessons in classrooms.
... Fig. 3 Bar chart of the number of rereading instances across pages for both groups Regarding the first research question, as expected, the participants in the print condition showed better reading comprehension outcomes than those in the digital condition, even after controlling for the total fixation durations for the article. This result is in line with previous studies conducted with younger children (e.g., Kerr & Symons, 2006;Lenhard et al., 2017), adolescents (e.g., Mangen et al., 2013), and using non-illustrated texts as reading material (e.g., Singer et al., 2019;Singer & Alexander, 2017;Stoop et al., 2013). The benefits of print reading were significant, supporting studies that used expository texts (Ackerman & Lauterman, 2012;Singer et al., 2019) and comics (Hou et al., 2017;Zambarbieri & Carniglia, 2012) as reading materials. ...
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Comparing comprehension outcomes in print and digital reading is an active area of research but little is known about the reading processes that these media entail. This study involved an eye-tracking experiment with 50 undergraduate students to investigate the differences in reading processes in print and digital media. The participants were randomly assigned to read the same six-page popular science article that included several diagrams either in print or on a tablet computer and then answer reading comprehension questions. The results showed that comprehension was better when reading in print. Eye-movement data indicated that the print and digital groups spent about the same amount of time processing the article, texts, diagrams, and diagram statements, but the time was not divided evenly between the first pass and the rereading stages. The digital group spent more time reading the article at the first-pass reading stage and seldom reread it. In contrast, the print group first skimmed the article and then reread the important parts, exhibiting both longer total fixation durations in the rereading stage and a higher number of rereading instances across pages. In sum, the findings indicate that reading in print versus digital media employs different cognitive strategies with those reading in print showing more selective and intentional reading behavior.
... For reasons of cost and convenience, reading from screens has become a common occurrence in modern times (Mangen et al., 2019;Sage et al., 2019). However, reading from screens may be less efficient than from paper (Clinton, 2019;Kerr & Symons, 2006;Kong et al., 2018) and characteristics of readers and texts that interact with medium are not well understood. ...
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Both medium (paper or screens) and interest have been noted as important factors in learning from reading text, but connections between them have not been examined. The purposes of this study are to examine whether reading medium and interest, both individual and situational, interact to predict performance on a reading assessment and whether medium affects situational interest. College students (N = 206) reported their individual interest in the content of a textbook excerpt, were randomly assigned to read a textbook excerpt from paper or screen, and then reported their situational interest in the textbook excerpt. Based on the findings of this study, individual interest did not interact with medium to predict reading performance; however, situational interest was more predictive of performance when reading from screens than from paper. Medium did not influence situational interest.
... The cyber-learning paradox: facts, myths and expectations about the impact of digital technologies on learning and cognition Libert Alonso Vergara Novoa Dany Andrey Latorre Mendez Recepción: 15-07-2021Aprobación: 14-10-2021 Peronard Therry (2007), reported that a research study about the differences between reading on paper and reading on computer screens, conducted with 158 freshmen from six different academic programs at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaiso (Chile), found that although the level of inferential comprehension was very low, the use of paper generated higher levels of comprehension and reading speed than the use of screens, results that are consistent with previous researches such as those conducted by Piolat, Roussey and Thuning ( 1997); Dillon, Richardson and McKnight (1990); And Kerr and Symons (2006). ...
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The impact of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) on learning remains one of the most controversial topics among scholars. There are experts who see them as the cornerstone of a revolution in education but others consider that ICTs have been overrated, as it was the case with radio and television in the twentieth century. This study attempted to analyze the potential and actual value of ICTs on learning and cognition, based on a qualitative content analysis that allowed to contrast the results of 150 research articles published between 2006 and 2021, with international reports and scholars’ contributions to the topic in discussion.
... Apart from that, breaking the sentences and showing them on different screens can disturb the reader's mind which makes them not being able to process data quickly whereas, it is easy to learn the meaning of sentences when they are shown in full on one screen [40]. Another experiment showed that the memory results were better for a computer with a scrolling screen than on a hard copy [43]. When reading long articles on a small screen, Lee explained that "visual focus is compromised" since the reader would scroll down the page to read the text. ...
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Web readers usually skim through the text to keep up with the amount of available content. The effectiveness of skim reading is ensured by keeping the focus on the meaningful part of the text rather than the less meaningful part. To assure if the skim reading shows efficient results for a particular screen resolution, this research presents variations in the memory of significant data when a text is read on a mobile screen or a desktop screen. Moreover, the study aims to understand the knowledge gained from the text at a given time. In total, sixty participants contributed to the study and it is found that, relative to reading the text on a mobile screen, skimming showed improved memory for the ideas defined in the text on a computer screen. A software prototype is developed in this research study to analyze the impact of skim reading on a desktop computer screen versus a mobile device screen. The findings of the study have been interpreted as evidence in support of a skimming process called satisficing.
... Duchnicky et al. [39] stated that a reader gains only a small amount of information when the screen is continuously being scrolled. Another study showed that the memory results were better with a scrolling screen than a hard copy [40]. Lee discussed that "visual attention is compromised" in reading extended articles on a small screen as the reader needs to scroll up and down the page to go through the text. ...
