Asian Male Domestic Violence Victims: Services Exclusive for Men

Abstract

The main reasons abused men do not seek social services include their strong endorsement of social/cultural values and avoidance
of gender role conflict. Through internet-based service connections, we did not find sources in Asia, Australia, or New Zealand
that advertised programs exclusively for male victims of domestic violence (DV). Nine social services in Hong Kong and Singapore
describe their work with men in DV situations, but the main focus is “men as perpetrators.” Targeting men as victims, 32 sources
in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom describe services designed especially for male DV victims. Findings demonstrate
that services for male victims must address such factors as secretiveness, cultural values, masculine identity, tolerance,
shame, and loss of face.

Full text

ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Asian Male Domestic Violence Victims: Services Exclusive
for Men
Monit Cheung & Patrick Leung & Venus Tsui
Published online: 19 May 2009
#
Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009
Abstract The main reasons abused men do not seek social
services include their strong endorsement of social/cultural
values and avoidance of gender role conflict. Through
internet-based service connections, we did not find sources
in Asia, Australia, or New Zealand that advertised programs
exclusively for male victims of domestic violence (DV).
Nine social services in Hong Kong and Singapore describe
their work with men in DV situations, but the main focus is
“men as perpetrators.” Targeting men as victims, 32 sources
in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom
describe services designed especially for male DV victims.
Findings demonstrate that services for male victim s must
address such factors as secretiveness, cultural values,
masculine identity, tolerance, shame, and loss of face.
Keywords Spouse abuse
.
Male abuse victims
.
Abused men
.
Hong Kong
.
Singapore
.
Australia
.
New Zealand
.
Canada
.
United Kingdom
.
United States
.
Internet services
.
Asian men
.
Help seeking behavior
.
Losing face
.
Masculine identity
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Preven-
tion (2006), “Intimate partner violence (IPV) is abuse
between two people in a close relationship…[including]
current and former spouse s and dating partners” (p.1). In
general, domestic violence (DV) and IPV are interchange-
ably used although DV can involve more than two person s
in conflict such as spouses and their children. According to
American Psychological Association (2001), DV is “an
ongoing pattern of behavior, attitudes, and beliefs in which
a partner in an intimate relationship attempts to maintain
power and control over the other through the use of
psychological, physical, and/or sexual coercion” (p. 3).
Control and power are forcefully obtained through physical
abuse, sexual abuse and exploitation, emotional abuse,
economic or financial abuse, and spiritual abu se, and a
person may be subjected to more than one form of abuse.
DV affects people of all ages and both genders. A
number of studies reveal that both males and females
reportedly experience direct aggression in interaction with
intimate partners (Archer 2000, 2002;Gelles1999;
Richardson 2005). Based on the annual projection from
the results of National Viole nce Against Women Survey,
1.5 million women and 835,000 men are victims of
physical violence by their intimate partners (Tjaden and
Thoennes 1998). Brown (2004) found four times more
female victims (81%) than male victims (19%) in partner
violence reported to police.
Although DV statistics on Asians are not readily
available, three studies indicate that males are the hidden
victims. In a study focused on family violence, Yoshioka et
al. (2000) found that 15% of the Vietnamese American
respondents saw their mother regularly hit their father. Kim
and Emery ( 2003) found that marital violence among
Korean couples is correlated with power and conflict, and
their study with 1,500 participants indicated that wife to
husband abuse was 12% for minor violence and 2.8% for
severe violence. Baba and Murray (2003) surveyed 131
Vietnamese students at a U.S. college and found that 26%
of their mothers physically abused their fathers at least
J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462
DOI 10.1007/s10896-009-9240-9
M. Cheung (*)
:
P. Leung
:
V. Tsui
University of Houston,
Houston, TX 77204-4013, USA
e-mail: mcheung@uh.edu
P. Leung
e-mail: pleung@uh.edu
V. Tsui
e-mail: sftsui@uh.edu

once. The male-victim findings revealed that Asian male
victims are well-hidden and that Asian men are not always
the perpetrators. Since men typically do not report their
victimization, little is known about the needs of this
understudied population.
This paper focuses on exploring the phenomena of men’s
help-seeking behavior, in general and among Asian men,
analyzing from literature the reasons why male victims do not
come forward, as well as describing the method and findings
of an internet-based study that searched the availability of
services with a focus on addressing male victims’ needs.
Implications for practice and research will be discussed.
Men Not Seeking Help: In General
Gender difference in help-seeking behavior is a growing
concern. Research has shown that men are less likely than
women to seek help for a variety of psychological
difficulties and medical attention (Commonwealth Fund
1998; Tudiver and Talbot 1999). In a study with four focus
groups of 18 participants (12 men and 6 women) who were
family physicians in active practice, perceived vulnerability,
fear, and denial are important factors that influence men’s
decision not to seek help (Tudiver and Talbot 199 9 ).
According to George (1994), men are viewed as unaccept-
able victims of marital violence and the concept of the
male victim is a great taboo. When men report abuse
incidents, they are typically treated with blatant discrim-
ination and harsh comments, such as “Look at the size of
you! Maybe she was just defending herself” (Male Victims as
Domestic Violence 2007). An internet-based organization,
Respecting Accuracy in Domestic Abuse Reporting (RA-
DAR 2006), issued a special report about domestic abuse
and described how men who seek help are ignored, ridiculed,
and even accused of being the initiator of the crime. In a
study of open-ended interviews with five male Marines
about their experiences with violence in their homes, male
victims do not view abuse in the same way as their female
counterparts, and often deny that they are involved in an
abusive relationship, which reinforces abusive patterns
(Davis 2004). Social stigmatization and men’sdenialof
being victims are among the many reasons explaining why
men are less inclined to seek help than women.
Some studies a rgued that not all men are equally
unwilling to seek help. A study on personal crises found that
European American men are more receptive than African
American men toward help-seeking (Neighbors et al. 1998).
In another study, middle-class men are more likely than
lower income and working class men to seek help (Hodgetts
and Chamberlain 2002). Although not gender specific,
Asian Americans and Asian immigrants have increased
resistance to professional assistance (Shin 2002).
Men Not Seeking Help: Asian Men
Many studies have recognized the importance of culture in
understanding ethnic minorities (Lane and Addis 2005; Liu
and Iwamoto 2006;Yu2005). Exploration of Asian cultural
values is an effective way to know more about Asian men.
In general, Asian cultural values consist of avoidance of
shame, collectivism, conformity to no rms, deference to
authority, emotional self-control, family recognition through
achievement, filial piety, humility, and compliance based on
hierarchical relationships (Kim et al. 2001; Kim et al. 1999).
Research has suggested that Asian cultural values may
shape masculinity for Asian American men. A study of 559
college students, who self-iden tified themselves as Chinese,
Japanese, or White/European, revealed that US-born and
immigrant Asian men viewed their masculinity as distinct
from White hegemonic masculinity (Chua and Fujino
1999). In Chua and Fujino’s study, Asian American men
characterized masculinity as being polite, obedient and caring,
which indicates that Asian Americans’ standards for mascu-
linity are still shaped heavily by Asian traditional norms.
Reasons for Male Victims Not Coming Forward
Asian cultural values and norms, such as avoidance of
shame and emotional self-control, also directly influence
men’s behavior. According to Ho (1976), face is lost when
a man fails to meet the essential requirements placed on the
man’s position to perform his masculine roles. Since the
concepts of shame and face are closely related, Chan (2006)
stresses the use of face as a concept to understand men’s
feeling and behavioral responses because spousal conflict in
Chinese culture is considered face-losing (Chan 2006).
Rentoul and Appleboom (1997) revealed that when male
victims seek help, the most pervasive themes are related to
their problems in reconciling their masculine identity with
their experience of being abuse victims. Through story
telling that can conceal their identities, many men are then
willing to share their sufferings from physical, fiscal, and
emotional abuse (Equal Justice Foundation 2006). Contrary
to the stereotypical image of the “tough macho man,” male
victims discl ose feelings of shame, disgrace, emotional
loss, a nd humiliation, any one of which w ould have
prevented abused men from speaking out (Jill 2002, 2006).
Men who experience greater gender role conflict tend to
have higher resistant attitudes towards seeking professional
help. Rigid adherence to male gender roles and masculine
expectations can result in gender role restriction and
conflict toward self (O'Neil et al. 1986). A study of 401
male undergraduates found that adherence to the traditional
male gender role, such as not expressing emotions or affection
toward other men, was negatively related to professional help-
448 J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462

seeking behavior (Good et al. 1989). In addition to supporting
this premise, Osborne (2004) also found that the availability
of social support, situational distress, and acceptance of
vulnerability were significant predictors for at least one form
of help-seeking; namely, advice/guidance, practical assis-
tance, companionship, and emotional support.
Another study of why men do not seek help further
identifies some personal barriers related to a man’s traditional
social role characteristics, including 1) a sense of immunity
and immortality, 2) difficulty relinquishing control, and 3) a
belief that seeking help is unacceptable and men are not
interested in prevention (Tudiver and Talbot 1999). Focusing
on results from 192 Asian American men, Liu and Iwamoto
(2006) found that endorsement of Asian cultural values is
related to higher scores on gender role conflict. These studies
and related research on domestic violence consistently
suggest that Asian men’s adherence to traditional cultural
values is related to their unwillingness in help-seeking.
Although there is a dearth of studies on partner abuse
against Asian men in domes tic violence literature, it can be
extrapolated that when men are assaulted by their partners,
Asian men’s unique psychology, personal barriers, and
traditional cultural values greatly affect or even jeopardize
their help-seeking decision. Despite the underreporting of
abuse of men and underutilization of services by male
victims, men do need help. Because of their resistance to
step forward, there is a defin ite need to have specialized
services designed solely for male victims. However, limited
research has been conducted on examining the service
needs of male victims and the existing service provisions.
The purpose of this paper explores the service availability
and charact eristics of existing services for male domestic
violence victims in countries where Asian men are living. It
is hoped that through this information more research will be
conducted on men as domestic abuse victims and service
providers will learn culturally sensitive ways to meet the
needs of ethnic minorities, especially the Asian male victims,
who are not immune to domestic violence.
Method
In order to attain an updated and timely profile of service
provisions and characteristics for Asian male domes tic
violence victims, the authors utilized an internet search to
conduct the investigation. In 2007–08, the authors accessed
different websites via google.com and yahoo.com to target
Asian male victim services. We took two steps to ensure
that we did not miss possibly important websites and
services for men: 1) general and specific keywords were
used with different combinations of word entries: spousal/
domestic violence/abuse, man/male victims, battered man/
husband, and services /programs/ projects for male victims/
men, and men’s mental health; and 2) all three researchers
separately searched the internet to cross-check whether we
missed any relevant websites. We first focused on Asian
countries and found no service or program exclusively
publicized for male victims. There were nine domestic
violence programs implemented by the government and
NGO’s in Hong Kong and Singapore. However, the
announcements show that no services are solely designed
for men as domestic violence victims.
Since Asians also live in many other countries, we
decided to go beyond Asian countr ies and search other parts
of the world. We first searched websites from Australia and
New Zealand because many Asians migrated to these
countries that are located in the Pacific Rim region. Although
we found nine social services pertaining content on domestic
violence, these services mainly serve men as perpetrators or
men experienced general crises. We were disappointed that
none of the DV social services publicized through the
internet are designed exclusively for male victims.
Finally, we expanded our search to other websites in the
world. Beyond keyword searches, government websites
also provided links to information such as official national
data and welfare services of related departments. This
search was then followed up by clicking the related link to
reach expected services/programs. To illustrate this process
with an example, we first used one of search engines
(google.com) and typed the word “male domestic violence
victims,” then clicked related websites, e.g., “MenWeb-
domestic violence. 835,000 battered men each year,
silent…”; and then clicked into the website “http://ww.
batteredmen.com” and scrolled down to the bottom to
double click the program “SAFE” to get to “http://www.
safe4all.org/”; by clicking “682 resource list” on the left
column, we found a resource list under the website “http://
www.safe4all.org/resource-list/”; and lastly we selected
services that led to their home websites and then reported
the findings on a summary chart. This process continued
until all the relevant resources were exhausted.
Results
While thousands of agencies and units from governm ental
and non-governmental organizations are currently provid-
ing a broad range of services and programs for female
domestic violence victims and their children, no services
were found exclusively for male victims of domestic
violence in Asia. This internet search showed that no
services were found for male victims in China, India, and
Japan. In Japan, it was not until 1992 that the term domestic
violence was introduced (Tsunoda 1997). In South Korea,
no unique services for male victims could be found;
programs are available to prevent sexual abuse or domestic
J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462 449