... En raekke studier viser, at laesehastigheden er nedsat ved laesning på skaerm (Connell et al., 2012;Daniel & Woody, 2013;Hue et al., 2014;Kerr & Symons, 2006;Mangen et al., 2013;Rasmusson, 2015), mens dette afkraeftes af Clintons metastudie (2019). En del af forklaringen på den laengere laesetid kan vaere, at laeseren oftere forstyrres under laesning af tekst på skaerm (Daniel & Woody, 2013). ...
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Abstract Danmarks skoler digitaliseres samtidig med, at undersøgelser viser, at læsning af digitale tekster enten medfører ringere eller den samme læseforståelse, dog viser et nyt metastudie, at elevers læseforståelse generelt er dårligere ved læsning på skærm. I artiklen beskrives en undersøgelse af elevers læsning af tekster på hhv. iPad og papir (n = 239). Elever fra fem skoler inddeltes tilfældigt i to grupper og læste tre tekster med efterfølgende besvarelse af 35 spørgsmål med fokus på hukommelse for det læste. Forskellen i læsescore opgøres i forhold til læsning på papir (n = 117) eller iPad (n = 122) såvel som på køn (n (piger) = 128, n (drenge) = 104). Denne undersøgelse viser, at der ikke er nogen signifikant forskel mellem elevernes tekstlæsning på hhv. iPad og papir, dog med undtagelse af, at drenge læser signifikant bedre på iPad end på papir (p = 0,003, Cohens d = 0,307). Studiets resultater leder til overvejelser over, om drenge i højere grad skal tilbydes digitale tekster. English abstract English title: Students’ recall ability when reading linear texts on iPad or in print In Denmark we see a rising digitalisation of schools and therefor also of reading on screen. Former studies has shown that reading on screen can lead to inferior reading comprehension, although some newer studies shows no difference. In this study students (N = 239) from five different schools were randomly divided into two groups to read three different texts on either iPad or in print and to fill out a multiple choice test with 35 questions focusing on lower level reading comprehension understood as the ability to recall information. The difference in reading score is found regarding reading on iPad (n = 122) or paper (n = 117) and gender (n (boys) = 104, n (girls) = 128). This study shows that there is no significant difference when it comes to reading comprehension understood as ability to recall text information. Taking gender into consideration, looking at boys performing on iPad or paper, the study shows a significant difference between the two reading medias. This study shows that boys perform better on iPad. The result should lead to considerations whether boys should be given reading tasks on iPad instead of in print.
... Dyson (2004) found out that readers perform better when the texts were presented by using double-space on the screen between the lines. Another study also suggested that reading time had increased for 10-year olds when reading a computer presented text (Kerr & Symons, 2006). According to Sanchez and Wiley (2009), reading time is influenced by the amount of scrolling while the student is scrolling the text. ...
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An educational, personalized electronic book called You Are in the Story (YAITS) is evaluated to assess its effectiveness on reading comprehension and motivation on sixth grade EFL students in a state secondary school in Turkey. The study was conducted with 48 students (aged 11-12) that included reading comprehension scores and reading motivation scores. Results indicated that reading comprehension scores showed no significant difference between groups. YAITS considerably led to superior reading motivation scores compared to the printed guided reading control group. Personalized e-book reading had a positive influence on the internal reading motivation of the learners. Participant students claimed that they preferred to read in their free time the printed version of the books because of the sense of ownership that the printed text storybooks offered.
... The fact that international tests (PIRLS2 and PISA3) are digitized (Backes & Cowan, 2018) has created a significant incentive for this research. Until now, a limited number of studies have examined the impact of the reading medium on reading comprehension of children (Halamish & Elbaz, 2019;Kerr & Symons, 2006). This research aims to bring a new perspective by broadening the studies conducted on the use of gamified electronic book reading and personalized electronic book reading to enhance the reading performance of sixth-year students within Turkish EFL setting. ...
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The young generation, born into digital technologies and called Millennials or the Y-Generation, are raised in a world where everybody has a computer in their pockets (Hamari et al., 2014), and they are constantly engaged in digital activities. However, research on the impact of digital devices on learners’ educational performance and motivation is still an emerging field. This article aims to examine perceptions of the sixth-grade students in Turkey of their e-reading experiences on the basis of their personalized/gamified/PDF electronic reading practices in school and the influences of their perceptions on their reading comprehension and levels of motivation in English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom. The study follows a quasi-experimental approach with four treatment groups and a control group, involving 96 sixth-grade state school students in Turkey. The three treatment groups read in order from the personalized/gamified/PDF electronic reading for 5 weeks whereas the control group used printed guided reading program. The results indicate that EFL learners’ use of screen reading has the potential to increase reading motivation of the students. However, no significant difference was observed in their reading comprehension levels despite the use of different reading medium in control and experimental groups.
... Sidi et al. (2017) and Delgado et al. (2018) found in separate studies that the effect of an imposed time limit produced a reduction in comprehension that was more significant when reading from electronic text. In the study by Sidi et al. (2017), the effect of the time constraint was found to vary, depending on the student's perception of the importance of the task and Kerr and Symons (2006) found that additional time was required when using e-books, affecting efficiency. Investigation as a participant researcher subject to academic pressures enabled exploration of this line of enquiry. ...