Table 1 Services for male domestic violence victims in Asian countries
Country Organization/ Program Service Descriptions Service Targets
China No available services can be found.
Hong Kong Caritas-Hong Kong Family Service Men’s Hotline: 2649 1100 (Wednesday: 2:00 pm-5:00 pm) Men
http://family.caritas.org.hk/ser/hotline.html
Hong Kong Christian Family Services Center Men’s Hotline: 2787 1355 (Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday:
10:00 am-10:00 pm)
Men who are disturbed
by domestic violence
Men’s Growth Group
http://www.cfsc.org.hk/service/serv1/serv1c.php
Hong Kong Family Welfare Society -
“Alternatives to Violence Project”
Originated from the Quakers in 1975 and has been adopted by
26 countries, it is a movement advocating anger management
in a peaceful way. In 2002, the Society is the first agency to
bring the Project to Hong Kong from overseas in view of
increased family violence. It offers experiential workshops to
empower individuals to transform violence in a peaceful way
and build a peaceful community.
Aged 21 and above
(male and female)
http://www.avphk.org/index.php
Hong Kong Harmony House - Third Path
Man’s Services:
It aims to end DV with men as perpetrators Male perpetrators
Hotline: 2295 1386 (Monday, Wednesday, Friday: 2:00 pm-10:00 pm)
http://www.harmonyhousehk.org/eng/serviceimage/service7_eng.htm
Hong Kong Po Leung Kuk Men's Hotline: 2890 1830 Men in DV situations
Men are encouraged to use this hotline service and avoid violence if
they are upset by problems regarding marriage, family, financial
problem, work and interpersonal relationship, and courtship, etc. [24 hours]
http://www.poleungkuk.org.hk/plk/index.aspx?lang=t&id=20060809125111
Hong Kong Social Welfare Department (SWD) In Hong Kong, a wide range of welfare services for victims of child abuse,
spouse battering and sexual violence are provided by the Social Welfare
Department (SWD), subsidized and non-subsidized non-governmental
organizations (NGOs).
Victims of child abuse,
spouse battering and
sexual violence
-Support for Victims of Child Abuse,
Spouse Battering and Sexual Violence
i)
The Family and Child Protective Services Units (FCPSUs) of SWD: One-stop
services include outreaching, social investigation, crisis intervention, statutory
protection, intensive individual and group treatment to victims of child abuse
and spouse battering, batterers and their family members. Referrals for various
services e.g. legal aid, school placement, residential placement etc. will also be
made whenever necessary.
ii)
Integrated Family Service Centers (IFSC)/Integrated Services Centers (ISC) run by
NGOs: Provide counseling and tangible assistance to help victims of child abuse,
spouse battering and their family members. For victims of sexual violence, social
workers of IFSCs/ISCs from both SWD and NGOs provide counseling services,
crisis intervention, therapeutic and supportive groups, escort for report to the Police,
if needed, and arrange referrals for other services including clinical psychological
service, financial assistance, legal service, schooling arrangement, job placement,
housing assistance (e.g. compassionate rehousing, conditional tenancy) and other
community resources.
450 J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462

Table 1 (continued)
Country Organization/ Program Service Descriptions Service Targets
iii)
Medical social services: Provide counseling, tangible services and arrange referrals
for rehabilitation, community services and so forth to help the victims of child
abuse, spouse battering and sexual violence cases and their family members.
iv)
Clinical psychological Services (from SWD / NGOs / and some hospitals): Provide
assessment and treatment services to abusers and victims of domestic and other
sexual violence if they present symptoms of psychopathology.
v)
Witness Support Program: In strengthening support to the abused children serving
as witnesses in criminal proceedings, support persons would be arranged through
the Witness Support Program, set up jointly by SWD and the Police, to accompany
the abused children who have to testify in the court proceedings through a live
television link system. This program is also available to the mentally incapacitated
persons
vi)
Four Refuge Centers: Provide temporary accommodation and supportive services to
women and their children who are facing domestic violence or family crisis
(including Wai On Home for Women, Harmony House, Serene Court and Sunrise
Court. Refuge centers), admissions on a 24-hour basis
vii)
The Family Crisis Support Center (FCSC) operated by the Caritas-Hong Kong provides
time-out facility and an integrated package of services in helping people under extreme
stress or facing crisis to manage their emotions and seek positive solution to family
problems, including domestic violence
viii)
Two Pilot projects of Batterer Intervention Program (operated by the Hong Kong Family
Welfare Society and SWD): Develop a systematic and localized group intervention
model to meet the needs of batterers of domestic violence, launched in March 2006 and
completed by March of 2008
ix) Hotline Service: Provide information on social welfare services and immediate support to
victims of domestic and sexual violence (including child abuse). The hotlines which are
operated by social workers or volunteers, or through the interactive voice processing
system include: SWD Hotline : 2343 2255 [24 hours]
x) Family Crisis Support Center : 18 288 [24 hours]
xi) Mutual Aid — HKCSS Helpline (through IVPS) : 1878668 [24 hours]
xii) Crisis Intervention Team on Family Violence (CIT): The crisis intervention team
has been set up in A&E Department of Tuen Mun Hospital, United Christian
Hospital and Tseung Kwan O Hospital to render immediate crisis intervention
and support to battered spouse cases.
xiii) Men’s Health Program: Use an internet program to encourage men to answer questions
regarding their concerns about health and issues including domestic violence.
http://www.hkmenshealth.com/eng/relationship/index.aspx
http://www.swd.gov.hk/vs/english/welfare.html
Hong Kong SWD & Tung Wah Group
of Hospitals: CEASE Crisis
Center 24-hour Hotline: 18281
It provides the following services: 24-crisis intervention service; coordination with the
concerned departments/agencies to facilitate the victim to go through the procedures,
if necessary; provision of support and company to the victims and their families
throughout the process; referrals to other necessary services, e.g. psychological treatment,
Domestic violence victims
including children,
women, men and elderly
J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462 451