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The “problem of e-books” is defined as the difficulty improving the adoption rates of e-books by students. The adoption rates of e-books for academic use remain low, and research into the reasons for this have resulted in inconclusive findings. Factors such as student perception, and variations in experimental methodology and technology, contribute to difficulties in generalising findings and establishing conclusive causes for this problem. To better understand the causal factors for low adoption rates and the student's experience with ereaders and digital text, an investigation was conducted by the lead researcher as a student enrolled in a postgraduate course. The experiment was designed using e-book and digital text documents on an ereader for academic study and the results analysed with the framework of Activity Theory. This methodology allowed exploration of the problem within the authentic experience of a student to examine the effects of this social environment on ereader and e-book use. Analysis of the work domain was conducted and a comparative assessment of the observed effect of using the digital documents on an ereader compared with the paper book. Findings show that attempts to apply self-regulation and metacognitive learning techniques within the activity using the ereader were abandoned due to breakdowns in operations, and that this resulted in a perceived lower quality of achievement. The effect on the processes used by the student were extreme and were observed to be highly dependent on the student's use of specific learning strategies. The experimental methodology employed in this investigation enabled identification of the role of the social environment in the use of course documents on an ereader for academic study. The functionality of the ereader was such an extremely poor fit with the observed academic processes that a redesign approach for ereader and e-book technology is proposed as a solution to the low adoption rates of e-books.
... However, digital features in electronic books have been debated in the literature, with variations in these features both supporting and detracting from learning. Here I will focus on studies involving pre-and emergent readers, although certainly there is a growing literature regarding older children's and adults' learning from e-books (e.g., Ackerman & Goldsmith, 2011;Chan & Unsworth, 2011;Grimshaw, Dungworth, McKnight, & Morris, 2007;Huang, Liang, Su, & Chen, 2012;Kerr & Symons, 2006;Mangen, Walgermo, & Brønnick, 2013;Subrahmanyam et al., 2013;Wright, Fugett, & Caputa, 2013). ...
... The findings suggested that teenagers scored significantly higher on the paper reading comprehension tests than the electronic ones. Besides, Kerr and Symons (2006) in their study found that children were more efficient at comprehending text when reading on paper. As it is seen in table 3, Text 1 and Text 4 were the printed papers. ...
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This study aims to find out the factors affecting ELL (English Language and Literature) senior students’ foreign language teaching anxiety and reducing-strategies. The participants were ELL senior students (n=50) who were enrolled in the pedagogical formation certificate program at a state university in Turkey. Additionally, mentors of the study group (n=9) contributed to the research comparatively. The ELL seniors’ teaching experience lasted 10 weeks and they grasped most of the teaching skills as their mentors suggested. Nevertheless, one of the phenomena was the dead hand of something which is called anxiety. In this study, the researcher referred to ELL senior students as prospective teachers. The instruments involve prospective teachers’ diaries, micro-teaching videos, and open-ended interview questions. In the data collection process, the researcher has employed ‘content analysis’ to determine the categories and calculate the number of instances into the determining categories (Silverman, 2000). Then, each category was named according to the repeated units of speech. Both the prospective teachers and their mentors were asked to describe the anxiety-provoking factors and coping strategies. The results revealed that both prospective teachers and their mentors share some of the common beliefs on FLTA (Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety). That is, both of them put forward that lack of experience is a factor that causes anxiety. Apart from this, mentors associated foreign language teaching anxiety with personality traits and academic inefficacy. According to the findings of the study, the prospective teachers’ foreign language teaching anxiety is presented under 5 headings as follows; classroom management, public speaking anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, being observed by the students, and lack of experience.
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Background “Screen inferiority” refers to a well‐established phenomenon observed among adults and teenagers, wherein they demonstrate higher reading comprehension when reading from paper compared to screens. However, there is limited research focusing on readers in the initial stages of reading development. The current study aims to investigate reading comprehension in both screen and paper settings, as well as modality preferences, among young typical and struggling readers in the second and third grades. Methods The study included 342 second graders and 284 third‐grade Hebrew readers. Their reading comprehension performance in both modalities and their preferences for a particular modality were assessed. Results The results suggested no differences in reading comprehension between the two modalities in the second and third grades. The only group that showed numerically higher performance on paper over computer was struggling readers in the second grade. The numeric proportion of modality preferences was higher on the computer rather than on paper. Conclusions The current study did not find an effect of modality on reading comprehension in the second and third grades. We did find that children in these grades prefer to read on screens. It is essential to examine the specific characteristics of the digital task to determine when it benefits young readers and when it may be detrimental to them.
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Tid for lesing! (Time for reading!) elaborates on the Norwegian results from PIRLS 2021 and puts them into a Nordic and international perspective. The chapters, written by 11 researchers, deal with a number of topics, such as the importance of home environment, school and teachers for students’ reading performance; students’ reading habits; weak performing students; how students like and perform on the texts in PIRLS; as well as differences between students who answered the PIRLS test on paper and digitally. We also investigate possible driving forces behind the decline in Norwegian ten-year-olds’ reading comprehension.