Table 1 (continued)
Country Organization/ Program Service Descriptions Service Targets
financial assistance and temporary accommodation (80 beds by 2008 will be provided for
victims of domestic violence); and case consultation to frontline professionals handling
sexual violence cases.
ceasecrisis@tungwahcsd.org
http://www.swd.gov.hk/en/index/site_pubsvc/page_family/sub_listofserv/id_sersexviolvic/
India No available services can be found.
Japan No available services can be found
Singapore Singapore Government 1) Family Violence Networking System: It is collaboration between government and
non-government agencies to deal with family violence cases. The system helps ensure that
victims receive the appropriate and timely help and advice for their safety and protection.
It links police, hospitals, social service agencies, the courts, prisons and Ministry of
Community Development, Youth and Sports (MCYS) in a web of assistance for victims
and perpetrators of family violence. A victim of family violence can approach any one
these agencies and appropriate services will be rendered to the person. This means that there
are many contact points for the victims and their families to seek help.
Victims and perpetrators
of family violence
2) Family Protection and Welfare: Mandatory Counseling Program: A Counseling Order
(Section 65 of the Women's Charter) is usually made when the Family Court issues a
Personal Protection Order. It is an order for those involved in family violence
to attend a compulsory counseling program. MCYS works closely with social
service agencies in providing counseling services to these cases.
http://app.mcys.gov.sg/web/faml_supfaml_familyprotection.asp#1
Singapore Family Service Centers
(FSCs)-Family Violence
Programs
Along with the Family Court, police, hospitals and crisis shelters, the FSC is one of
the entry points into the network of help and support for people who experience
family violence. FSCs provide a range of professional services and practical assistance,
which include the following:
Abuser and abused of DV
as well as the children
who witnessed violence
Legal advice and referrals to the Family Court
Referrals to crisis shelters, if necessary
Counseling, Groupwork and Support Groups for:
- Those who experienced violence
- Those who used violence
- Children who witnessed violence
http://app.mcys.gov.sg/web/faml_supfaml_familyservicesctr.asp#2
S. Korea Ministry of Gender
Equality and Family
Programs for the prevention of sexual abuse/domestic violence and for the protection of
victims include ‘enforcing victim protection’ and ‘prevention plan. ’ A 24-hour national
women’s hotline ‘1366’ service for victims to call in case of emergency and to report incidents
has been made available. Interpretation service for foreign sex trafficking and sexual assault
victims has been provided. In addition, counseling centers and shelters have been established
to offer legal, medical and vocational training services. The shelters to house family-level
domestic violence victims are under expansion as well. Prevention plans that focus on increasing
awareness and preventing violence are also executed. Domestic violence offender treatment and
behavioral correction therapy programs are being developed and applied to prevent the recurrence
of violence.
Women and all victims
452 J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462

violence for protectin g female victims and their children.
(Table 1)
Based on these internet sources in Asia, we found three
hotlines that provide services for men in domestic violence,
but these hotlines do not solely target men as victims.
Generally, most specified services focus on helping men to
find ways to avoid violence. For instance, according to Po
Leung Kuk Men’s Hotline in Hong Kong, men are
encouraged to use the hotline to avoid using violence when
faced by problems with marriage, family, financial condi-
tion, work, interpersonal relationships, and courtship issues.
Another example is “ Alternatives to Violence Project”
offered by the Family Welfare Society in Hong Kong,
which aims to empower men to transform violence
peacefully. In Singapore , services are offered by the
government, in collaboration with NGO’s, to help DV
victims of both genders as well as their children. These
findings indicate that Hong Kong and Singapore have
developed a system accessible through the internet, mainly
for female victims of spouse abuse.
Further investigation reached services in Australia and
New Zealand for males in cris is or men inflicted and at risk
of family violence. “Mensline Australia” uses teleconfer-
encing technology to support mal e callers individually, as
well as in groups, and its “Mensline’s Online Counseling
Service” helps men as victims or perpetrators. “Service
Assisting Male Survivors of Sexual Assault” clearly targets
male survivors of sexual assault and child sexual abuse,
which mig ht implicitly include mal e DV victims although it
was not the focus. Also in Australia, “Commissioner for
Victims’ Rights, South Australia” helps victims of both
genders. The “No To Violence” in Australia and “Man
Alive” in New Zealand are programs that encourage men to
take responsibility for their violence and assist them to
change and end their violent behaviors. Again, most services
focused on working with men as perpetrators. (Table 2)
In the third search, possibly due to the use of English as
the medium, we found websites from Can ada, the United
Kingdom, and the United States. Knowing many Asians are
also residing in these countries, we went ahead with further
analysis. We found 32 male-focused non-duplicated sources
with a home website describing domestic violence, includ-
ing five in Canada, eight in the United Kingdom (UK), and
19 in the United States of America (USA). None of these
websites specify Asian populations as their target clientele.
Among these websites, five characteristics of their male
victims’ services stand out.
First, about half of these service agencies or programs
have provided hotline services with most of them running
on a 24-hour basis . For instance, “Domestic Abuse Helpline
for Men” offers a nationwide hotline in the USA for all
victims of domestic violence, with a particular focus on
battered men and same sex victims. Programs in Canada
Table 1 (continued)
Country Organization/ Program Service Descriptions Service Targets
http://english.mogef.go.kr/index.html
S. Korea Seoul Women's Hotline The SWHL was founded in 1983 to eliminate wife abuse, and it is one of the leading
non-governmental organizations for women's human rights in Korea.
Abused wife
http://www.womanrights.org/eng/aboutus.php
Affiliates: Domestic
Violence Counseling
Center
The Domestic Violence Counseling Office provides counseling to the victims of domestic violence,
and provides them with medical and legal support. To keep homes violence free, it trains future
counselors on domestic violence and holds various kinds of campaigns and forums.
Victims of domestic
violence
* Counseling: 82-2-2263-6464
Seoul Sexual Assault
Counseling Center
The Seoul Sexual Assault Counseling Center provides counseling, medical and legal support to the
victims of rape and sexual harassment. In order to create equal and healthy values on sex and
culture, the center trains sex education instructors and organizes sex education projects.
Victims of rape and
sexual harassment
* Counseling: 82-2-2263-6465
Temporary Protection
Facility, "Shimteo"
The SWHL operates a "Shimteo", temporary protection facility, to provide the victims of domestic
violence and sexual assault with a place to stay, and offers not only psychological treatment
through individual, group counseling and various group activities but also legal and medical support.
Victims of domestic
violence and sexual
assault
Inquiry: 82-2-2272-2161
J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462 453