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Purpose This study holistically and systematically consolidates the available research on digital reading to reveal the research trends of the past 20 years. Moreover, it explores the thematic evolution, hotspots and developmental characteristics of digital reading. This study, therefore, has the potential to serve as a research guide to researchers and educators in relevant fields. Design/methodology/approach The authors applied a bibliometric approach using Derwent Data Analyzer and VOSviewer to retrieve 2,456 publications for 2003–2022 from the Web of Science (WoS) database. Findings The results revealed that most studies' participants were university students and the experimental methods and questionnaires were preferred in digital reading researches. Among the influential countries or regions, institutions, journals and authors, the United States of America, University of London, Electronic Library and Chen, respectively, accounted for the greatest number of publications. Moreover, the authors identified the developmental characteristics and research trends in the field of digital reading by analyzing the evolution of keywords from 2003–2017 to 2018–2022 and the most frequently cited papers by year. “E-books,” “reading comprehension” and “literacy” were the primary research topics. In addition, “attention,” “motivation,” “cognitive load,” “dyslexia,” “engagement,” “eye-tracking,” “eye movement,” “systematic analysis,” “meta-analysis,” “smartphone” and “mobile reading/learning” were potential new research hotspots. Originality/value This study provides valuable insights into the current status, research direction, thematic evolution and developmental characteristics in the field of digital reading. Therefore, it has implications for publishers, researchers, librarians, educators and teachers in the digital reading field.
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Based on the question of the relationship between “deep reading” and “skim reading”, this article explores the question of which techniques, contents and competences can be promoted and taught in the context of a literary studies programme in English. It outlines a number of techniques, contents and competences that students can or should acquire in the course of their studies in literary studies in English. These include the techniques of deep reading and skim reading as well as self-expression in academic exchange. After a brief presentation of the most important “educational contents” (Dehn et al., Lesesozialisation, Literaturunterricht und Leseförderung in der Schule, in: Bodo Franzmann et al. (Ed.): Handbuch Lesen. Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Verlag Hohengehren 2001, pp. 568–637, 2001), five central competences are outlined on the basis of selected examples of English literature (and above all from Shakespeare’s plays), which can be fostered and developed in the examination of English literature in the context of an English studies programme.KeywordsEnglish studiesLiterary studiesTechniquesContentSkillsDeep readingSkim readingPerspective takingEmpathy
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As a result of progressive digitalization, the literacy practices of reading and writing increasingly take place in digital modality. The present study aimed to provide insights into (1) whether adolescents with a migration background use their multilingual skills in digital practices and (2) how these digital practices relate to their multilingual writing skills. Questionnaire data on digital literacy practices and test data on multilingual writing skills from the study “Multilingualism at the transition to work and employment (MEZ-2)” were analyzed. The findings show that the adolescents examined (n= 277) use their multilingual skills for digital literacy practice. Four profiles of multilingual digital literacy practices were distinguished in the studied population. These profiles differ with respect to the number of languages used in digital reading and writing (monolingual, bilingual, or multilingual) and the frequency of the literacy practices. No systematic correlation could be found between digital literacy practices and multilingual writing skills.
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In this paper, we report a 12-week longitudinal study aiming at exploring the students’ reading outcome and cognitive load with individual-based print, mobile app of Rain Classroom and collaboration-based social media of WeChat. Administered to 186 postgraduate students in a research university were the weekly reading materials and comprehension tests, together with the self-designed CLCR scale after the reading sessions. A combination of one-way and repeated measures ANOVA along with multi-regression analysis showed that social media produced the best reading outcome; The same pattern occurred about enhanced reading outcome in the initial sessions followed by a decline at the end; Reading outcome in print other than in mobile and social media significantly increased from the first session to the ending session; Reading in mobile generated the highest level of extraneous, intrinsic, and germane load; Multi-regression analysis showed a negative relationship between intrinsic load and the prediction of collaborative reading across all the reading contexts. Further efforts may contribute to more complex patterns of reading outcome and cognitive load status by arranging individual- and collaboration-based contexts in different sequences for students with high and low level of cognitive load.
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The paper analyses empirical research results comparing the impact of the medium (traditional, paper-based vs. screen-based) on the reading process and text comprehension. It focuses on two analytical approaches—the first looks at the construction of cognitive maps of texts and the other the material aspects of the medium – which enable readers to orientate themselves and to explore and interpret the text more comprehensively. The paper discusses differences in how readers approach textual meaning according to experience of using digital technologies, the text, and reader experience and abilities. It concludes by arguing that strengthening these individual experiences and abilities is key to effective inference of textual meaning.
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The purpose of this review was to examine the effects that audiobook listening and print reading have on comprehension performance and the role that learner characteristics, text features, and contextual factors play in reported outcomes. The review, which included 32 documents, covered elementary, secondary, and college students who processed narrative and expository texts aurally via audiobooks and visually on paper or screen. Analysis showed that the majority of studies were conducted in classrooms where audiobooks were co-presented with printed texts. It was also shown that audiobooks by themselves tended to facilitate comprehension better than print when students were younger (g = .28 to g = .58). For identified populations, such as struggling readers and EFLs, the co-presentation of audiobooks with print proved better for comprehension than print alone (g = .32 to g = 1.67). There was a paucity of studies that directly compared audiobook listening to print reading; targeted older students with no identified learning needs; or focused on exposition. Implications for instructional practice and future research are forwarded, based on the patterns that emerged from this review.
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Ausgehend von der Frage nach dem Verhältnis von „deep reading“ und „skim reading“ geht der Beitrag der Frage nach, welche Techniken, Inhalte und Kompetenzen im Rahmen eines literaturwissenschaftlichen Anglistikstudiums gefördert und vermittelt werden können. Es werden nacheinander einige Techniken, Inhalte und Kompetenzen angerissen, die Studierende im Verlauf eines literaturwissenschaftlichen Anglistikstudiums erwerben können bzw. sollten. Dazu zählen u. a. die Techniken des deep reading und des skim reading sowie die Selbstdarstellung im wissenschaftlichen Austausch. Nach einer kurzen Vorstellung der wichtigsten „Bildungsinhalte“ (Dehn et al. 2001) werden anhand ausgewählter Beispiele englischer Literatur (und vor allem aus Shakespeares Dramen) fünf zentrale Kompetenzen skizziert, die in der Auseinandersetzung mit englischer Literatur im Rahmen eines Anglistikstudiums gefördert und entwickelt werden können.
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Fake news poses one of the greatest threats to democracy, journalism, and freedom of expression. In recent cases, fake news’ designs are to create confusion and lower trust among the general public—as seen in the 2016 United States presidential campaign and the Brexit referendum. The spread of information without formal verification increased since the introduction of social media and online news channels. After the popularization of fake news, researchers have tried to evaluate and understand the effects of false information from multiple different perspectives. However, it is evident that to tackle the problem of fake news, interdisciplinary collaboration is needed. This article evaluates the main findings of recent literature from an integrated psychological, linguistic, cognitive, and societal perspective, with a particular focus on digital and age-related aspects of fake news. From a psychosociological standpoint, the article provides a synthesized profile of the fake news believer. This profile generally denotes overconfidence in one’s ability to assess falsehoods due to a human need for causal explanations. The fake news believer can be described as well-intentioned and critical, yet driven by a basis of distrust and false foundational knowledge. Within linguistics, manual analytical tools exist to understand the persuasive tactics in fake news. The article takes analytical techniques from both the humanities and the social sciences, such as transitivity analysis, Hugh Rank’s language persuasive framework, and others that can be used to analyze the language used in the news. However, in the age of big data perhaps only computational techniques can adequately address the issue at the root. While this proves successful, there are hurdles like the ambiguity of satire and sarcasm, manual labeling of data, and the supple nature of language. Reading comprehension differences between digital versus paper reading seem inconclusive. There are, however, notable behavioral and cognitive differences in reading behavior for the digital medium such as more scanning, less sustained attention, cognitive retreat, and shallower processing. Interestingly, when metacognitive strategies were probed by, for example, having participants independently allocate reading time, a difference in comprehension scores started to emerge. Researchers have also found accounts of differences due to medium preference; and on average older people seem to prefer paper reading. Cognitive retreat, shallow processing, and overconfidence associated with digital reading and the digital medium, in general, might make readers less likely to engage in the cognitive effort fake news detection requires. Considering that there are clear cognitive differences between older generations and younger generations (in terms of decreased processing speed, metacognition, and ability to multitask) differences in how these generations process fake news is plausible. Regrettably, most current research into psychological factors influencing susceptibility to fake news does not take into account age differences. Our meta-analysis showed that 74% of behavioral studies looking at fake news largely ignore age (N = 62), even though voter turnout was far higher among older generations for both the 2016 United States presidential election and the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum. Many provisional programs set up in the past few years aimed at training digital literacy, reading comprehension, and asking critical questions as virtual skills to detect fake news. These training programs are, however, mostly aimed at younger – digitally native – groups. As a result, these efforts might not be as efficacious as intended and could be improved upon significantly. This article argues that age must become a larger focus in fake news research and efforts in educating people against fake news must expand outside of the universities and isolated areas and include older generations.
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The paper is devoted to the study on how the reading format (on a computer screen and on paper) affects the effectiveness of tasks solved by students – future engineers of the IT sector. A research was held to study the impact of the reading format on composing concept maps following reading texts on paper or on computer screen. The results showed advantages in completing assignments when reading on paper.
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In North America, some of the more important media disputes focus on: (1) the effects of different media on learning; (2) whether media play any essential role in the cultivation of or transfer of cognitive skills; (3) the motivating properties of media; and (4) the economic benefits of different media. This review suggests that American media researchers tend to belong to either a ‘strong’ or a ‘weak’ media theory group. Evidence for each of the two extreme theory positions is examined and it is concluded that sufficient evidence has not been advanced to support a ‘strong’ theory of media effects on learning, motivation or cost.
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Published in Behaviour and Information Technology, 9 (3) 215-227 This item is not the definitive copy. Please use the following citation when referencing this material: Dillon, A., Richardson, J. and McKnight, C. (1990) The effect of display size and paragraph splitting on reading lengthy text from screen. Behaviour and Information Technology, 9(3), 215-227. Abstract The present paper reports on an experimental investigation of reader performance and preferences with a screen-presented journal article. The effects of display size (20 lines and 60 lines) and sentence splitting on readers' manipulation, comprehension and subjective impressions are assessed. The results indicate that neither variable significantly affects comprehension but adjusted manipulation levels are significantly higher in the small window condition. Splitting sentences across screens also caused readers to return to the previous page to re-read text significantly more. Subjective data reveal a preference for larger screens and high awareness of text format. Implications for future work are discussed.