Table 2 Services for male domestic violence victims in Australia & New Zealand
Country Organization/ Program Service Descriptions Service Targets
Australia Mensline Australia It responds to callers in a variety of ways: For men with relationship
and family concerns1. Helpline service - Standard Call — an immediate, single-session discussion and support
- Call Back Support Service — short to medium term follow-up coaching
and support, initiated by the service to the caller after the initial contact call
- Peer Education Telegroups — small groups of men from anywhere in the
country engaged in a facilitated discussion on a relevant topic using
teleconferencing technology.
- Assisted Referrals — Referring services or agencies who have established
protocols with -Mensline Australia can assist their clients to link directly
with the Mensline service via a real-time warm-link transfer or email.
- Dedicated Industry Lines — Mensline Australia can provide customized
telephone counseling services to support male employees.
http://www.menslineaus.org.au/HelpLine.aspx
2. Mensline's Online
Counseling Service
This service is currently in development. Expected delivery date: October 2008
http://www.menslineaus.org.au/OnlineCounsel.aspx
Australia No To Violence (NTV), the
Male Family Violence Prevention
Association Inc.
NTV is a peak organization of individuals and agencies working for the
prevention of male family violence. The specific focus is work with men
to assist them to change and end their violent behavior.
Men inflicted and at risk
of family violence
Activities undertaken by NTV include:
•Provision of telephone, counseling, information and referral service for men
wishing to change and end their use of violence towards family members
• Support and development of men's behavior change programs
• Development and provision of training, resources and information
• Data development and analysis
• Education and information provision
• Provision and Support of research
• Contribution to policy development
• Service sector advocacy and leadership.
http://www.ntv.org.au
Australia Commissioner for Victims’
Rights, South Australia
Domestic violence hotline: 1-800-80-00-98 (24/7) Men and women DV victims
This is a domestic (family) violence helpline for anyone, male or female, who
would like to speak to a person who understands domestic (family) violence.
This service is available Statewide.
http://www.voc.sa.gov.au/Information/Who_can_help/Support_services/Support_
services_SA.asp
Australia Department for Community
Development: The Men's
Domestic Violence Helpline
The Men's Domestic Violence Helpline is a free telephone information, referral
and counseling service for men to help them change their violent behavior
towards female partners.
Men as perpetrators
Ph. 9223 1199 or 1800 000 599 (24 hours)
http://www.dvirc.org.au/ServicesHub/ServicesIndex.htm
Australia The Lone Fathers Association
(Australia) Inc. (LFAA)
The LFAA conducted for some years a men’s and children’s crisis and
accommodation service in the ACT for homeless men and their children.
Lone fathers and
their children
454 J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462

Table 2 (continued)
Country Organization/ Program Service Descriptions Service Targets
The MAACS (Men's Accommodation and Crisis Service), based in Canberra,
provides short term crisis accommodation (up to 21 days) as well as
information and referral services for men and their children who are in a
marriage or relationship breakdown situation.
http://www.lonefathers.com.au/
(02) 6241 0433 6255 0970 or 6258 4216 (After Hours)
Australia The Men's Phone-Line (Sydney) The Aims of the Men's Phone-Line are: Men in crisis
- to provide telephone information & support for men; acknowledging that
men can feel more comfortable initially discussing sensitive issues with
another man. And,
- to assist new & existing services to identify themselves to men in need. And,
- to provide phone-line inquiry-based research into men's needs.
Phone: 02-99799909
http://www.gelworks.com.au/mpl/MPL.HTM
Australia Murringu Men's Center Information and services for men, including one to one counseling; a senior
men’s group meeting fortnightly; programs on anger management, grief and
loss support; and on-going confidential peer support groups.
Men in crisis
Phone: (03) 9428 2899
Email: vnet@vicnet.net.au
http://www.safe4all.org/resource-list/view/10241
Australia Service Assisting Male
Survivors of Sexual
Assault (SAMSSA)
SAMSSA: Male survivors
of sexual assault
and child sexual abuse
- provides support to men recovering from sexual assault and child sexual abuse;
- provides education and information services about male sexual assault issues
to the community;
- assists men who seek to eradicate sexual violence against men, women
and children.
- is inclusive and accepting of all men who seek assistance in their recovery.
24-hour Hotline: 02 6247 2525
http://www.apex.net.au/~samssa/
New Zealand Man Alive Living Without Violence and Te Ara Taumata Ora programs run by Man Alive
will not blame, shame or judge men. Men will be encouraged to take
responsibility for their violence and understand there is no excuse for abuse.
Men and boys in crisis
Man Alive's point of difference from other non-violence programs is that they
are run by men, for men. [Counseling for men by men]
In mid 2006, their services expand to include:
- Men's change and support group
- Counseling and Group Support for Sexually Abused Men
- The Respect program
- Family & couple counseling
http://www.manalive.org.nz/nonviolence.htm
J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462 455

Table 3 Services for male domestic violence victims in Canada, UK and USA
Country Organization / Program Service Descriptions Service Targets
Canada Men’s Alternative
Safe House (MASH Project)
Works towards providing men and fathers with children an opportunity
to remove themselves from a potentially explosive domestic situation. The
fulfillment of its goal to provide beds for these people in need is imminent
Men victims
Operates a telephone crisis line, shelter, and support for
people wanting support and information for abused man
http://www.mash4077.ca
Canada Ontario Association
of Male Survivor
Services (OAMSS)
Provides victim services and treatment programs with
critical information, networking, and training.
Men victims
http://www.malesurvivor.on.ca
Canada Ottawa Men’s Center A dedicated support group whose primary goal is to stem the trend of
suicide by fathers. It provides divorce resources, impartial attorney
referrals and support for men or fathers who are victims of false allegations,
parental alienation and or gender bias.
Men or fathers in crisis
http://www.OttawaMensCentre.com
Canada The Family of Men
Support Society
It aims to stop the cycle of violence and abuse. The society is for men who
want to remove themselves from a potentially explosive domestic situation
with dignity. It provides a positive form of intervention and help before
anyone is hurt and before children experience violence. It educates all
persons that family violence and abuse are non-gender issues and to
elevate the cries of men to the same level of women and children.
Men victims in domestic violence
Hotline: 403-242-4077
http://www.familyofmen.com/
Canada The Victoria Men’s Center As the physical representation of a supportive men's network, it is a place
for men to gain support, companionship, and a place to share concerns
and experiences in a spirit of brotherhood.
Men victims
http://victoria.tc.ca/Community/MensCentre/
UK It Does Happen 2 Men Offers Advice Line and SMS based support for battered
men (07800 647 379).
Battered men
Founder: Mike Kenny
http://www.bbc.co.uk/tees/content/articles/2004/09/10/it_does_happen_to_men_
feature.shtml
UK Men Cry Too Provides an invaluable resource on male victim of domestic violence, such
as information, facts, myths, and coping methods.
Male victims of sexual
and domestic violence
http://www.mencrytoo.homestead.com/index.html
There is a hotline especially designed for male victims of sexual and domestic
violence, which provides opportunities for men to talk in confidence and
anonymously. Victim Support’s Male Helpline: 0800-328-3623
http://www.mencrytoo.homestead.com/Links.html
UK Men’s Advice Line &
Enquiries (M.A.L.E.)
Offers a range of support, information & counseling services to
men who are experiencing or have experienced domestic violence
and abuse from intimate partners.
Men experienced domestic violence
Provides a telephone advice line for a minimum of 28 hours per
week; face to face outreach work and to liaise with other relevant
service providers from the statutory and voluntary sectors.
456 J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462

Table 3 (continued)
Country Organization / Program Service Descriptions Service Targets
Hotline: 0808-801-0327
http://www.mensadviceline.org.uK
UK Montgomeryshire
Family Crisis Center
The first refuge for male was opened in Wales in south-west England,
will shelter men and their children who have been physically or
emotionally abused by a female partner.
Abused men and their children /
all victim of domestic violence
Its program, Men Experience Domestic Abuse, provides a confidential
24 hour help line every day of the year for individuals who have
experienced, or are experiencing, domestic violence. Help Line:
01686-610391
http://www.familycrisis.co.uk/safehouses_male.shtml
UK Men’s Aid Aims to help and support all men suffering any form of abuse or
discrimination. It is run and supported by a group of concerned
parents and professionals.
Men suffering from abuse/ discrimination
Provides national support throughout the UK for male victims of
domestic violence, their children, family, friends and colleagues.
Advice Line: 0871-223-9986 (8am-8pm; 7 days a week)
http://www.mensaid.com/about_us/
UK Survivors UK Provides a telephone helpline with staff who are specialized in male
abuse. The helpline is Helpline: 0845-122-1201(Mondays, Tuesdays
and Thursdays from 7pm to 10pm)
Male victims of domestic abuse
www.survivorsuk.org
UK The Mankind Initiative National Domestic Abuse helpline for men and their children (01823-334244). Men and their children of domestic abuse
www.mankind.org.uk
UK Warwickshire County Council Warwickshire Domestic Abuse Referral Line Provides the opportunity
to talk through abuse experiences and help to determine what options
are available (0845-234-0822)
Male victims of domestic abuse
The Council’s webpage also lists resources available for male victims in
Warwickshire and the UK.
http://www.talk2someone.org.uk
Victims Support: 0845-130-9551
USA Alternative Horizons (Colorado) Services include 24-hour crisis hotline, court advocacy, support
groups, Latino outreach, legal project and community education
Abused gay/bisexual, transgender men
Hotline: 970-247-4374 (Individuals with disabilities, individuals
in gay/lesbian relationships, individuals
who do not speak English)
http://www.alternativehorizons.org/
USA Crisis Connection Men’s Line: Counselors available to help men with domestic
violence/abuse calls, custody and legal referral calls
(612)379-6367 (612-379-MENS).
Abused men
http://www.crisis.org/aboutmain.html
USA Domestic Abuse Helpline
for Men (Nationwide)
Offers a nationwide hotline for all victims of domestic violence. All victims of domestic
violence (also with a
focus on men)
Services are particularly sensitive to the plight of those who
traditionally have not been believed when they call, such as
battered men and same sex victims.
J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462 457

Table 3 (continued)
Country Organization / Program Service Descriptions Service Targets
Hotline number: Toll Free 1-888-7 Helpline (or 207-683-5758)
http://www.dahmw.org/
USA Domestic Abuse Shelter
Homes (Florida)
Provides support, referral and transitional housing to victims of
domestic abuse and their families (men, women, children and
teens) in Sarasota and Charlotte Counties.
Male victims as well
as their families
http://www.safe4all.org/resource-list/view/13390
USA Equal Justice Foundation It sets up “Domestic Violence Against Men in Colorado” to help
males who have suffered from physical or mental abuse from a
female partner are encouraged to write their story or seek help
by emailing help@ejfi.org. It hopes that the presented stories can
influence the law that brings into equal justice. It preaches the
message that domestic violence and abuse is a human problem,
not a gender issue.
Abused men
http://www.ejfi.org
USA Men Working Against Abuse
(Washington)
Crisis Line: (206) 461-7824 (serves residents of King, Pierce, and
Snohomish counties in Washington state)
Abused men
Offers voluntary support group for abusive men; educational
programs for individuals and couples that suffer from abusive
relationship; and services for men who are victims of abuse, to
help them understand the situation and get free of abuse. Also
offers public educational services.
http://www.mwaa.org/
USA Men’s Resource Center
(MRC) for Change
Supports men, challenges men’s violence, and develops men’s
leadership in ending oppression in oneself, families, and
communities through Domestic Abuse Program, Anger
Management Classes, Support Program for sharing, Fathering
Program, Workshop, Training and Consultation.
Men as victims or perpetrators
http://mrcforchange.org/programs.html
USA MenWeb Encourage male victims of domestic violence to email their
personal stories
Abused men
http://www.batteredmen.com/gjdvstor.htm
USA National Center for Men Incorporated in 1987, NCM is dedicated to the advocacy of
men's equal rights.
Male victims and general public
Educates the public about how men have been hurt by sex
discrimination and also counsel individuals and families who
have been damaged by discrimination against men.
Educates the public about male victims of domestic violence,
men's health concerns and how men are often victimized by
false accusation, particularly during divorce.
http://nationalcenterformen.org
USA Ogeechee Judicial Circuit
Domestic Violence Shelter
Offers services to both men and women. Men do not stay at the
shelter; however, they are able to provide shelter in a safe place
for them at another location in the community.
Men and women in DV situations
(912)764-4605 crisis line in Atlanta, GA
458 J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462

Table 3 (continued)
Country Organization / Program Service Descriptions Service Targets
http://www.safe4all.org/resource-list/view/33881
USA Peaceful Choices Helps male and female victims find shelter in Washington
County, Maine. 1-800-604-8692
Men and women in DV situations
http://www.safe4all.org/resource-list/view/10697
USA Safe Horizon/ Safe Horizon’s
Domestic Violence
Accountability Program (DVAP)
Provides support, prevent violence, and promote justice for victims
of crime and abuse, their families and communities.
Male victims of domestic abuse
http://www.safehorizon.org/index.php?nav=nb
24 Hour Crisis Line 1-800-621-4673
http://www.safehorizon.org/page.php?page=batterersgethelp&nav=
se_batterersgethelp
USA Shattered Men International A web-based organization established in Indiana for the purpose
of educating churches, schools and other groups and organizations
on the issues of abuse from a Biblical prospective.
Men victims of abuse (Women
are welcome to join the discussions)
Most of its work takes place in the interactive club on Yahoo.
This club is open for everyone.
http://www.shatterdmen.com/
USA Stop Abuse For Everyone
(SAFE) (Nationwide)
A human rights organization that provides services for those who
typically do not have services. Services include: Professional
trainings and presentations to service providers, Brochures for
underserved domestic violence groups (currently men, gay men,
and lesbian women) in several languages, an online support group,
online resource lists, such as court advocacy, support groups, hotlines.
Battered men, same sex victims,
teens, the elderly, and immigrants.
Phone: (319) 441-1010; jade@safe4all.org
http://www.safe4all.org/info
USA The Florida Men’s Resource
Center
Has a list of resources for men in Florida. Provides information
about support group, shelters, divorce and so forth.
Abused men
http://www.themenscenter.com/fmrc/ (Women and children are welcome also)
USA The Gay Men’s Domestic
Violence Project
It is a nonprofit program that provides support service for male
victims of same-gender domestic violence. In addition, they
provide outreach and education to law enforcement and communities.
The crisis line (Toll free crisis line at 1-800-832-1901) is monitored
24 hours a day and accessible throughout the commonwealth. They
have also initiated a Safe Home Program where victims can go when
leaving a battered relationship. GMDVP offers shelter, guidance, and
resources to allow gay, bisexual, and transgender men in crisis to
remove themselves from violent situations and relationships.
Male victims of same-gender
domestic violence
http://www.gmdvp.org
USA The Resource Center
(South Dakota)
Provides counseling for men, may start a men’s support group, and
provides ad hoc sheltering for battered men who’ve had to leave
their homes.
Battered men
http://www.safeharbor.ws/services.html
USA Twin Cities Men’s Center Provides resources for men seeking to grow in body, mind and spirit,
and from that foundation advocates for healthier family and
community relationship.
Men, heterosexual, gay,
bisexual and transgender
men in crisis
J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462 459