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Students viewed a computer-generated animation depicting the process of lightning formation (Experiment 1) or the operation of a car's braking system (Experiment 2). In each experiment, students received either concurrent narration describing the major steps (Group AN) or concurrent on-screen text involving the same words and presentation timing (Group AT). Across both experiments, students in Group AN outperformed students in Group AT in recalling the steps in the process on a retention test, in finding named elements in an illustration on a matching test, and in generating correct solutions to problems on a transfer test. Multimedia learners can integrate words and pictures more easily when the words are presented auditorily rather than visually. This split-attention effect is consistent with a dual-processing model of working memory consisting of separate visual and auditory channels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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An adult read to 12 children from a regular paper book. Twenty-four children explored an electronic book similar in illustrations and story content (also called CD-ROM storybook, talking book, interactive book, or computer book). For half of this group the electronic book was available with and for half without restrictions concerning the games. Twelve control children were only pre- and posttested. After 6 sessions the examiner elicited an emergent reading of text and separate words to test to what extent children had internalized story meaning, phrasing, and features of written text. During the book-reading sessions children's attention to text and iconic modes differed as a function of book format and children's level of emergent literacy. The regular book format was more supportive of learning about story content and phrasing; both formats supported internalization of features of written words. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Good comprehenders were more efficient than poor comprehenders when they were required to locate specific pieces of information in a text, and there were qualitative differences in search strategies between the groups. However, the performance of the good comprehenders was more like that of poor comprehenders when they were required to search through a scrambled text, suggesting that their search was guided by their representation of the content of the text. Although the groups did not differ in performance on a test of spatial memory, or on their ability to remember the location of individual words in a text, the good comprehenders were better at remembering the order in which specific words appeared in a text. This finding again suggests that their superior search strategies may arise because of their better memory for the order of events in a text. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Text comprehension involves frequent backtracking through previously read material, either accompanied by regressive saccades or not, in order to find the elements necessary for the interpretation of words currently being inspected. An obvious example is anaphor processing, where reference to an earlier element in the text, and thus the necessity to backtrack, is marked linguistically (by a pronoun, a definite article, a preposition, etc.). Little is known, however, concerning the exact nature of the text representation(s) used by readers when performing such backtracking. In the present paper, two potential levels of text representation will be discussed: a representation of the text content (see, for example, the notion of a discourse model proposed by Garnham, 1981) and a representation of the surface form of the text, including the spatial locations of words on the screen.
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Students viewed a computer animation depicting the process of lightning. In Experiment 1, they concurrently viewed on-screen text presented near the animation or far from the animation, or concurrently listened to a narration. In Experiment 2, they concurrently viewed on-screen text or listened to a narration, viewed on-screen text following or preceding the animation, or listened to a narration following or preceding the animation. Learning was measured by retention, transfer, and matching tests. Experiment 1 revealed a spatial-contiguity effect in which students learned better when visual and verbal materials were physically close. Both experiments revealed a modality effect in which students learned better when verbal input was presented auditorily as speech rather than visually as text. The results support 2 cognitive principles of multimedia learning. Technological advances have made possible the combina-tion and coordination of verbal presentation modes (such as narration and on-screen text) with nonverbal presentation modes (such as graphics, video, animations, and environmen-tal sounds) in just one device (the computer). These ad-vances include multimedia environments, where students can be introduced to causal models of complex systems by the use of computer-generated animations (Park & Hopkins, 1993). However, despite its power to facilitate learning, multimedia has been developed on the basis of its technologi-cal capacity, and rarely is it used according to research-based principles (Kozma, 1991; Mayer, in press; Moore, Burton, & Myers, 1996). Instructional design of multimedia is still mostly based on the intuitive beliefs of designers rather than on empirical evidence (Park & Hannafin, 1994). The purpose of the present study is to contribute to multi-media learning theory by clarifying and testing two cogni-tive principles: the contiguity principle and the modality principle.
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The purpose of this discussion is to explain and sharpen different points of view about the impact of media and attributes of media on learning, motivation and efficiency gains from instruction. This paper is an attempt to summarize my arguments about the research and theory in this area and to respond to Robert Kozma's criticism of my earlier discussion of these issues. I will first briefly summarize my arguments about media effects; next I will attempt to characterize the many reactions to the controversial claim that media do not influence learning or motivation. Finally, I will respond to the specific criticisms advanced by Robert Kozma this issue.
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An exploratory study is described in which the same text was presented to subjects in one of four formats, of which two were hypertext (TIES and Hypercard) and two were linear (Word Processor and paper). Subjects were required to use the text to answer 12 questions. Measurement was made of their time and accuracy and their movement through the document was recorded, in addition to a variety of subjective data being collected. Although there was no significant difference between conditions for task completion time, subjects performed more accurately with linear formats. The implications of these findings and the other data collected are discussed.
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Two studies using the methods of experimental psychology assessed the effects of two types of text presentation (page-by-page vs.scrolling) on participants' performance while reading and revising texts. Greater facilitative effects of the page-by-page presentation were observed in both tasks. The participants' reading task performance indicated that they built a better mental representation of the text as a whole and were better at locating relevant information and remembering the main ideas. Their revising task performance indicated a larger number of global corrections (which are the most difficult to make). © 1997 Academic Press Limited
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Although the use of hypertext systems for learning complex knowledge has been attracting recent attention, we currently have poor theoretical and research perspectives from which to understand special characteristics associated with learning in nonlinear and multidimensional hypertext instructional systems. A study was conducted to investigate a theory-based hypertext learning environment that provided instruction in a complex and ill-structured domain. The experimental treatment incorporated several features derived from recent cognitive learning theory, in particular a hypertext procedure that presented the instructional material in multiple contexts to highlight different facets of the knowledge. The main results of the study revealed that although the control treatment led to higher performance on the measures of memory for factual knowledge, the more hypertext-like treatment promoted superior knowledge transfer. Overall, these findings suggest hypertext learning environments that present the instructed knowledge by explicitly demonstrating critical interrelationships between abstract and case-specific knowledge components in multiple contexts will help prepare students to use knowledge in new ways and in new situations.
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The focus on communications technology in recent years has led to the question of how to best display electronic text onto small-screened devices. Past studies have shown that the compact method of Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) is efficient but not well liked. Two experiments were conducted to explore ways of improving the preference for and feasibility of RSVP. In Experiment 1, the effects of a completion meter, punctuation pauses, and variable word duration were studied. Although the Normal Page and Sentence-by Sentence formats were still superior, post-experiment ratings indicated that punctuation pauses improved user preference, and preference for RSVP in general increased with practice. In Experiment 2, a modified RSVP condition included a completion meter, punctuation pauses, interruption pauses, and pauses at clause boundaries. This condition was significantly preferred to a normal RSVP condition. The present enhancements may increase the feasibility of using RSVP with small displays.
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Past research has demonstrated that reading efficiency is lower from standard computer displays of the 1980s than from paper. In the present experiments, subjects read or skimmed stories, sometimes from a high-quality CRT (cathode ray tube) and sometimes from a book. Skimming was 41% slower from the CRTs than from the book. Possible reasons for this finding are discussed. Reading speed and comprehension were equivalent for the high-quality CRTs and the book. The paperless office may be imminent after all.
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Two experiments investigated alternatives to split-attention instructional designs. It was assumed that because a learner has a limited working memory capacity, any increase in cognitive resources required to process split-attention materials decreases resources available for learning. Using computer-based instructional material consisting of diagrams and text, Experiment 1 attempted to ameliorate split-attention effects by increasing effective working memory size by presenting the text in auditory form. Auditory presentation of text proved superior to visual-only presentation but not when the text was presented in both auditory and visual forms. In that case, the visual form was redundant and imposed a cognitive load that interfered with learning. Experiment 2 ameliorated split-attention effects by using colour coding to reduce cognitive load inducing search for diagrammatic referents in the text. Mental load rating scales provided evidence in both experiments that alternatives to split-attention instructional designs were effective due to reductions in cognitive load. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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The specific processes that support comprehension and retention of hypertext information and the manner in which those processes differ from those involved in the comprehension and retention of traditional linear text were examined in 4 experiments. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrate that although processing hypertext is not more demanding overall than processing linear text, processing hypertext does make more demands for use of relational information. Experiments 3 and 4 provide tests of the operational assumptions and methods used in the initial two experiments and provide converging evidence to support the notion that hypertext requires a different balance of processing resources than does linear text. Results and directions for research with new information technologies are discussed using the constructs of a limited-capacity working memory and material-appropriate processing.
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Much public concern has centered on possible fatiguing effects of using CRT terminals in one's work. Previous experiments have not carefully distinguished the effects of using a CRT display per se from the effects of the work itself This experiment studies this problem by having people do the same task with a CRT display and with hard copy. Twenty-four participants proofread from a CRT on one day and from hard copy on another day. No change throughout the day in participants' proofreading performance (speed and accuracy), feelings (about the comfort of their eyes, body, mind, and work), or vision (acuity, contrast, and flicker sensitivity, phoria) could be attributed to using CRT terminals. Participants did proofread from hard copy about 20 to 30% faster than from a CRT, however.
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Proof-reading on either a cathode ray tube visual display unit (VDU) of average quality or on conventional paper typescript was carried out for four 50–min sessions, two in each condition. The method of signalling errors in the script was identical in each case: verbally and by line reference. VDU scripts were presented in a standard Wordstar format; paper text was a normal print-out of that script. With the VDU as compared to paper, more proof-reading errors were missed, fewer pages were read, and there was a greater accumulation of fatigue during the reading session as indexed by an increase in the number of errors missed. It is suggested that (i) material be printed for proof-reading, and (ii) the present technique be used for comparison of different VDUs for speed and accuracy of reading and resistance to fatigue.
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Two experiments are reported which compared proof-reading performance across three different modes of presentation. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that proof-reading accuracy was significantly worse on a VDU than on paper, with a photograph of the VDU display producing intermediate performance. It was also demonstrated that substitutions of visually similar errors were harder to detect than other error types. The results of Experiment 2 replicated these findings, but failed to find any difference between twin-column and single-column presentation. The findings are interpreted as indicating that character font may be a major factor in the poor performance with the VDU. It is suggested that the present experimental paradigm could be a useful assessment tool for the evaluation of display design.
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Students viewed a computer-generated animation depicting the process of lightning formation (Experiment 1) or the operation of a car's braking system (Experiment 2). In each experiment, students received either concurrent narration describing the major steps (Group AN) or concurrent on-screen text involving the same words and presentation timing (Group AT). Across both experiments, students in Group AN outperformed students in Group AT in recalling the steps in the process on a retention test, in finding named elements in an illustration on a matching test, and in generating correct solutions to problems on a transfer test. Multimedia learners can integrate words and pictures more easily when the words are presented auditorily rather than visually. This split-attention effect is consistent with a dual-processing model of working memory consisting of separate visual and auditory channels.