and the UK also provide hotline services for male victims,
such as “Men’s Alternative Safe House (MASH Project)” in
Canada and “Men Cry Too” in the UK.
Second, these services specify distinctly that their service
targets are male victims or abused men. These agencies
advertise that they offer services for men who are dealing
with their own abuse, such as “Domestic Abuse Helpline for
Men” in the USA, “Ottawa Men’s Center” in Canada, and
“Men’s Advice Line & Enquiries (M.A.L.E.)” in the UK.
Third, six shelters or shelter resources—four in the USA
and one each in Canada and the UK—are available exclu-
sively for men and some for their children as well. These
shelters provide a clear message that men need help too.
Fourth, technology is used as a means to reach out to
abused men through online support groups and email
services for male victims. In the USA, Eq ual Justice
Foundation’s “Domestic Violence Against Men in Colo-
rado” and “Stop Abuse for Everyone” provide online
support for men to build mutual support through sharing
on the internet. Both “Shattered Men ” and “MenWeb”
encourage male victims of domestic violence to email their
personal stories for sharing with strict anonymity.
The fifth characteristic is that these three countries list
multiple services for male victims, such as crisis counsel-
ing, support group, educational programs, community
resources, legal advice, and referral for other services.
Some programs stress the importance of engaging men in
couples counseling and group treatment. (Table 3)
Implications for Practice and Research
This paper originally aimed to explore the service needs of
Asian male domestic violence victims. We were not
successful, however, in identifying much information in
Asian countries about men’s help-seeking behavior or the
resources supporting them. Through a literature review that
focused on domestic violence affecting male victims, we
were able to analyze the possible cultural and social expect-
ations that lead men not to seek help. Of nine service sources
available for men in Asian countries that posted internet
materials on domestic violence, we noted that the services
seldom advertised with “men also need help” or "men are
victims/survivors/sufferers, too," or the equivalent, as catch-
phrases to reach out to the male client population. On the
other hand, in Canada, the UK, and the USA, it seemed to be
appropriate for services to tell clients that "men cry too" or
"men as DV victims need help." We will need further
research, however, to find out whether Asian men with
domestic violence problems living in these countries have
actually utilized the services available for men as DV victims.
Though computer and internet searches are convenient
and efficient in obtaining timely information, this techno-
Table 3 (continued)
Country Organization / Program Service Descriptions Service Targets
Offers support groups and services for male victims of sexual abuse,
men who were wrongly accused, bisexual men, and men in crisis,
as well as a web-based newsletter Men Talk.
Information: 612-822-5892 or online at http://www.tcmc.org.
http://www.tcmc.org/
USA Valley Oasis Shelter The Antelope Valley Domestic Violence Council provides domestic
violence services including a shelter for people of all ages in Los
Angeles County. There are no geographic restrictions and they
serve both men and women in abusive situations.
Male DV victims
Stated as the only shelter in the USA that provides full ranges of
services to
male victims in the Special Report, VAWA Programs
Discriminate Against Male Victims, 2006.
1-800-282-4808 (Service/Intake and Hotline), 1-661-945-6736
(Service/Intake and Hotline)
http://www.avdvc.org/
460 J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462