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Thirty-two subjects read continuous text for 2 h. Half read from a television screen (video condition) and half read from a book. Subjects experienced little nausea or headache in either condition. A small amount of dizziness, fatigue, and eyestrain was produced by reading, but there no significant differences between the book condition and the video condition on these measures, nor was there a difference in comprehension scores. Video subjects read 28.5% more slowly than book subjects. Possible reasons for this difference are discussed. In the video condition, the presence of proportional horizontal spacing had no effect on reading speed or comprehension. The results suggest that extended reading of continuous text on television screens is certainly feasible.
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Two experiments investigated alternatives to split-attention instructional designs. It was assumed that because a learner has a limited working memory capacity, any increase in cognitive resources required to process split-attention materials decreases resources available for learning. Using computer-based instructional material consisting of diagrams and text, Experiment 1 attempted to ameliorate split-attention effects by increasing effective working memory size by presenting the text in auditory form. Auditory presentation of text proved superior to visual-only presentation but not when the text was presented in both auditory and visual forms. In that case, the visual form was redundant and imposed a cognitive load that interfered with learning. Experiment 2 ameliorated split-attention effects by using colour coding to reduce cognitive load inducing search for diagrammatic referents in the text. Mental load rating scales provided evidence in both experiments that alternatives to split-attention instructional designs were effective due to reductions in cognitive load. Copyright
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Describes how rauding theory uses the reading level and rate level to determine (1) the processes involved in 1 sec of reading, (2) the percentage of comprehension that occurs during 1 min of reading, and (3) the gain in achievement that occurs during 1 yr of reading. Background information on the theoretical framework underlying rauding theory is presented, and the way in which the 3 laws and 2 equations of rauding theory allow a precise prediction of the accuracy of text comprehension is described. A model using 4 causal echelons is also presented that includes the primary factors that cause high and low reading achievement during 1 yr. Finally, theory and research relevant to normal and disabled reading for 1 sec, 1 min, and 1 yr is unified via the constructs of reading level and rate level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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When writing in a word processor, it is difficult to achieve a global perspective of a long text. For many writers, this creates a conflict with the strategies of on-screen drafting and revision encouraged by the medium. The lack of a global perspective may lead to an insufficient mental representation of the text, and a difficulty in achieving text coherence. This paper reports recent research directed at global aspects of writing, and suggests some distinctions between different types of global view of a document that may be helpful in the design of a computer-based writing system.
Conference Paper
This paper presents a review of empirical research on the cognitive processing of nonlinear documents, with the purpose of understanding when and how hypertext presentation might facilitate text comprehension and learning activities. Empirical studies conducted so far have used various methods, and foeused on a wide range of populations, types of documents, and reading or learning tasks. Alkhough hypertext is generally associated with information networks, a few interesting studies ad&ess the issues of computer assistance to linear text comprehension. A second group of studies investigate the use of nonlinear documents for general learning purposes. Although these studies are mainly concerned with linear-nonlinear comparisons, some of them address the effects of different design options. Finally,, a third group of studies compare information retrieval in linear versus nonlinear documents. Overall, there is no consistent evidence for the advantage of hypertext over linear presentation formats. Instead, the efficiency of nonlinear documents varies aeeording to (a) subjects' expertise (b) interface features and (c) task requirements. In an attempt to provide an interpretative framework for these empirical findings, the notion of cognitive monitoring is briefly outlined. I conclude with a few implications for future hypertext reseamh.
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Experiment 1 compared paragraph comprehension for texts shown either as normal pages on a computer terminal screen or as rapid serial visual presentations (RSVPs) of small text segments to a common location. Over several days of practice, reading comprehension was equivalent in the normal presentation mode and the RSVP format. When successive RSVP segments contained some information in common, to mimic the experience of successive parafoveal and foveal views of words in normal reading, comprehension was somewhat worse than when successive segments contained no overlapping information. Experiment 2 used a variety of segment size and segment duration combinations to investigate the optimal means of presenting text in the RSVP format. Across a variety of presentation rates and text difficulties, comprehension was maximal for segments averaging about 12 character spaces in length. In Experiment 3, texts were divided into short idea units or into random segments of equal average length. Comprehension was shown to be greater in the structured condition than in the random condition. An optimal means of presenting text in the RSVP format could be superior to normal presentation methods for reading and other text-processing tasks.
Article
The extent of electronic presentation of text in small display windows is mushrooming. In the present paper, 4 ways of presenting text in a small display window were examined and compared with a normal page condition: rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP), RSVP with a completion meter, sentence-by-sentence presentation, and sentence-by-sentence presentation with a completion meter. Dependent measures were reading efficiency (speed and comprehension) and preference. For designers of hardware or software with small display windows, the results suggest the following: (a) Though RSVP is disliked by readers, the present methods of allowing self-pacing and regressions in RSVP are efficient and feasible, unlike earlier tested methods; (b) slower reading in RSVP should be achieved by increasing pauses between sentences or by repeating sentences, not by decreasing the presentation rate within a sentence; (c) completion meters do not interfere with performance and are usually preferred; (d) the space-saving sentence-by-sentence format is as efficient and as preferred as the normal page format.
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Psychology Department, 120 University Avenue, Room 603
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