logical method limited our search to only agencies or
organizations that may be more technologically oriented in
information dissemination. In addition, we only accessed
information from countries that are ready to post informa-
tion on the internet in English. With these technological
limitations as a constant, we hit the keyword “domestic
violence” and found services for women as victims imme-
diately and services for men as victims were nowhere near
the top one thousand websites. This outcome may reflect the
perspective that men are not perceived as domestic violence
service consumers unless they are perpetrators. Although
services are now delivered to both genders, not focusing on
men’s distinct needs can be perceived as a lack of concern
toward men as victims. Such perception may impose an
invisible barrier to men’s help-seeking action.
Since strong cultural values may create hindrances for
men to seek help, what we learned from this research is that
users’ anonymity must first be maintained to outreach male
victims. When programs are designed, it is also essential to
consider “boundary-less support” because Asian men are
now residing in different parts of the world and their
concerns may change after migrating to a country outside
Asia. Further research may also need to addres s Asian men
living in other parts of the world, such as other European
countries, South and Central America, Africa and Middle
East where Asians are the minorities in powe r.
Chan (2006) stresses the concept of face as a crucial
factor to understand men’s feelings and behavioral
responses in face-losing situations caused by spousal
conflict. Nguyen (2005) discusses similar cultural factors
that have built barriers a gainst men disclosing t heir
domestic violence victimization. These two observations
are important considerations in helping male victims,
especially when they want to preserve the fami ly’s name
and reputation and hide their shameful feelings. Although
we cannot find many resources addressing the needs of
Asian male victims, the websites that posted resources for
male victims also present similar reasons to those cited in
the literature for men not coming forward: secretiveness,
cultural values, masculine identity, tolerance, shame, and
loss of face.
Like other men, Asian men live in a society that seems
to deman d that they endors e and adhere to the role of
dominant gender and live up to certain masculine expect-
ations which are sometimes impossible to achieve. These
societal expectations may place added strain and conflict
on men, especially when they cannot find suitable
employment or other resources to support the expected
gender role. The internet findings in this study reinforce the
notion that adequate services must place importance on
helping men deal with these conflictual feelings and must
also respect their cultural ways in handling these “hidden”
issues.
References
American Psychological Association. (2001). Intimate partner abuse
and relationship violence. Retrieved January 31, 2008, from
http://www.apa.org/pi/iparv.pdf.
Archer, J. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual
partners: a meta analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 126,
651–680. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.651.
Archer, J. (2002). Sex differences in physically aggressive acts
between heterosexual partners: a meta-analytic review. Aggres-
sion and Violent Behavior, 7, 313–351. doi:10.1016/S1359-1789
(01) 00061-1.
Baba, Y., & Murray, S. (2003). Spousal abuse: Vietnamese children’s
reports of parental violence. Journal of Sociology and Social
Welfare, 30(3), 97–122.
Brown, G. (2004). Gender as a factor in the response of the law-
enforcement system to violence against partners. Sexuality &
Culture, 8,1–87. doi:10.1007/s12119-004-1000-7.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006). Understanding
intimate partner violence: Fact sheet. Retrieved January, 31,
2008, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/dvp/ipv_factsheet.pdf.
Chan, K. L. (2006). The Chinese concept of face and violence against
women. International Social Work, 49(1), 65–73. doi:10.1177/
0020872806059402.
Chua, P., & Fujino, D. C. (1999). Negotiating new Asian-American
masculinities: attitudes and gender expectations. Journal of
Men’s Studies, 7(3), 391–413. doi:10.3149/jms.0703.391.
Commonwealth Fund. (1998). Women’s and men’s health survey.
Washington, DC: Author.
Davis, T. E. (2004). The effects of domestic violence on male victims in
the United States Marine Corps. Dissertation Abstracts Interna-
tional: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 64(7-B), 3579.
Equal Justice Foundation. (2006). Domestic violence against men in
the United States. Retrieved January 31, 2008, from http://www.
ejfi.org/DV/dv-58.htm#DVmen.
Gelles, R. J. (1999). The hidden side of domestic violence: Male
victims. The Women’s Quarterly. Retrieved January 31, 2008,
from http://www.ncfmla.org/gelles.html
George, M. J. (1994). Riding the donkey backwards: men as the
unaccept able victims of marital violence. Journal of Men's
Studies, 3(2), 137–159.
Good, G. E., Dell, D. M., & Mintz, L. B. (1989). Male role and gender
role conflict: relations to help-seeking in men. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 36(3), 295–300. doi:10.1037/0022-
0167.36.3.295.
Ho, D. Y. F. (1976). On the concept of face. American Journal of
Sociology, 81(4), 867–884. doi:10.1086/226145.
Hodgetts, D., & Chamberlain, K. (2002). 'The problem with men':
working-class men making sense of men's health on television.
Journal of Health Psycholog y, 7 (3), 269–284. doi:10.1177/
1359105302007003221.
Jill, C. (2002). Men in fear of women. Retrieved January 31, 2008,
from http://www.familyonwards.com/ (click “articles” on the
homepage)
Jill, C. (2006). Domestic violence…are you a victim? Retrieved
January 31, 2008, from http://www.familyonwards.com/ (click
“articles” on the homepage)
Kim, J. Y., & Emery, C. (2003). Marital power, conflict, norm
consensus, and marital violence in a nationally representative
sample of Korean couples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18
(2), 197–219. doi:10.1177/0886260502238735.
Kim, B. S. K., Atkinson, D. R., & Yang, P. H. (1999). The Asian
values scale: development, factor analysis, validation, and
reliability. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46(3), 342–352.
doi:10.1037/0022-0167.46.3.342.
J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462 461

Kim, B. S. K., Atkinson, D. R., & Umemoto, D. (2001). Asian
cultural values and the counseling process: current knowledge
and directions for future research. The Counseling Psychologist,
29(4), 570–603. doi:10.1177/0011000001294006.
Lane, J. M., & Addis, M. E. (2005). Male gender role conflict and
patterns of help-seeking in Costa Rica and the United States.
Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6 (3), 155–168. doi:10.1037/
1524-9220.6.3.155.
Liu, W. M., & Iwamoto, D. K. (2006). Asian American men’s gender
role conflict: the role of Asian values, self-esteem, and
psychological distress. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 7(3),
153–164. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.7.3.153.
Male Victims as Domestic Violence. (2007). Myths. Retrieved January
31, 2008, from http://www.mencrytoo.homestead.com/myths.html.
Neighbors, H. W., Musick, M. A., & Williams, D. R. (1998). The
African American minister as a source of help for serious
personal crises: bridge or barrier to mental health care? Health
Education & Behavior, 25(6), 759–777. doi:10.1177/
109019819802500606.
Nguyen, T. D. (2005). Domest ic viole nce in Asian American
communities: A cultural overview. Lanham: Rowman & Little-
field.
O’Neil, J. M., Helms, B. J., Gable, R. K., David, L., & Wrightsman,
L. S. (1986). Gender-role conflict scale: college men’s fear of
femininity. Sex Roles, 14, 335–350. doi:10.1007/BF00287583.
Osborne, T. L. (2004). Male gender role conflict and perceived social
support: Predicting help-seeking in college men. Dissertation
Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineer-
ing, 65(6-B), 3175.
Rentoul, L., & Appleboom, N. (1997). Understanding the psycholog-
ical impact of rape and serious sexual assault of men: a literature
review. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 4,
267–274. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2850.1997.00064.x.
Respecting Accuracy in Domestic Abuse Reporting. (2006). Bias in
the judiciary: The case of domestic violence. Retrieved January
31, 2008, from http://www.mediaradar.org/docs/RADARreport-
Bias-In-The-Judiciary.pdf.
Richardson, D. S. (2005). The myth of female passivity: thirty
years of revelations about female aggression. Psychology of
Women Quarterly , 29(3), 238–247. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.
00218.x.
Shin, J. K. (2002). Help-seeking behaviors by Korean immigrants for
depression. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 23(5), 461–476.
doi:10.1080/01612840290052640.
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (1998). Prevalence, incidence, and
consequences of violence against women: Findings from the
National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention. 1-16. Retrieved January 31,
2008, from http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/172837.pdf.
Tsunoda, Y. (1997). Sexual harassment and domestic violence in
Japan. Retrieved January 31, 2008, from http://www.tuj.ac.jp/
newsite/main/law/lawresources/TUJonline/SexualDiscrimination/
tsunodasexualharrassment.html
Tudiver, F., & Talbot, Y. (1999). Why don’t men seek help? Family
physicians’ perspectives on help-seeking behavior in men. The
Journal of Family Practice, 48,47–52.
Yoshioka, M. R., Dang, Q., Shewmangal, N., Chan, C., & Yan, C.
(2000). Asian family violence report: A study of the Chinese,
Cambodian, Korean, South Asian and Vietnamese communities
in Massachusetts. Boston: Asian Task Force Against Domestic
Violence, Inc.
Yu, M. M. (2005). Domestic violence in the Chinese American
community. In T. D. Nguyen (Ed.), Domestic violence in Asian
American communities: A cultural overview (pp. 27–37). Lan-
ham: Rowman & Littlefield.
462 J Fam Viol (2009) 24:447–462